Department of Mechanical Engineering

I.I.T. Kharagpur

ME21101 Fluid Mechanics Autumn 2016 Section 1

Assignment 1

Problems on continuum concept

The equation of state for an ideal gas may be expressed as pV = nRuT , where n is the number of moles
of the gas, Ru is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute temperature of the gas (in Kelvin), p is the
Ru
pressure and V is the volume, or equivalently, as pv = RT , or p = ρ RT , where R = is the
Mm
1
characteristic gas constant, M m is the molecular mass of the gas, v = is the specific volume and ρ is
ρ
the density of the gas.
The universal gas constant is Ru = 8314 J/( kmol K). The characteristic gas constant for air may be taken
to be R = 287 J / (kg K). The Avogadro number is N A = 6.023 x 1023.

1. Estimate the number of molecules of air in a cube of length 10‐3 mm (volume 10‐9 mm3) at s.t.p.
(150C and 101.325 kPa (abs) ). Ans.: 2.547 x 107

2. Estimate the size of a region containing (a) 106 and (b) 1012 molecules of air at s.t.p.
Ans.: (a) 3.9255 x 10‐11 mm3 (b) 3.9255 x 10‐5 mm3

3. A gas at 200C may be considered rarefied, deviating from the continuum concept, when it
contains less than 1012 molecules per cubic millimeter. What absolute pressure for air does this
represent ? Ans.: 4 Pa

4. The mean free path of a gas, λ , is defined as the average distance travelled by molecules
μ
between collisions. A proposed formula for estimating λ for an ideal gas is λ = 1.26 .
ρ RT
Using this formula, estimate the mean free path of air at 200C and 7 kPa. The viscosity of air at
200C is 1.80E‐5 Pa s. Is the gas rarefied at this condition ? Ans.: λ = 9.4E‐7 m. The gas
may be considered to approximate a continuum if the physical length scales in the flow is
greater than 100 λ , that is, greater than 94 μ m , that is, if the Knudsen number is Kn ≤ 0.01 .

Problems on viscosity
5. A block of mass M slides down an inclined plane, inclined at an angle θ from the horizontal, on a
thin film of oil of viscosity μ . The thickness of the oil film is h. The film contact area is A. Obtain
an expression for (a) the terminal velocity of the block, and (b) the speed, V ( t ) , of the block if

the initial speed, V ( 0 ) , at time t = 0 is zero.

 Mgh sin θ Mgh sin θ ⎡ μ At ⎤
Ans.: (a) Vterminal = (b) V ( t ) = ⎢⎣1 − exp(− Mh ) ⎥⎦
μA μA
Hint: Assume a linear velocity distribution in the film. Can you justify this assumption ?

6. A shaft 6.00 cm in diameter and 40 cm long is pulled steadily at speed V = 0.4 m/s through a
sleeve 6.02 cm in diameter. The clearance is filled with oil of kinematic viscosity, υ = 0.003 m2/s,
2μV π Di L
and specific gravity 0.88. Estimate the force required to pull the shaft. Ans.: F = ,
D0 − Di
F ≈ 795N if density of water is taken to be 998 kg/m3.

7. Consider a concentric shaft, as in the previous problem, but now fixed axially and rotated inside
the sleeve. The radii of the inner and outer cylinders are ri and r0 respectively. The length of
the sleeve is L. The applied torque, required to rotate the inner cylinder at constant angular
speed Ω (rad/s), is M. Obtain an expression for the viscosity of the fluid between the cylinders.
M ( r0 − ri )
Ans.: μ ≈ .
2π Ω ri3 L
Hint: Assume a linear velocity distribution in the film. Can you justify this assumption ?

8. A thin moving plate is separated from two fixed plates by two fluids of unequal viscosity and
unequal spacing. The surface area of the moving plate is A. The space between the moving plate
and the stationary upper plate is filled with fluid of viscosity μ1 . The distance between the
moving plate and the stationary upper plate is h1 . The space between the moving plate and the
stationary lower plate is filled with fluid of viscosity μ 2 . The distance between the moving plate
and the stationary lower plate is h2 . There is no externally applied pressure gradient. Estimate
⎛ μ1 μ2 ⎞
the force required to pull the plate steadily at constant speed V. Ans.: F = ⎜ + ⎟ VA
⎝ h1 h2 ⎠

9. A horizontal disk of radius R rotates at angular velocity Ω inside an oil container of viscosity μ .
The clearance between the upper surface of the disk and the upper solid surface of the
container is h. The distance between the lower surface of the disk and the lower surface of the
container is h. Neglecting shear on the outer disk edges, obtain an expression for the torque on
πμΩR 4
the disk. Ans.: M = . Hint: Assume linear velocity profiles between the
h
surfaces of the disk and the walls of the container.

10. A proposal has been made to use a pair of parallel disks to measure the viscosity of a liquid
sample. The upper disk, of radius R, rotates at angular speed Ω at height h above the stationary
lower disk. The viscosity of the liquid in the gap is to be calculated from measurements of the
 torque, M, needed to turn the disk steadily. Obtain an algebraic expression for the torque
πμΩR 4
needed to turn the disk. Ans.: M = .
2h
Hint: Assume a linear velocity profile between the two disks.

Problems on surface tension

11. Hydrogen bubbles generated by electrolysis of water at a cathode are used in flow visualization
studies to determine time‐lines which give an idea of instantaneous velocity profiles. In a certain
experiment, the diameter of the hydrogen bubbles was approximately 0.01 mm. The surface
tension at the interface is 0.0712 N/m. What is the excess pressure within the bubble ?
2γ
Ans.: Δp = = 28500 Pa
R

12. A shower head emits a cylindrical jet of clean water 200C into air. The pressure inside the jet is
approximately 200 Pa greater than the air pressure. Estimate the jet diameter in mm if the
surface tension of water at 200C is 0.0728 N/m. Ans.: 0.73 mm

13. A thin wire ring, 3 cm in diameter, is lifted from a water surface at 200C. Estimate the lift force
required if the surface tension of water at 200C is 0.0728 N/m. Ans.: F = 2π Dγ = 0.0137 N

14. A solid cylindrical needle of diameter d, length L and density ρ n may “float” on a liquid surface.
Neglect buoyancy and assume a contact angle of 00. Calculate the maximum diameter needle
8γ
able to float on the surface. Ans.: d max ≈
πρ n g

15. Derive an expression for the capillary height change, h, for a liquid of density ρ and surface
tension γ and contact angle θ between two vertical parallel plates which are a distance W
2γ cos θ
apart. Ans.: h≈
ρ gW

16. Consider a free liquid surface meeting a plane vertical wall. If the liquid wets the wall, that is,
has a contact angle θ < 900 , the liquid level will rise as the wall is approached, meeting the wall
at its contact angle θ . The liquid is at rest; thus, the pressure inside the liquid varies linearly
with depth below the free surface. The pressure just above the free surface is the atmospheric
pressure. As the horizontal coordinate, x, measured from the wall, approaches infinity, the free
surface becomes horizontal. Determine the height, h0 , to which the liquid climbs at the vertical
wall.
2γ
Ans.: h0 = (1 − sin θ )
ρl g
Hint: Show that the shape, z = f ( x ) , of the interface is described by the equation,
 f ′′ ρl g
= f . Multiply both sides of this equation by f ′ and integrate.
⎡1 + ( f ′ ) ⎤2 3/ 2 γ
⎣ ⎦

Problems on compressibility
1 ⎛ ∂v ⎞
The isothermal compressibility of a fluid is defined as κ T = − ⎜ ⎟ . The isothermal bulk modulus is
v ⎝ ∂p ⎠T
1
defined as BT = .
κT
1 ⎛ ∂v ⎞
The isentropic compressibility of a fluid is defined as κ s = − ⎜ ⎟ . The isentropic bulk compressibility
v ⎝ ∂p ⎠ s
1
modulus is defined as Bs = .
κs
⎛ ∂p ⎞
The speed of sound is given by c = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ s
The pressure and specific volume of a calorically perfect gas undergoing an isentropic process are related
cp
by pv k = constant , where k = is the (constant) ratio of the specific heat capacities of the gas at
cv
constant pressure and constant volume. The pressure and density of a calorically perfect gas undergoing
p
an isentropic process are related by = constant .
ρk
For an ideal gas, c p = c p (T ) , cv = cv (T ) . A calorically perfect gas is an ideal gas with constant specific
heat capacities. Since c p and cv are constants for a calorically perfect gas, the ratio, k, of specific heat
capacities is also constant.

1 ⎛ ∂ρ ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ρ ⎞
17. Show that (a) κ T = ⎜ ⎟ , (b) κ s = ⎜
ρ ⎝ ∂p ⎟⎠ s
.
ρ ⎝ ∂p ⎠T
1
18. Determine κ T and BT for an ideal gas. Ans.: κT = , BT = p
p
1
19. Determine κ s and Bs for a calorically perfect gas. Ans.: κs = , Bs = k p
kp
1
20. Show that κ s = .
ρc2