SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY

AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
Soil Testing
Concepts Covered:

What is soil testing?

Collection and processing of soil samples

Soil testing for pH and EC

Testing for SOC

Major nutrients

 Soil testing kit

Soil testing
 Soil testing is an acceptably accurate and rapid soil
chemical analysis for assessing available nutrient status for
making fertilizer recommendations. The major steps in
practical soil testing are:

1. Soil sampling
2. Preparation of soil sample
3. Extraction/ analysis of available nutrients by an
appropriate laboratory method
4. Interpretation of soil analysis data
Soil sampling
Tools: Khurpi, auger, spade, post hole
diggers, hydraulic core samplers etc.
Sample locations:
1. 20 soil sample per hectare (10,000 m2) is ideal.
2. Do not take soil sample from – recently fertilized
plots, bunds, channels, marshy tracts, near area
trees, wells, compost piles, border areas etc.
Handheld auger
3. Zig-zag method of soil sampling
spade
Soil sampling
• Soil sample must be true representative of the field or the part of the field being
tested.
Depth of sampling

http://www.ccari.res.in
 Procedure
1. Remove the surface litter, grass, debris, etc., from the sampling point
2. Drive the auger to a plough depth of 15 cm and draw the soil sample
3. Collect at least 10 to 15 samples from each sampling unit and place in a
bucket or tray
4. If auger is not available, make a ‘V’ shaped cut to a depth of 15 cm in the
sampling spot using spade
5. Remove thick slice of soil from top to bottom of exposed face (2.5-3 cm)
of the ‘V’ shaped cut and place in a clean container
6. Collect the soil at one place - mix thoroughly with hands - spread on a
paper or clean plastic sheet and make four quarter. Remove the opposite
two quarters and retain the other two. Repeat the same process till the
soil is reduced approximately 500 grams.
7. Dry the soil in shade, powdered and pass through a 2-mm sieve
8. Put the soil sample in the plastic bag, label it properly and submit it for
analysis http://www.ccari.res.in
 Sample collection

Surface litter removed Sample collected by v-cut Sample thoroughly mixed

Divided into 4 compartments Opposite 2 quarters discarded Sample labelled and packed
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in
 Soil sampling: things to remember
 Best time for sampling is before sowing or planting. Each sample should have
a label describing field identification, farmer’s name and address, previous
crops, and the crop for which nutrient recommendation is sought.
 For soil sampling, special augers with a core diameter of 1–2 cm are
convenient, but small spades can also be used. In any case, a uniform slice of
soil should be taken from top to bottom of the desired sampling depth.

GPS
 Soil testing parameters
 Soil pH
 EC
 SOC
 Available N
 Available P
 Available K
 Available Ca, Mg and S
 Available micronutrients
 Extraction/Analysis
Different extractants are used to extract the a specific available
nutrients from soil in the laboratory. The list follows:
 Available nitrogen – Alkaline potassium permanganate
 Available phosphorus – Sodium bicarbonate (for neutral or
alkaline soils), Bray and Kurtz extractant No. 1 (for acid soils)
 Available potassium - Ammonium acetate
 Micronutrient cations (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe)- diethylenetriamine
pentaacetic acid (DTPA)
 Boron – Hot water
 Molybdenum - Grigg’s reagent (ammonium oxalate of pH 3)
 Soil pH
The acidity, alkalinity or neutrality of a soil is measured using H+ ions
concentration
pH = - log [H+]
Principle
H2O = H+ + OH-
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-14 for pure water at 25° C
Where Kw=ion product of water
For water, concentration of H+ and OH- are equal. Hence,
[H+] = [OH-] = 10-7
pH = -log[H+] = -log[10-7]= 7
 Soil pH
Measured using pH meter
pH meter has two electrodes – one reference and
one standard electrode
The pH meter is submerged in soil-water solution
Difference in H+ concentration between soil
suspension and glass electrode gives rise to an
electrometric potential
This potential is measured and converted to pH units Ray R. Weil
Steps in measuring pH

1. pH meter is first calibrated using a known pH solution (buffer).

Generally, buffer solution of pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.2 are used.
2. Mix 10g soil with 25ml water (1 soil : 2.5 water ratio)
3. Mix well with a glass rod, and allow to stand for 30 mins.
4. Stir suspension every 10 mins. during this period.
5. After 1 hour, stir the suspension.
6. Readings taken
7. Temperature correction is applied
Soil pH interpretation
pH range Soil type
<4.5 Extremely acidic
4.5-5.0 Very strongly acidic
5.1-5.5 Strongly acidic
5.6-6.0 Medium acidic
6.1-6.5 Slightly acidic
6.6-7.3 Neutral
7.4-8.0 Mildly alkaline
8.1-9.0 Strongly alkaline
>9.0 Very strongly alkaline
 Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is the capacity of soils to conduct
electricity
Since ions contribute to EC, EC tells us about the salt
concentration in soil
Steps
1. Conductivity meter is first calibrated using a known solution
e.g. 0.1M KCl
2. 10g soil is mixed with 20ml water (1 soil : 2 water ratio)
3. The suspension is mixed occasionally for 30 minutes
4. Conductivity meter is immersed and reading is taken
5. Temperature correction is applied
Electrical conductivity interpretation

EC (dS/ m) Comment

> 4.0 Saline Soil

<4.0 Non-saline Soil

 Soil organic carbon
 SOC is an integral part of organic matter
Organic carbon is measured using Walkley-Black method (1934)
Principle
When a known weight of soil is treated with excess standard K2Cr2O7 in the
presence of conc. H2SO4, Soil Organic Carbon(SOC) is oxidized to CO2
The excess of K2Cr2O7 which is not reduced by SOC is titrated back against
standard ferrous ammonium sulfate in the presence of NaF or H3PO4 using
diphenyl-amine indicator.
 SOC
Principle
 SOC: steps
1. To 1 g soil, 10 ml 1N K2Cr2O7 and 20 ml concentrated H2SO4 is added
2. The beaker is swirled and allowed to stand for 30 minutes
3. 200 ml distilled water and then 10 ml concentrated H3PO4 is added to beaker
and allowed to cool.
4. 10-15 drops of diphenylamine indicator [(C6H5)2NH] is added to this
5. It is then titrated with 0.5 M [(NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O] until the colour changes
from violet-blue to green.
6. Simultaneously , a blank solution is prepared containing all reagents but no
soil
 SOC :calculation
 Weight of the soil = W g
 0.5 M (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4 solution for blank = B ml
 0.5 M (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4 solution for samples = S ml
 Volume of K2Cr2O7 used for oxidation of C = 0.5 × (B - S) ml
 [1 ml of 1 N K2Cr2O7 = 1 meq = 3 (12/4) mg of organic C = 0.003g of organic C]
 So, % of organic C in soil (uncorrected) = 0.5 × (B - S) × 1 × 0.003 × (100/W) = X
 Now, Walkley-Black has an average 77% recovery of SOC. So, correction factor = 100/ 77 = 1.3
Therefore,
 % of organic C in soil (corrected) = X × 1.3 = R
 Hence, % of organic matter in soil = R × 1.724
SOC interpretation

Organic C % Comment

< 0.50 Low

0.50-0.75 Medium

>0.75 High
 Available N (Subbiah and Asija, 1956)
Nitrogen availability to plant depends on its mineralization
Therefore, available nitrogen is measured by measuring amounts of mineral
inorganic nitrogen (NH4+ and NO3-)
Principle: A known weight of soil is treated with an excess of alkaline KMnO4,
which extracts easily oxidizable fraction of organic matter. Ammonia evolved is
absorbed in a known volume of standard acid, the excess of which is titrated
against standard alkali using methyl red as an indicator
Available N
Alkaline Medium
2 KMnO4 + H2O 2 MnO2 + 2KOH + 3Ō

Oxidative Deamination
RCH.NH2COOH + Ō R.CO.COOH + NH3
Distillation
NH3 + H2O NH4OH
Absorption
2 NH4OH + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + 2 H2O

H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

Available N- steps
1. All the reagents needed below are prepared first
2. 20g soil is taken in a distillation flask
3. 20 ml water and 100 ml 0.32% KMnO4 solution is added to it
4. 25 ml of N/ 50 (0.02 N) H2SO4 is pipetted out in a conical flask. 2-3 drops of methyl red
indicator is added and the end of delivery tube of distillation flask is dipped into it
5. 100 ml of 2.5% NaOH solution is added into the flask and corked immediately.
6. Ammonia gas is distilled from the distillation flask and collected in H2SO4 solution.
Continue distillation till the evolution of ammonia ceases completely (test by bringing
a moist red litmus paper near the outlet of the condenser, which will turn blue as long
as ammonia is being evolved).
7. Titrate the excess of H2SO4 against N/50 (0.02 N) NaOH and note down the volume of
NaOH used. The end point is reached when the colour changes from pink to yellow.
•
 Available N – calculation and interpretation
Weight of soil taken: 20 g
Volume of N/ 50 H2SO4 taken: 25 ml
Volume of N/50 NaOH used (titrate value): X ml
Volume of N/50 acid used for NH3 absorption: (25 - X) ml
Now, I ml of N/50 H2SO4 = 0.02 meq. of N = 0.28 mg N = 0.00028 g N
Therefore, % of available N = (25 - X) × 0.00028 × 100/20 = Y
Available N in soil (ppm) = Y × 100000 = Z
Available N in soil (kg/ ha) = Z × 2.24
Amount of N (kg/ ha) Comment
< 272 Low
272-544 Medium
>544 High
Available P

Phosphorus is one of the major plant nutrient which plants uptake as primary
and secondary orthophosphates
 H2PO4- ions dominate in acidic range of pH (4.0-7.5) while HPO42- ions dominate
in alkaline range of pH (8.0-12.0).
At pH 7.2, these two ions have equal activity.
Bray and Kurtz’s method 1 for acidic to neutral soils is discussed here for P
estimation
 Available P – Bray-Kurtz method -1
Principle: In this method, the soil is shaken with an extracting solution of 0.03 N NH4F in 0.025 N
HCl (at pH 3.5), which dissolves the fractions of soil P (Al-P and Fe-P). HCl results in the dissolution
of Ca-P in addition to this, though it is in negligible amount in this pH range.
Preparation of reagents:
NH4F 1 N - Dissolve 37 g of NH4F in distilled water and make up the volume to 1 lt.
HCl 0.5N: Dilute 20.2 ml conc. HCl to a volume of 500 ml with distilled water.
Extracting solution (0.03 N NH4F in 0.025 N HCl): Add 15 ml of 1 N NH4F and 25 ml of 0.5 N HCl
to 460 ml of distilled water.
Dickman and Bray’s reagent: Dissolve 15 g ammonium molybdate [(NH4)6MO7O24, 4H2O], in 300
ml distill water, warm about 60 ºC and filter, if necessary, after cooling. Add 342 ml conc. HCl
and make up the volume to 1 lt.
Stannous chloride (SnCl2, 2H2O) solution: Dissolve 10 g SnCl2, 2H2O crystals in 25 ml conc. HCl,
(40% SnCl2 stock solution) and store in brown bottle. Then dilute 0.5 ml of the stock solution to
66 ml with distilled water (prepare this solution just before use).
 Available P – Bray-Kurtz method1
Extraction
Weigh 5 g soil and transfer to 150 ml conical flask.
Add 50 ml extracting solution to it and shake for 5 min.
Filter through Whatman filter paper No.42.
Prepare a blank.
Preparation of P solution of known concentration for standard curve:
Dissolve 0.439 g potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate (KH2PO4), in about 500 ml
distilled water and add 25 ml 7 N H2SO4 and make up the volume to 1 lt. This gives a
100 ppm stock solution.
Then prepare 2 ppm by 50 times dilution of stock solution.
Take 5 ml of the different conc. of P solutions by pipetting out 0 (blank), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 10 ml of 2 ppm solution in 25 ml volumetric flasks.
 Available P – Bray-Kurtz method1
Add 5 ml of extracting solution to each of the P standard solution.
Add 5 ml Dickman and Bray’s reagent to all standard solutions (development of yellow
colour).
To avoid fluoride interference, 7.5 ml 0.8 M boric acid (50 g H3BO3 per lt) may be
added.
Mix with about 5 ml of distilled water.
Add 1 ml of SnCl2 solution and make up to the mark with distill water (development of
blue colour).
Measure the intensity of the blue colour after 10 min, using 660 nm red filter in
colorimeter.
Plot the transmittance reading (%T) of the standard on the ordinate against the conc.
in ppm in semi logarithmic graph paper for a straight line relationship.
 Available P – Bray-Kurtz method1
Colorimetric estimation of P
Take 5 ml of the soil extracts in 25 ml volumetric flasks.
Add 5 ml Dickman and Bray’s reagent to all test solutions (development of yellow
colour).
To avoid fluoride interference, add 7.5 ml 0.8 M boric acid.
Mix thoroughly the content of the flask with about 5 ml of distilled water, washing the
neck of the flash down, to remove the adhering ammonium molybdate.
Finally add 1 ml of SnCl2 solution (development of blue colour) and make up to the
mark with distill water. Mix thoroughly.
Measure the %T by colorimeter after 10 min, using 660 nm red filter and determine
the conc. of P from standard curve. Must take the reading within 15 minutes as colour
starts to fade after 15-20 min. Plot the reading on standardized graph and get the ppm
value.
Available P – Bray-Kurtz method1
Calculation
Weight of soil taken: 5g
Volume of extractant added: 50 ml
First dilution: 10 times (50/ 5)
Volume of the extract taken for colour development: 5 ml
Final volume made: 25 ml
Second dilution: 5 times (25/ 5)
Total dilution: 10 × 5 = 50 times
Transmittance (%T) of test solution: T
Conc. of P as read from standard curve: A ppm
Available P in soil: A × 50 ppm = A × 50 × 2.24 kg/ha
Available P2O5 in soil: A × 50 × 2.24 × 2.29 kg/ha
Available P

Amount of P2O5 (kg/ ha) Comment

< 22.5 Low

22.5-56.0 Medium
>56.0 High
 Available K
Potassium is abundant in nature, however plant available potassium is limited
Four major pools of K occur in soil out of which exchangeable K in clay sites and
K in soil solution are available to plants
Principle: The available K in soil can be extracted by CH3COONH4 (ammonium
acetate). The diameter of K+ is 0.233 nm. NH4 is the ion of nearest diameter
(0.286 nm). Therefore, it can replace the K+ in the exchange sites (clay) and
release them into solution. After extraction, K+ (solution + exchangeable K+) is
measured in flame photometer.
 Available K
Flame photometer is used to measure potassium
It works on the emission spectrometry principle.
The sample is introduced to the flame at a constant rate. Filters select which
colours the photometer detects and exclude the influence of other ions
When K+ in the solution is exited, the electron from outer orbital of K goes to
the higher energy state (for fraction of a second).
When it returns back to stable state, it releases the energy which is specific.
 Available K
Preparation of standards for K (minimum 5):
Prepare a bulk 1000 ppm K solution (dissolve 1000 mg K i.e. 1.908 g KCl in 1 lt).
Then prepare K solution of different strength (5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 ppm) from
that bulk solution by dilution.

Preparation of reagents:
Neutral normal CH3COONH4 solution: Dissolve 77.09 g CH3COONH4 in distilled
water the make the volume to 1 lt. Use NH4OH or CH3COOH for neutralization.
Available K

Procedure
Standardization of flame photometer.
Weight 5 g soil in a 150 ml conical flask.
Add 25 ml of neutral normal CH3COONH4 solution.
Shake in shaker for 5 min.
Filter using Whatman 1.
Feed the filtrate into the atomizer of flame
photometer.
Get the reading from flame photometer.
Available K

Amount of K2O (kg/ ha) Comment

< 136 Low

136-337.5 Medium
>337.5 High
Colorimetry
Relationship between
100 100 %Transmittance and light path
80 80 length and concentration
60 60
%T %T

40 40

20 20

0 0
length concentration

Transmittance = IT/I0 = e-acl where

a is an extinction constant, c is
concentration and l is light path length
 Absorbance increases linearly with concentration
From IT/I0 = e-acl
a Is used here to describe a constant that is proportional to the extinction coefficient.
taking logs of both sides and inverting

Ln (I0/IT) = acl
Converting to Log10

Log10(I0/IT) = ecl
Hence the Beer-Lambert Law
A = ecl
Colorimetry
 Flame Photometer
• Sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium.
• Controlled flame test with the intensity of the
flame color quantified by photoelectric circuitry.
• The sample is introduced to the flame at a constant
rate.
• Filters select which colors the photometer detects
and exclude the influence of other ions.
• Flame photometer works in the emission
spectrometry principle.
Flame Photometer
Flame Photometer
Advanced method- Mehlich 3
• Mehlich 3 extraction
• 0.25 M NH4NO3
• 0.015 M NH4F
• 0.001 M EDTA
• 0.2 M Acetic acid
• 0.013 M Nitric acid
• For P, K, Ca, Mg and micronutrients
ICP-OES
ICP-OES
• Inductively coupled plasmas are at least 2X as hot as
flames or furnaces.
• The Ar plasma is the result of the flow of Ar ions in a very
strong, localized radio field.
• 6000-10000 K are common.
• Hot enough to excite most elements so they emit light.
• Hot enough to prevent the formation of most
interferences, break down oxides and eliminate most
molecular spectral interferences.
• The way to do atomic emission spectroscopy today.
 ICP-OES

How does ICP work?

Radio frequency electrical current and associated magnetic field
Ionization of Ar gas (sparked by a Tesla coil)
Acceleration of ions and electrons by magnetic field
Energy in transferred from the electrons to the gas by collision so the gas is heats up.
Production of high concentration of both EXCITED ATOMS and ions
Soil testing kit

Portable soil testing kits enable farmers

to take it to fields and take
measurements
Most common kits helps us to find the
pH and primary nutrients (N,P and K)
Kits can also help in finding all nutrients-
but its expensive
Soil sample is first taken using a spade or martinlishman.com

trowel
 Reference:
 The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle C. Brady and
Ray R. Weil
 Indian Society of Soil Science (2002) Fundamentals of Soil
Science.
 Baruah, T. C., and Barthakur, H. P. (1997) A Textbook of Soil
Analysis. Published by Vikas Publishing House Private
Limited.
 Basak, R.K. (2006) Soil Testing & Recommendation.
Published by Kalyani Publishers.
 Sarkar, D.K., & Haldar, A (2005) Physical and Chemical
Methods of Soil Analysis. Published by New Age
International Publishers.
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
Soil organic matter and climate change
 Soil organic matter
• Soil organic matter consists of a complex system of substances, ranging from
components of organic residues undergoing decomposition, metabolic products
of microbes, products of the secondary synthesis and humic substances.
• It serves as a soil conditioner, nutrient source, substrate for microbial activity,
preserver of the environment and major determinant for substantial
agricultural productivity.
Global Carbon Cycle
• The global carbon cycle
emphasizing those pools of
carbon which interact with the
atmosphere.
• The numbers in boxes
indicate petagrams (Pg = 1015
g) of carbon stored in the
major pools.
• The numbers by arrows show
amounts of carbon annually
flowing (Pg/yr) by various
processes between the pools.
• Note that the soil contains
almost twice as much carbon
as the vegetation and the
atmosphere combined.
Organic decomposition in soils

• Decomposition involves the breakdown of large organic molecules into smaller,

simpler components. Plant residues are the principle components undergoing
decomposition in the soil. So, plant residues are the primary source of soil
organic matter.
• Rate of decomposition depends on the composition of the plant residues and
soil environment and moisture content in soil.
• Decomposition process can be divided into two types on the basis of soil
moisture content:
1. Aerobic decomposition
2. Anaerobic decomposition
Organic decomposition in soils
Composition of plant residues
Rate of decomposition

1. Sugars, starches, and simple proteins Rapid decomposition

2. Crude proteins
3. Hemicellulose
4. Cellulose
5. Fats and waxes
6. Lignins and phenolic compounds Very slow decomposition
 Decomposition in aerobic soil
• Plant carbon compounds are enzymatically oxidized to produce carbon dioxide, water,
energy, and decomposer biomass. Essential nutrient elements such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur are released and/ or immobilized by a series of specific
reactions that are relatively unique for each element.

• New compounds are synthesized by microbes as cellular constituents or as breakdown

products or secondary metabolites.
• Some of the original plant compounds, their breakdown products and microbial
compounds become physically or chemical protected from further microbial decay via
interactions with the soil environment.
 Decomposition in anaerobic soil
• The decomposition process is slower than the aerobic soil.
• Wet, anaerobic soils tend to accumulate large amounts of partially decomposed
organic matter for two reasons:
1. Under low-oxygen or anaerobic conditions, decomposition takes place much
more slowly than when oxygen is plentiful.
2. Certain products of anaerobic metabolism are toxic to many microbes, acting
as a preservative for organic matter.
• The end products still contain much energy. For this reason, alcohol and
methane, which are produced by anaerobic decomposition, can serve as fuel.
• Some products are toxic to the plant growth and contributor to the climate
change.
 Decomposition in anaerobic soil
The following reactions are typical of those carried out in wet soils by various
methanogenic bacteria and archaea:
 Factors controlling the rate of
decomposition
• Temperature
• Moisture
• C/N ratio of the plant residues
• Availability of nitrogen in the soil
• Soil ecology
• Quality of litter (lignin and polyphenol
content)
Quality of OM
Formation of soil organic matter
Formation of soil organic matter
• The microbial biomass (upper right) produces enzymes that break down plant
residues.
• When these compounds are metabolized by microbes to obtain energy, most of
their C is released as CO2 while their other elements (N, P, S, etc.) may be released
into the soil solution.
• The labile C (upper half of diagram) is subject to rapid metabolism, some
components become stabilized (lower half of diagram).
• Bits of plant tissue and microbial cell walls (particulate organic matter) may
become inaccessible to microbial attack as micro-aggregates form around them.
• Microbial oxidation creates zones of polarity in formerly hydrophobic
biomolecules, allowing their C to become protected by bonding to mineral
surfaces.
Different pools of soil organic matter

Labile pool Slow-to-decompose pool

SOM distribution
Humus
Humus is a complex and
resistant mixture of
brown or dark brown
amorphous and colloidal
organic substance that
results from microbial
decomposition and
synthesis and has
chemical and physical
properties of great
significance to soils and
plants.
Humic groups
• Humic substances have aromatic ring type structures.
• The humic substances are classified based on resistance
to degradation and solubility in acids and alkalis into
1. Humic acid
2. Fulvic acid
3. Humin
 Humic groups
• Humic acids - the fraction of humic substances that is not soluble in water under acidic
conditions (pH < 2) but is soluble at higher pH values. They can be extracted from soil by
various reagents and which is insoluble in dilute acid. Humic acids are the major extractable
component of soil humic substances. They are dark brown to black in color.
• Fulvic acids - the fraction of humic substances that is soluble in water under all pH conditions.
They remains in solution after removal of humic acid by acidification. Fulvic acids are light
yellow to yellow-brown in color.
• Humin - the fraction of humic substances that is not soluble in water at any pH value and in
alkali. Humins are black in color.
• The low - molecular - weight fulvic acids have higher oxygen but lower carbon contents than
the high - molecular - weight humic acids. Fulvic acids contain more functional groups of an
acidic nature, particulary COOH. The total acidities of fulvic acids (900 - 1400 meq/100g) are
considerably higher than for humic acids (400-870meq/100g).
• Another important difference is that while the oxygen in fulvic acids can be accounted for
largely in known functional groups (COOH, OH, C=O), a high portion of the oxygen in humic
acids seems to occur as a structural component of the nucleus.
Humic groups
Separation of humic fractions
Humus formation theories
1. Lignin theory: Proposed by Waksman (1936).
According to this theory humic substances are formed due to the incomplete
degradation of lignin
2. Kononovas theory
According to this theory humic substances are formed by cellulose
decomposing mycobacteria earlier to lignin decomposition
3. Polyphenol theory: (Flaig and Sochtig, 1964)
• As per this theory the humic substances are formed by the condensation of
phenolic materials.
• The polyphenols of lignin are oxidized to quinones.
• These quinones are condensed with low molecular weight microbial products to
form humic molecules.
• The microbial products are amino acids, nucleic acid and phospholipids
Influence of organic matter on soil

• Dark in colour which facilitates soil warming.

• Improve the physical condition of the soil.
• Reservoir for the plant nutrients.
• The clay-humus complexes have better buffering and
exchange capacity.
• OM can form stable complexes with some metals and
influence their availability to plants.
• Biodegradation of different chemicals like pesticides through
the interaction with organic matter is an important
phenomenon in relation to the human and animal health.
Measurement of SOM
• Walkley and Black (max 6%)
• LOI
• CN Analyzer
CHN analyzer
Management of soil organic matter

• Conservation tillage
• Cover crops
• Crop rotation
• Crop residues
• Nutrient management
• Organic amendments
• Commercial humates
 Soil and climate change
• Soil of the cultivated land is the major
source of this gases.
• It is clear that among the many
strategies, sequestering more carbon into
soils under croplands and grazing lands
and restoring formerly drained wetlands
are the three most important.
• Fortunately, these measures are quite
feasible as their implementation would
Proportion of the gases responsible for the not only reduce greenhouse gases, but
global warming
also improve soil quality and provide the
benefits of enhanced soil function and
productivity to land owners.
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
Soil organisms
Concepts Covered:

 What are soil organisms

 The role of SO

 Classification of SO

 Different types of SO
Soil organisms

• The soil is teeming with millions of living organisms which make it a living and a
dynamic system.
• These organisms not only help in development of soils but also carry out a
number of transformation, facilitating the availability of nutrients to the plants.
Role of Organisms in soil fertility

• Decomposition of organic matter.

• Plant nutrient transformation through maintaining different cycles like N, S
cycles.
• Soil organisms are also useful for the preparation of different bio-fertilizers and
composts.
 Classification of the soil organisms
Organisms in
soil

Soil fauna Soil flora

Micro Macro Micro Macro

Fauna Fauna Flora Flora
Protozoa Earthworms Bacteria Plant roots
Termits
Nematodes Ants Actinomycetes Macro algae
Grubs
Rotifers Slugs and snails Fungi
Centipeds
Millipedes
Algae
 Macroorganisms in soil
• The macroorganisms in soils include Acari, Collembola, Enchytracidae, Isopoda,
Amphipoda, Diplopoda, Earthworm, Coleoptera, Mollusca etc.
• A population estimation is highly difficult as they are not uniformly distributed.
The population is lesser than the microorganisms.
• They are very useful because –
1. They help in mixing, churning and fragmentation of the plant materials which
accelerates the decomposition process.
2. They forms burrows and tunnels which increase soil aeration and drainage.
3. Ingested the soils in the guts of the earthworms converted into worm casts
called mull humus.
4. They feed on soil microorganisms including plant pathogens.
 Earthworms
• Earthworms can be two types – (i) Epigeic (ii) Endogeic
• The Geophagus sp of earthworms ingest material per
day which is 5-36 times of their body weight.
• The worm cast is rich in N,P,Ca and the casting rate is
2600t/ha/year.
• Earthworm-worked soils are generally have high
porosity, water holding capacity, water infiltration
rate, water stable aggregates and different nutrients.
• Earthworm increases the surface area and the
availability of organic matter for microbial action by
mixing it thoroughly with soil.
Vermicompost

• Earthworms are being used for hastening

the decomposition of farm waste for
composting. The product is called
vermicompost.
• The species which are generally used for
vermicomposting-
Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus engeniae and
Perionyx excavates. E foetida is reported to
be more efficient than others.
Termites

Termites disturb the soil while preparing

their nest
 Plant roots
• Plant roots exert a physical pressure on soil particles.
• An environment under the influence of roots: the rhizosphere.
• Roots produce-
1. Exudates – chemical compound leaking from the roots.
2. Secretions – Chemical compounds released through plant metabolic
activities.
3. Mucigels – Gelatinous layers composed of mixture of mucilages and soil
particles.
4. Lysates – Compounds released from the root cells through bacterial
degradation.
Because of these chemicals, a different type of niche is formed in the
rhizosphere.
 Bacteria
1. The smallest and most numerous of the
organisms present in the soils.
2. They are of different shapes – spherical: cocci,
rod-shaped: bacilli, spiral-shaped: spirilla.
3. Common bacterial genera found in soil- Bacillus
Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter, Clostridum (strictly
anaerobic), Bacillus, Achromobacter, Micrococcus
and Agrobacterium.
4. Bdellovibrio, Myxococcus and Polyandium, these
genera help to maintain the biological population
by keeping a check on the growth of the other
Pseudomonas
bacteria.
The roles of the bacteria in soil

• N2 fixation
• Phosphate solubilization
• Organic matter decomposition
• Synthesis of humus
• Nitrification
• Denitrification in water-logged soil
• Protein decomposition and ammonification
• Transformation the various macro and micro nutrients in the soil
 Actinomycetes
• Taxonomically actinomycetes are in evolutionary phase
between bacteria and fungi. They are like bacteria which
posses aerial hyphae like fungi.
• They are generally found in dry soil.
• Common genera found in soil- Streptomyces, Micromonospora,
Nocardia and Thermo-actinomycetes. Stands of actinomycetes
• The population of actinomycetes is higher in compost pits as
they are nutritionally heterotropic and tolerant to high
temperature.
• Play the most important role in humus formation and
pigmentation of the humus.
• They cannot compete with bacteria and fungi. So they grow on
such substances which are not decomposable by bacteria or
fungi.
 Fungi
• Fungi are the filamentous organisms with much larger
cell width than actinomycetes. The filaments are called
hyphae and the network of the hyphae collectively is
termed mycelium. The hyphae may be divided by cross
walls called septa while those without septa are called
coenocytic and predominantly multiply by sporulation.
Aspergillus
• The genera most frequently encountered are – Pythium,
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Verticillium, Alternaria,
Fusarium etc.
• They are mostly heterotrophs.
• Some fungi are responsible for causing plant diseases.
Role of fungi in soil
• Fungi are primarily responsible for the deposition of
organic matter.
• Some fungi form a symbiotic association with the roots of
higher plants to help the plant to take such nutrients
which are less mobile. This is called “mycorrhizal
association”.
• The association can be divided into two types –
Ectotrophic mycorrhizae :Boletus, Amenita; VAM- Glomus,
Endogene).
• Increases the availability of the insoluble nutrients to the
plants and also increase the mobility due to faster
intracellular nutrient mobility.
 Algae
• Algae are chlorophyll containing organisms (autotrophic).
• Soil algae are classified on the basis of the colour as – (i)
Cyanophyta (Blue green, most important from agricultural point of
view), (ii) Chlorophyta (grass green), (iii) Xanthophyta (yellow
green) and (iv) Bacilliriophyta (golden brown).
• Blue green algae can fix N in rice field and it can supply O2 to the
aerobic organisms in the flooded soil as it has photosynthesizing
capacity. Also they synthesize plant growth promoting hormones.
• The common genera in soil- Anabaena, Nostoc, Tolypothrix.
• Anabaena azollae forms a symbiosis with a fern named Azollae to
fix N. It is used to prepare a biofertilizer which not only adds N but
only adds organic matter to the soil.
 Protozoa
• Single cell organisms
• The life-cycle consists of two phases- (i) Actively growing
phase (multiplication) and (ii) Resting phase ( forms cyst like
structure in adverse environment).
• They can be classified on the basis of locomotion – (i) some
moves by long whip like structure called flagella, (ii) others Flagellate Protozoa
by short hair like structure called cilia, (iii) others by internal
protoplasmic movement forming flexible temporary organs
called pseudopodia.
• They generally help in organic matter decomposition as
they are saprophytic in nature.
• They sometimes feed on bacteria.
 Nematodes
• Amongst microfuana, nematodes are next to protozoa
in abundance.
• Because of the narrow long bodies, they are called
thread worms.
• They may be saprophytic or parasitic.
• They do not have any significant role in organic matter
decomposition but they are responsible for many
diseases in plant.
• They mainly infest the plant roots and form
characteristics knots.
• Vegetable crops are mainly susceptible.
• To reduce the infection, chemical fumigants, non-edible Root-knot disease
neem and karanj cakes, nematode trapping fungi are
used.
Viruses

• Viruses are smaller than the bacteria and can not be seen by
an ordinary microscope.
• They do not have any role in nutrient transformation.
• They are parasitic in nature. The viruses parasitizing bacteria
are known as bacteriophages. If the population of the
bacteriophages increases, it will hamper all the activity done
by bacteria in soil like nutrient transformation, nitrogen
fixation etc.
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
Compost
What is compost

• Composting is the decomposition of plant remains and other once-

living materials to make an earthy, dark, crumbly substance called
compost that is excellent for adding to houseplants or enriching
garden soil.
Why use it?

• Compost improves soil structure, texture, aeration - increases the soil's water-
holding capacity.
• Compost loosens clay soils and helps sandy soils retain water.
• Improves soil fertility and stimulates healthy root development
• Organic matter provides food for microorganisms - nitrogen, potassium, and
phosphorus mineralized
 Composting in India
Generally, composting can be carried out in seven techniques in India. They
are
i) Bangalore method
ii) Indore method
iii) Nadep compost
iv) Nadep Phospho compost
v) Coimbatore method
vi) Windrow composting
vii) Vermicompost
Composting in India
Methods of Preparation of Compost

Indore Bangalore NADEP

Method Method Method
This method was worked
This method was out by L. N. Acharya at Demonstration of this
developed by A. Indian Institute of Science, method at large scale was
Howard and Y. D. Bangalore. initiated at J. N. Krishi
Wad at the Institute Vidyalaya, Indore.
of Plant industry,
Indore, India
Indore method

• Size of the pit: Breadth-6-8 feet, Depth-2-3

feet,Length -10 feet or more as per requirement
• Raw materials: Mix plant residues, cow dung,
weeds, sugarcane leaves, grass, wood ashes, bran
etc.
• First of all, spread dry wastes with cattle dung and
soil in ratio of 4:2:1 up to 2 inch layer in the
composting pit.
• Pit is filled with above materials up to 1 foot above
the ground level
• Afterwards, sprinkle the water over the materials
• One more layer of bedding material with wood ash
and urinated mud should be added.
Indore method: turning

• The material is turned three times for proper

aeration and moisture.
• First turning : 10-15 days after filling the pits.
• Second turning : 15 days after first turning.
• Third turning : After 2 month of second turning
NADEP method

• This method facilitates a lot of composting through

minimum use of cattle dung.
• In this method, the decomposition process takes
place aerobically.
• The tank should be located near cattle shed or The Hans India

farm site.
• The tank should be 10’ ×6’ ×3’in size and are
prepared with 9’ inch thick wall
• Proper blocks and holes of 7 inches should be left
on all the four side of the tank wall for the
circulation of air.
• Plastering of inner wall and floor of the tank should
be done by mixture of dung and mud.
NADEP method: materials required

S. Material Quantity (Kg)

No.
1. Farm residues 1400-1500
2. Cattle dung 90-100
3. Dry sieved soil 1750
4. water 1500-2000
NADEP method: first filling process
Slurry made of cow dung and water should be sprinkled on the floor and the
walls of tank. The filling of tank follows these steps:
First layer : plant residues are spread evenly in layer up to 6 inches (10-100 Kg)
in tank.
Second layer: 4-5 Kg Cattle dung of biogas-slurry in 125 to 150 litre of water
should be apply on the first layer.
Third layer: 50-60 Kg sieved soil added on the second layer of tank .
In this way, the tank is filled layer by layer up to 1.5 feet above the brick level
of tank. Filled tank should be covered and sealed by 3 inch layer of soil (300-
400Kg). It should also be pasted with a mixture of dung and soil.
NADEP method: second filling process
At this stage, the process of the first filling is repeated and again sealed
with paste of mud & dung.
After 20 days, the plant residue contracts and goes down in the tank by 20-
25 inches.
Periodically the paste of cattle dung and water should be sprinkle to
maintain 15-20% moisture.
Vermicompost
Vermicompost (also called worm compost, vermicast, worm castings, worm humus or
worm manure) is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by some species of
earthworm. Vermicompost is a nutrient-rich, natural fertilizer and soil conditioner. The
process of producing vermicompost is called vermicomposting.
The earthworm species (or composting worms) most often used are Brandling Worms
(Eisenia foetida) or Red Wigglers (Lumbricus rubellus).

Source: Google Images

Vermicompost

 Vermiculture (derived from the Latin word “vermis” meaning worm)

involves the mass production of earthworm for waste degradation, and
composting with “vermicast” production
 Earthworms are the “intestines of the earth”!
 They occur in diverse habitats especially those which are dark and moist
 Organic materials like humus, cattle dung and kitchen wastes are highly
attractive for some species
What do earthworms do?
1. Maintain aerobic conditions in the mixture
2. Ingest solids
3. Convert a portion of the organics into worm biomass and to
respiration products
4. Expel the remaining partially stabilised matter as discrete material
(earthworm faeces or “castings”)
5. Worms and aerobic mesophilic microorganisms act symbiotically
to accelerate and enhance the decomposition of the organic
matter
 Vermicompost properties
 Very finely structured, uniform, stable and aggregated particles of humified organic
material
 Excellent porosity, aeration and water holding capacity
 Rich in available plant nutrients, hormones, enzymes and (benign) microbial
populations
 Mostly pathogen-free:
 Plant and human pathogens are killed during passage of the earthworm gut

 Earth-like, soil building substance that forms a beneficial growing environment

for plant roots
 Valuable and marketable product
Vermicomposting