Chapter 10

Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites

for Industrial Applications

Neelam Kumari, Shivali Meena, Monika Chaparia, Sandip P. Choudhury,

Ravi Kant Choubey, and Umesh Kumar Dwivedi

Abstract Natural fibre reinforced (NFR) polymer composites set an avenue for
the development of new sustainable materials. These materials led a paradigm shift
from synthetic materials to natural fibre reinforced materials. Natural fibres are easily
and excessively available in nature, biodegradable, cost effective, lightweight, envi-
ronment friendly, and no irritation to eyes or skin and hence gained the attention
of researchers as a promising candidate for the development of natural fibre rein-
forced composites with enhanced properties. NFR-based composites research field is
continuously evolving. Various industries such as aviation, military, sports, sensors,
electrical engineering, construction, and food are some major sectors to utilize NFR
composites for designing different components and materials due to their distinct
properties as conferred in the text. Jute, sisal, kenaf, hemp, cotton, flax, coir, etc.
are commonly used fibres as reinforcement. Inherent characteristics of natural fibres
such as moisture, strength, thermal stability, incompatibility with embedded matrices,
etc. are major challenges while developing and applicability of NFR composites.
However, these shortcomings can be minimized by chemical treatments. Further-
more, considerable research is going on the elevation of the performance of NFR
composites.

Keywords Natural fibre · Reinforcement · Polymer composites · Industrial

applications · Automobile · Construction

N. Kumari · S. Meena · M. Chaparia · S. P. Choudhury · U. K. Dwivedi (B)

Amity School of Applied Physics, Amity University Rajasthan, Jaipur 303002, India
e-mail: umeshkudwivedi@gmail.com
R. K. Choubey
Department of Applied Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences (AIAS), Amity University,
Noida Campus, Sector–125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201313, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 301
S. Moharana et al. (eds.), Polymer Composites, Engineering Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-2075-0_10
302 N. Kumari et al.

10.1 Introduction

Over the last decades, natural fibres have been a great substitute for synthetic fibres
due to their tremendous advantages such as lightweight, low cost, abundance in vege-
tation, non-toxic, not prone to corrosion, easy processability, etc. [1, 2]. Composite
materials developed by reinforcement of natural plant fibres in the polymeric matrix
have received significant interest from researchers, owing to increased global aware-
ness and the quest for sustainable technologies. Natural fibre reinforced (NFR)
composites are a sustainable market driver which significantly decreases the cost
of materials as energy consumption during the production of natural fibres (NF)
composites is only 17% as that of synthetic fibres [3]. The NFR composites have
several environmental benefits which include CO2 assimilation (reducing carbon
content in the atmosphere), positive impact on cultivation, and reduced fossil-based
resource exhaustion [4, 5]. Natural fibres are biodegradable and low-cost. NFs
comprise lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, etc. The time span and strength of fibres
depend on the amount of cellulose present and therefore strength and durability are
directly affected by the proportion of cellulose loss. Moreover, the quality of fibres
is considerably impacted by environmental conditions, harvesting, and processing
parameters. The use of NFR composites significantly increases the pace of manufac-
turing of reliable, lightweight products, which are recyclable as well as environment
friendly and recover energy through incineration. The use of NFs must be modernized
for comprehending the performance and other related attributes of NFR composites.
Generally, the NFR composites comprise different constituents based on the forma-
tion of complete and partial green composites such as biopolymers/synthetic fibres,
NF/synthetic fibres, and NF/synthetic polymers offer good performance and have
positive environmental impacts [6]. The orientation of fibres in woven, non-woven,
and mat stacking composites offers better mechanical behaviour.
As suggested by several reports [7, 8] use of NFR composites shows immense
growth in the market for the development of several industrial components most
notably in the military, automobiles, and construction sectors. Commercial appli-
cations of NFR composites include door and roof panels, helmets, antiballistic
vests, and outdoor furniture. NFR composites have found extensive applicability
in designing low-cost houses, civil structures, insulating walls, portable lightweight
tents, etc. [9]. Plant-derived fibres such as hemp, jute, pineapple, flax, and kenaf
exhibited good mechanical strength, while being considerably lighter as compared
to synthetic fibres such as aramid, Kevlar, and glass fibres.

10.2 Type of Natural Fibres and Their Processing

Natural fibres are classified on the basis of their sources such as plants, minerals, and
animals. These sources are enormously available in nature. A wide range of fibres are
obtained from a plant’s stem (flax, jute, ramie, hemp, etc.), fruit fibres (coir fibres),
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 303

Fig. 10.1 Classification of natural fibres obtained from different sources

leaf (palm, sisal, etc.), stalks (corn, bamboo, etc.), and seeds (cotton, etc.) as shown
in Fig. 10.1. Natural fibres like hemp, jute, flax, etc. are normally used reinforcement
due to their high mechanical stability, and the longest length. Based on the habitation
of plants, different fibres are obtained in different parts of the world such as flax and
hemp are common in Europe, Jute, and cotton are mainly produced in Bangladesh and
India. Natural fibres are harvested once a year. Afterwards, NF undergoes processing
which involves washing, drying, and heckling as shown in Fig. 10.2. Heckling is a
process of mechanical carding of short and long fibres to separate from fibre bundles
where contamination and debris are removed [10]. The loose short fibres are directly
woven into textiles, mats, ropes, and insulating materials. Long and short fibres are
used for industrial applications while economic viability is a concern. To achieve
desirable properties of composites, the NF should be continuously densely aligned
in the same direction at which load is applied.

10.3 Properties of Natural Fibres

Natural fibres have several advantages such as low density, high tensile strength,
etc. as depicted in Fig. 10.3. NF exhibited almost half the density of synthetic fibres
and similar mechanical tenacity. While considering the density of NF account, the
absolute modulus of NFR composites is similar to synthetic fibres which makes
them an appropriate candidate for industrial applications. It can be estimated that
replacing glass fibres with NFs subsequently decreases the 40% weight of composite
in the automobile sector. Reduced weight of NFR composites considerably decreases
the fuel loss [11, 12]. The value of mechanical properties such as tensile strength,
304 N. Kumari et al.

Fig. 10.2 Represents processing of natural fibres a Drying natural fibres in a bask b Treatment of
natural fibres to remove impurities and c Different weaving of flax fibres d Applications of fibre

stiffness, Young’s modulus, and impact resistance are measured according to non-
standard parameters however proper compliance to measurement standards can bring
better clarification and increase the use of NFR composites in structural applications
where high mechanical tenacity is required [13]. Usually, NFs are lignocellulosic as
they consist of 71–43% of cellulose microfibrils integrated into a matrix of hemi-
celluloses, wax, and lignin which are associated with hydrogen bonds [14]. The
presence of cellulose content determines the strength of NF with a low microfib-
rillar angle. The more will be the content of cellulose, the higher the strength of the
fibres. In addition, NFs are non-toxic, recyclable, biodegradable, easy to handle, and
non-abrasive which helps in reducing the wear of manufacturing equipment. The
properties of NFs are summarized in Table 10.1.
There are several shortcomings of NF such as being prone to absorb moisture,
poor compatibility with polymer matrix, and poor interfacing with polymers. There
is always a probability of the presence of waxy compounds on NF’s surface which
leads to poor matrix fibre bonding. In order to overcome these shortcomings, treat-
ment of fibres with acetylene, ethanol and several organic agents reduces the mois-
ture uptake and enhances the interfacing with polymers which subsequently offers
tempting prospects that NFR composites possess high consistency and durability to
composites. The surface modification and treatment of NFs do not deteriorate the
fibre strength and stiffness but enhance the overall properties. In the open air, the
presence of various microorganisms, temperature, and ultraviolet (UV) light leads to
the degradation of natural fibres due to the breakdown of inherent compositions such
as lignin, and cellulose. A study was conducted to investigate the effect of water
showers, environmental dampness, and UV light on the mechanical properties of
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 305

Fig. 10.3 Properties of natural fibres

Table 10.1 Mechanical strength, density, and young modulus of NFs [13]. Adapted with permission
from ref [13] Copyright (2016) (Elsevier)
Fibre Moisture (wt%) Density (g/cm3 ) Mechanical strength Young’s modulus
(MPa) (GPa)
Kenaf 10–12 1.4 200–930 15–54
Coir 8 1.1–1.4 95–220 2–6
Flax 8–12 1.5 340–2000 27–104
Jute 1.0–1.9 1.5 320–800 8–78
Bamboo 8.9 0.6–1.1 150–800 11–32
Sisal 10–22 1.3–1.5 360–700 9–38
Pineapple 12 1.5 413–1625 1.5
Cotton 7.9–9 1.6 288–800 5–12.6
Hemp 1–4 1.5 260–900 23–90
Banana 1.5–9 1.3 449–500 12
Ramie 7.5–18 1–1.5 400–1000 24.5–128
306 N. Kumari et al.

kenaf reinforced composites. The results indicated lower mechanical properties due
to the deprivation of the hemicelluloses matrix [15]. The overexposure of composites
by UV radiation was ascribed to the formation of cracks in NFs. Similarly, the elastic
properties of jute phenolic resin were reduced to one-half due to excessive exposure
to UV radiation. In addition, dark stigma, fibrillation, and swelling were observed
after UV exposure [16].
Different kinds of treatment of NFs such as additive, physical, and chemical treat-
ment overcome these shortcomings without depreciating the properties. In addition,
several works are ongoing to improve the properties of NFs. Enhancement in prop-
erties of NFs carried out by the mean of irradiation, corona discharge, and plasma
discharge. Functional properties of NFs increase by plasma discharge at low temper-
atures that consequently cause etching, implantation, crystallization, and formation
of free radicals. Moisture absorbance of NFs can be reduced by hydrothermal treat-
ment which additionally enhances the thermal insulation. Furthermore, hydrothermal
treatments cause lower degradation of NFs as compared to untreated ones. Chemical
treatment such as mercerization is an alkali (NaOH) based treatment that modi-
fies the surface and increases the possibility of dye uptaking in NFs-based textiles.
Polymer and fibre interfacial bonding become stronger as a result of alkali treatment
[17]. Alkali treatment increases the presence of amorphous cellulose and inactive
the active sites as a result of the removal of water.

Fibre − OH + NaOH → Fibre − ONa + Water (10.1)

Another important chemical treatment is acetylation where acetyl anhydride

successfully replaces the hydroxyl group of NFs. Acetylation attributed to the
rendering of more hydrophobic surfaces thus reduces the risk of biological attacks
and enhances fibre compatibility with polymer matrix.
The polymer matrix is used to develop high-performance composites while
considering synthetic and natural fibres. Polymer-based composites exhibited high
mechanical performance with no chances of corrosion. Impregnation of NFs in a
well-suited polymer matrix can increase the interface bonding of polymer-NFs. The
degree of adhesion between natural fibres and polymer determines the efficiency of
load distribution and stress transfer at interfaces. Development stages of natural fibre
reinforced composites have a certain impact on the environment which affects the
product popularization of NFR composites. Each stage has different parameters that
should be considered by designing products therefore contribution of each stage to
the environment is different hence to address the best possible method is necessary.
However, there are several techniques to manufacture NFR composites [18]. Hand
layup technique simplest method to produce complex NFR composites due to the low
cost of equipment and low production time. Conversely, the product formed by this
method is compromised in quality i.e. one dimension of the product is smooth. Due to
many layers in composites being non-uniform which consequently deteriorated the
properties. Another more preferred used is the resin transfer moulding method (RTM)
in which resin and reinforcing fibres are filled in two tight moulds and compressed
with high force. The RTM products are better in quality as compared to other methods.
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 307

Some other methods such as contact method, spray method, open mould method, and
pultrusion are considered depending on the quality of the product required. Products
obtained by pultrusion are of high quality with higher reinforcement of fibres (nearly
80%) which leads to excellent mechanical properties [19].

10.4 Industrial Applications of Natural Fibre Reinforced

Composites

10.4.1 NFR Composites in Automotive Industries

• In automobile industries

With gaining insight into lightweight weight and environment friendly automo-
tive components, the use of natural fibres is extensively increased. Not all naturally
occurring fibres are suitable for automotive applications, but only a few exhibit
desirable properties. The use of NFR polymer composites provides momentum to
research in NFR polymer composites. The advantage of NFR composites over metal-
embedded composites is to produce recyclable and reusable lightweight automobile
components. Polyester-based natural reinforced fibres are predominantly used by
German-based automotive industries [20]. The NFR composites are primarily used
in door panels, seat covering, and other insulating parts [21]. Figure 10.4 shows the
use of NFR composite in various parts of automobiles. Banana-reinforced polymer
composites fabricated and used in car panels named ‘MANACA’ exhibited excellent
fibre-polymer bonding hence there was no proof of delaminating and de-bonding
[12]. The mechanical strength of the car’s structural components increased by using
kenaf –glass fibre reinforced epoxy composites in bumper beams [22]. The glass fibre-
replaced jute fibres are utilized in the front bonnets of vehicles. These NFR-based
bonnets are environmentally, economically, and technologically better. Additionally,
Jute fibres are capable of establishing excellent structural components [23]. Pineapple
mixed with cassava flour reinforced in polylactic acid is used in interior components
of cars. The pineapple-reinforced composites efficiently reduce the odour emission
in the interior of cars as compared to synthetic polymers [24]. Mechanical strength
of jute, abaca, and glass fibre composites are reported in literature where abaca
composites exhibited excellent tensile strength, impact, and flexural strength. The
jute and abaca composites can be a good replacement for components of automotive
applications such as mudguards and engine covers [25]. Sisal fibres reinforced in
formaldehyde matrix exhibited superior flexural strength and provided good impact
resistance. The different loading of sisal fibres is considered an important crite-
rion for the fabrication of mechanically stable composites through the compression
moulding method which can be utilized in practical applications [26]. Furthermore,
kenaf and sisal fibres loaded epoxy composites are suitable for lightweight appli-
cations which reduce more than 40% weight of car components hence lessening
308 N. Kumari et al.

fuel consumption [27]. The exterior and interior part of automobiles is developed
by kenaf fibre reinforced composites. Firstly, fibres are treated with polypropylene,
unsaturated polyester, and epoxy resin to minimize the moisture content. The resin
transfer moulding (RTM) method is used to fabricate automotive components manu-
facturing. About 40% fibre loading (unidirectional) indicates a higher mechanical
strength of 55 MPa which is good for the replacement of other synthetic fibre-based
composites [28]. Apart from the mechanical durability of NFR composites, a lot of
literature has reported on the acoustical and thermal properties of composites in inte-
rior components, heat shields, ducts, engine covers, etc. due to porosity. Therefore,
these composites exhibited great sound-absorbing ability and thermal properties.
These composites can be a great substitute for synthetic fibre-based composites.
According to Prabhu et al. [29] combination of tea waste and glass fibres impacts
the thermal, acoustical, and mechanical characteristics of sisal fibre-based epoxy
composites. As per results, this combination improves the characteristics of NFR
composites which makes them suitable for brake pedals, door panels, soundproofing
materials in speaker compartments, bumper, and interior components, etc. Palm fibres
and sisal fibre composites significantly possess acoustic characteristics [29]. Roof
and door panels, and wall and floor lamination are prepared by hybrid sisal fibre
reinforced composites.
Leading automobile industries are using hybrid sisal-based composites as given in
Table 10.2. Sisal hybrid material composed of flax and cotton fibres is incorporated
in the epoxy matrix for the manufacturing of rear panels and door panels of Mercedes
Benz as shown in Fig. 10.4 [30]. A composition of 70% sisal fibres with 30% acrylic
polymer is used by BMW for the manufacturing of door panels [31–33]. NFR door
panels lower the risk of passengers during accidents by considerably reducing the
weight of panels by 20%. Demand for components made of natural fibre composites
increased in European countries, such demand will considerably increase in the future
due to the recyclability of NFR composites and their goodness for the protection of
the environment.

Fig. 10.4 Use of natural fibre reinforced composites in automobile components [30]. Open access
under a CC BY 4.0 license. Copyright@2015 Layth Mohammed et al.
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 309

Table 10.2 Companies using NFR composites in automobile parts

Components Materials Automobile
Door panels Sisal-flax composites Mercedes Benz (E-class)
Rear panel Sisal-cotton with epoxy Mercedes Benz (C-class)
Interior panel (door) Sisal-flax Volkswagen
Interior door panel Sisal-jute with flax BMW

10.4.2 In Aviation

Nowadays, NFR composites are majorly used in the aviation sector to determine the
future scope of these composites. However, a lot of research deficit is there to form
appropriate NFR-based components. The use of NFR brings triumph to lightweight,
low consumption, and reduced cost, corrosion resistance aviation components. In
general, NFR composites significantly enhanced physical as well as mechanical
properties. Stacked and sandwich panels are generally employed in flooring, gallery
walls, compartments, and ceilings of aircraft. The sandwich panels offer excel-
lent flame retardation, and heat resistance, and significantly reduce weight which
results in less fuel consumption. The airliner using natural fibre-based components
reduces the weight of 200–300 kg of panels used in aircraft cabins. The overall
weight equates to 2000–7000 tonnes reduced emission of CO2 during the lifetime
of aircraft. Placement of a heavy system in low earth orbit nearly costs e28,000/
kg and the cost of fuel is 50% of the operational cost. However, the tremendous use
of NFR composites reduces the cost of the product to 50% by reducing structural
weight to 50% which substantially reduces fuel consumption to 20% (Boeing 787) as
compared to aluminium composites. Generally, flax textiles in phenolic resin are used
for the development of different interior parts of aircraft by Airbus Company. The
flame-retardant test was performed before the employment of flax fabrics [34] the
results exhibited excellent flame retardation which complies with Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA).

10.4.3 In Railways

The NFR composites are utterly applicable in Indian railways for the development of
components like, floor/floor panels, modular toilets, partitions, seat covers, handles,
etc. [35]. To achieve fast speed, weight reduction, less inertia, lower track wear, and
low power consumption, the use of natural fibres in railway industries is essential.
The NFR composites have paved the way for the development of lightweight (about
40% weight reduction), cost-effective (reduce fuel consumption), and sustainable
technology which is applicable in almost all industries. Nowadays, NFR composites
are being used by automotive industries for the fabrication of different components
listed in Table 10.3
310 N. Kumari et al.

Table 10.3 Different natural fibres are used in different automobile parts
Automotive components Fibres used
Roof and door panel Jute fibres
Rear desk and wall, door panels Kenaffibres
Roof panel Oil palm fibres
Door panel cover, armrest Hempfibres
Seat, instrument panels, Engine cover Flax fibres
Insulation Ramiefibres
Interior panel, door panel, roofing sheets Sisal fibres
Floor and body panels Abacafibres
Floor and seat mats, Mattresses Coirfibres
Roof panels Rice huskfibres
Luggage compartment Coconut fibres
Soundproofing, Insulating material Cotton fibres
Hard armrest, seat back Wood fibres
Wrapping paper Banana and pineapple fibres
Seat covers Wool fibres

10.4.4 Military

Since ancient times, the intrusion of foreign troops, and insurgencies evolved the
scenario of arms conflicts which constantly enhanced the exploitation of weapons and
armour. The armour used in the beginning was heavy because of increased protection
capacity. Lighter composites are in demand time by keeping the mobility of soldiers
as a concern. Currently, natural fibres are used by armed forces for the development
of lightweight and flexible materials which offer protection against bullet strikes, and
fragments of explosives. Researchers are prompted to develop cost-effective ballistic
protective devices that can be readily available for military troops and vulnerable
people who are susceptible to get targeted by terrorists. Therefore, the production
of vegetable-based fibrous material with less cost and low weight is abundantly
increased. The use of NFR composites is of great concern to the military in uniform
and other textiles, personal protection devices, field housing construction (fireproof
camouflage tents), weapons and hard armour, transport vehicles and packaging, etc.
[36]. Military includes protective clothing and systems which incorporate textiles
within. Use of natural fibres such as hemp and flax in clothing applications was
prevalent before the Second World War. During that time, troops of the Russian army
wore red-coloured uniforms made of hemp fibres. After World War, all the textiles
were replaced by synthetic woven fibres such as nylon, polyester, etc. Nowadays,
textiles are integrated with smart devices and intelligent fibres for military and civilian
safety in hard zones [37]. In 2001, a project was started by the Défense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) for the development of electronics-integrated
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 311

Fig. 10.5 Use of pineapple leaf fibres in hard armour vests [44]. Open access under a CC BY 4.0
license. Copyright@2020

textiles. Special conductive cellulosic fibres are integrated into electronic textiles for
identifying special pharmaceuticals on a soldier’s body.
Low-density composites with high strength gained a lot of attention for the devel-
opment of armour vests as shown in Fig. 10.5 [38]. Presently, synthetic fibres such
as aramid fibres, zylon fibres, and Dyneema fibres are utilized in the development
of bulletproof vests [39]. Benzait et al. have suggested the use of natural fibres in
military applications as they possess excellent characteristics which can serve as an
excellent substitute for aramid fibres [40]. Most researchers explored epoxy-based
composites but were not found preferable due to the high stiffness and low ductility
of epoxy. Rohen et al. have investigated the ballistic resistance property of sisal-
reinforced epoxy composites. They found that NFR composites show comparable
results to aramid fibrous composites with the same thickness [41].
Excellent ballistic performance of NFR composite dissipates high impact energy
and depends on the ability of fibres to capture ballistic fragments as a contribution of
lignocellulosic fibres. The presence of higher lignin and low cellulose absorbs high
impact energy with randomly oriented dense weaving of coir fibres [42]. Pineapple
leaf fibre (PALF)/ceramic-based composites are extensively investigated as one of
the strongest naturally occurring fibre with a stress of 1.6 GPa which substantially
enhances the mechanical strength of composites. Ballistic tests for these composites
are carried out at Brazilian Army Assessment Centre. Surprisingly, ballistic perfor-
mance of PALF/ceramic mat was comparable with stringer synthetic aramid/kevlar
fibres. PALF-based composites not only displaced similar ballistic performance but
also the same mechanism of fragment capturing. The mechanism responsible for
fracture capturing is due to Van der Waals forces, and short static surface charge
generated after the interaction of the targeted projectile with the surface of compos-
ites [43]. Besides, good strength, the cost of natural fibres is 70 times reduced as
312 N. Kumari et al.

of dyneema fibres. The protection level of ballistic and bulletproof armours can be
enhanced by double layers of PALF/epoxy composites. These hard armours can
work as a guard against 7.6 mm calibre rifles without any requirement of alloys [44].
Commercially available fibres are quite expensive and the development of personal
protective devices is a fairly complex process. Therefore, these fibres are substituted
by fibres obtained from natural sources. Integration of natural fibres with synthetic
fibres is prevalent due to protection of armed forces against high impact of bullets i.e.
natural fibres are promising candidates for impact resistance in personal protective
wears and are being benefited by abundant quantity in nature. During the selection
of natural fibres for high impact resistance-based applications, some of the charac-
teristics of the natural fibres should be considered. These characteristics are greatly
dependent on growth conditions, chemical composition, and structural strength of
natural fibres.
The natural fibres have relatively low mechanical strength as that of synthetic
fibres therefore modification and integration of natural fibres with resin provides
comparative strength to armour devices. Moreover, interfacial adhesion between
fibres and polymer resin plays a vital role in enhancing the mechanical response
of NFR composites. Improvement of mechanical properties of NFR composites is
carried out by coating the surface of NF with polymer resin before polishing through
graphene oxide for high impact resistance against ballistics [45]. Liu et al. devel-
oped a model to investigate the mechanism of transfer of energy during collisions of
bullets and high energy projectiles. They suggested that high impact energy dissipa-
tion capacity and material integrity can be enhanced by adjusting viscosity and shear
modulus of the matrix. In ductile materials, energy absorption leads to plastic defor-
mation whereas dissipation of energy substantially occurs through fracture mecha-
nism in ceramics. Hence, some small cracks are responsible for fragmentation and
expansion of cracks in the material. In first stage, the expansion of cracks initiates
the deformation of matrix until complete transfer of load to the length of fibres as
shown in Fig. 10.6. In second stage, cracks propagate with slower pace than before
as fibres are under strain which causes the delamination of fibres and matrix. At last,
catastrophic penetration spread rapidly due to breakage of fibres and failure of matrix
[46]. Inappropriate match between fibres and matrix is responsible for the propaga-
tion of cracks which further causes delamination of matrix and fibres. Any type of
bubble casting and holes leads to the generation of microcracks when tested with
high kinetic energy projectiles. The propagation of cracks can be resisted by dense
arrangement of fibres. Haro et al. investigated the dissipation of high impact energy
by the arrangement of fibres and hybridization of material during ballistic collision.
Initially impact energy of weapons was compared with impact resistance ability of
composite targets. The outcomes of crack propagation in composite targets measured
at different stages are accomplished by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) require-
ment for level II, IIA, and IIIA for protective armours [47]. Hajer et al. studied the
mechanical properties of flax fibres with and without natural viscous-elastic layer. A
different stacking sequence was followed to perform uni-axial stack loading test. The
results for different mechanisms categorized the obtained cracks in various categories
according to with and without visco-elastic stack [48]. Natural fibres are hydrophilic
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 313

and therefore absorb moisture, have low thermal stability, and poor integration with
commercially available fibres. Some fibres are thermally stable such as kenaf and
coir fibres. Modification of kenaf and aramid fibres with polymer resin enhances
the mechanical properties which appropriate weaving patterns. Enhanced mechan-
ical performance of kenaf hybrid fibres makes them applicable for military vehicle
spall liners. Yahaya et al. studied the kenaf-Kevlar (semi-aramid) hybrid laminates
in woven, mat, and unidirectional patterns for spall liners which provide protection
against small fragments. They found that woven pattern of kenaf hybrid laminates
exhibited high flexural, tensile strength of 100.3 MPa which is 52.07% higher as
that of mat laminates [49]. Interest in natural fibres is prompted for exploitation of
personal protective equipments such as helmets, hard hats, and shin guards for the
protection of civilians and military troops [50, 51].
Hemp and flax fibres reinforced polypropylene was tested for ballistic tests in
Royal Military Academy in Brussels. The composites are stacked with 26 layers
of fabrics made of hemp and flax polypropylene laminates. The results indicated
plain flax did not meet the standard criteria. Flax with steel integration irregular
shape decreased the possibility of penetration of armour material. NFR composites
have the advantage of repairing damages in composites. In emergency, a soldier can
patch up the damaged area of composites by following the simple process of drying
plant materials; extracting the fibres and binding fibres with proper binders. During
World War Second, phenolic resin impregnated unidirectional flax fibre composites

Fig. 10.6 a Depicts the history of Army helmet design and materials. b Shows ballistic impact
tests
314 N. Kumari et al.

named as Gordon-Aerolite were used as fuselage in aircrafts and in helmets [50, 51].
In military transport vehicles, NF based composites are used in panels, passenger
walkways, doors, bulkheads, nose cones, etc. Unmanned remote controlled vehicles
can be produced by NFR composites having reduced cost, low weight and integrated
with several electronic devices which is a current demand of time.
According to the prompted use of NFR composites in several applications, these
composites can also be used in military applications in large scale. Although, several
materials are driven by natural fibres are also being used in military. NFR composites
would be suitable materials for the development of weapon components such as knife
handles, gun barrels, rifle bodies, and stocks. Depending on weight requirement of
weapons bast and wood fibres are suitable materials however great challenge would
be to ensure weather tolerance of these materials such as tolerance to moisture, and
temperature.
Marsyahyo et al. developed high impact resistance bulletproof panels by using
naturally occurring ramie fibres integrated into epoxy resin. Before the reinforcement
of fibres in polymer resin, fibres were treated with several chemical solvents, such
as ethanol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and silane used as coupling agents. The
panels were tested for NIJ standards II, IIA, and IV. The panels were able to oppose
the penetration of high energy bullets in stage II. However, high energy projectile
for stage IV was not resisted by ramie fibres-based composite [51, 52].
Currently, lightweight and low-cost bridges are a requirement by the military for
crossing short-span gaps (nearly 4 m) with supporting military loads of 27,000 kg
carried by military trucks. The bridges must be of low thickness as it can be used in
other applications such as roadway matting and ramping systems for loading weight
in aircraft and ships. For instance, the short track bridge (4 m) is located in Germany,
which is a commercially available mobile bridge for multitasking that also bears
stringent environmental conditions and supports a military load of 27,000 kg at a
time. Robinson et al. studied the possibility of exploiting fibre reinforced short-span
lightweight bridge/treadways for the military. The bridges were field tested in the
U.S. army with a load of 27,000 kg and also tested for extreme weather conditions.
The proof testing revealed the bridge as having adequate mechanical strength which
results in no sign of stiffness and permanent damage. These lightweight bridges are
viable candidates for employment in emergency response where a short-span gap is
encountered [53].

10.4.5 Sports Industries

Traditionally, metals and alloys-based sports equipments were prevalent although,

these equipments were quite heavy which restricted the movement of equipment to
a limit. Lightweight equipments are required preferably for proper movement and
better athlete’s performance. Currently, research on lightweight sports equipments
designed by natural fibres reinforcement is continuously evolving with improved
mechanical functionalities i.e. NFR composites have an unmatched advantage in
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 315

this regard [54]. Use of NRF composites protects environment by advocating green
sports and implementing sustainability. Before the production of sports equipments,
strength, elasticity and other mechanical properties should be considered. NFR
composites have good tenacity, specific modulus, and stiffness making it good candi-
dates to replace the synthetic fibres. NFR composites-based sports equipments are
easily repairable as compared to other fibre-based sports equipment. Traditional
sports equipments were hard to repair, and have excessive maintenance costs. More-
over, formation of NFR sports equipment is quite easy. Furthermore, performance to
price ratio was the problem during metal materials. NFR composites have good
wholesomeness and a good performance to price ratio which increases product
popularization and revenue.
According to the American Chemold Company, carbon-reinforced fibres utilized
in table tennis exhibited poor damping absorbance properties. Currently, Flax is
commonly employed as fibre for the development of sports equipment in industries.
To enhance the properties of natural fibre-based composites flax hybrid compos-
ites are used for producing sports equipment. For instance, tennis rackets, fishing
rods, and bicycle frames are commercially manufactured with flax and carbon rein-
forcement appropriate proportions as flax fibres provide excellent damping properties
compared to synthetic fibres [55]. Better damping properties provide sportsmen good
firmness while striking the ball and increase the contact time between tennis bat and
ball, it increases the probability of striking the ball with a high speed by the collective
force of sportsmen.
Due to the excellent impact resistance of NFR composites, these composites
are being successfully used in sports industries, particularly for the development of
components for outdoor sports. Generally, flax fibres with integration in carbon fibres
are successfully employed in the development of snowboards, canoes, surfboards,
bats, ice hockey, and bike frames due to excellent vibrating damping behaviour.
Carbon/flax fibres-based composites are prone to high impact resistance. Companies
like Magine, and Flaxland manufactured snowboards and canoes using flax fabrics.
Yusup et al. prepared alkaline-treated oil palm hollow bunch fibres in the epoxy matrix
for potential applicability in hockey sticks. The mechanical properties of alkaline-
treated oil palm fibres show promising results for prepared hockey sticks [56]. Some
special equipment is required for sport climbing including climbing shoes with body
and waist gripers, helmets, ropes, carabiners, etc. with high strength and durability
to reach the highest summit. Generally, cliffs and figure eight are made from metal
and alloys and are prone to corrosion. However, NFR composites are chosen in place
of metal and alloys as NFR composites are lightweight, and corrosion resistance.
Furthermore, manufacturing processes and parameters also affect the properties of
final products.
316 N. Kumari et al.

10.5 Construction

In ancient times, straw and clay composites were used by Egyptians for the construc-
tion of walls of houses. In 1973, jute reinforced fibre composites were employed for
the construction of primary schools and were considered the first use of NF by a
developing country [57]. Phenolic resin coated bagasse fibres are used by Jamaicans
and Ghanaians in the construction of houses by roofing sheets and panels. Currently,
Polymer reinforced natural fibres have won the attention of several industries. Indian
government supported the production and development of jute fibre composites as a
substitute to wooden composites. The use of NFR composites is surging in popularity
among construction industries to produce low cost, environment friendly building
materials. Natural Fibres have voids/space and naturally consist of cellulose, lignin
pectin etc. which enhances the thermal insulating properties. In addition, the produc-
tion of building materials leads to environmental pollution whereas NFR composites
cause 0.1% of pollution to the environment. Internationally, 95% of NFR compos-
ites are being utilized in market [58]. The NFR polymeric composites significantly
substituted the traditional cement, steel, and concrete like materials. Different natural
fibres obtained from different plants are explored by users which include, cereal straw,
kenaf, bamboo, rice, husk, corn stalk, etc. for different structural applications listed
in Table 10.4 [59]. The characteristics of NFR in the building industry include; high
stiffness, lightweight, low cost, high strength to weight ratio, and biodegradability.
Material like asbestos fibres is hazardous to the air atmosphere or requires controlled
parameters to work on, but natural fibres are neither hazardous nor required any
controlled environmental parameters. Development of green building is a suitable
mindful place to work and live. These composites are remarkably used in construc-
tion industries for manufacturing of structural components such as roofs and bridges,
and non-structural components which include windows, panels, door frames exterior
parts, etc. Besides good mechanical stability, natural fibres have some disadvantages
like degradation of polymer at 200–250 °C temperature, hydrophilic nature which
resulted in inappropriate adhesion, and moisture absorbing nature. To get excel-
lent environmental performance, natural fibres are treated with proper resins which
decrease the hydrophilic characteristic and derive hydrophobic fibres by blocking
the pores. As natural fibres are prone to moisture, a fatigue test was conducted on a
50 years old bridge surprisingly; NF composites revealed almost negligible moisture
content owing to a special coating of epoxy applied on fibres which prevents moisture
penetration. Resin coating is applied as a protective layer against waterproofing and
moisture absorption.

10.5.1 Structural Beams and Panels

Composites are widely employed in the development of bridges in Netherlands

because these bridges require low maintenance. On the other hand, Concrete bridges
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 317

Table. 10.4 Use of different fibres in construction [59]. Open access under a CC BY 4.0 license.
Copyright@2021. Al-Azad et al.
Fibres Uses in construction
Oil Window and door frames, ceiling, insulating panels, fencing, etc
palm
Wood Fencing, doors, window frames, and boards etc
Rice Bricks, railing, panels, window frames, etc
husk
Flax Window frames, door frames, laptop cases, railing
Sisal Beams, panels, roofing boards, floor laminates,
Stalk Building panel, drain construction, bricks
Kenaf Insulating material, boards, panels
Cotton Wardrobes, cupboards, cabinets,
Jute Roofing, flooring, panels, door and window frames
Coir Structural beams, panels, door shutters, tanks, roofing sheets, fencing, window frames,
cabinets, walls, wardrobes, bricks

are low cost alternatives however high weight of concrete based composites makes it
inapt in many locations. Therefore, NFR composites are widely tested for structural
applications such as beams, bridges, panels, and columns production as shown in
Fig. 10.7 [60]. One of the fundamental components of bridge, and building is a beam
due to its load bearing capacity. Before construction, a beam is tested for bending
capacity which yields three-to-four-fold bending. Beams are comprised of wood,
cellulose, reinforced concrete, fibres, iron, and steel. Viable ways to develop a beam
with great load bearing capacity with low cost and low pollution are demonstrated in
several literatures [61]. Sandwich beam and I-shaped beam production is the best idea
for construction where thin top and bottom layers are embedded with a thick core
material. Acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO) as skins and cellulosic fibres
foam core is investigated in which AESO skins exhibited great mechanical strength
as of core [62]. In some cases, Flax fibres are considered for structural applications
over glass fibres as a cost concern however possess low stiffness as of glass fibres.
To achieve the desired stiffness, the thickness of bridge is solely modified. A Bridge
in Eindhoven University of Technology has been made by composition of hemp and
flax fibres in polylactic acid (PLA) [63]. Poletanovic et al. reported the incorporation
of hemp fibres in a geopolymer reduces the density by 5% due to high porous fibre
interfaces which are ascribed to entrapping of air [64]. Hybridisation of sisal and jute
fibres in geopolymer such as in fly ash enhances the ductility and mechanical strength
of composites which can further be applicable in the construction of structural beams
[65].
The NF reinforcement benefited the construction industries with their low density,
high corrosion resistance, and low cost. Generally, NFR composites can be divided
into four divisions on the basic of size and alignment of fibres; such as long fibres,
short fibres, nano cellulosic fibres, and consolidate fibres composites. Hemp, flax,
318 N. Kumari et al.

Fig. 10.7 Use of natural fibre reinforced composites in structural components

sisal, and jute fibres are the long fibres which are used as reinforcement in polymer
matrix. Long NFR composites depict excellent mechanical characteristics like flex-
ural or tensile which make them recognized as potential fibres in structural beams,
load bearing components, roof panels, multipurpose panels, etc. [66]. Wood based
composites are used in panels such as plywood panels in the form of blocks and
stressed skin roofing panels for enhancement of the efficiency of building [67].
Woven mat sisal fibres embedded in cashew nut shell liquid with AESO as core
material in the form of sandwich structure are used to make roof panels. Corrugated
roof panels are also possible to develop other than flat panels in either the form of
sandwich or I-shape structure. Sandwich structure fibre-based composites have been
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 319

developed and tested by LOC Composites Pty. Ltd for the production of balcony
walls, roofs, floors, etc. [68, 69].
Jute reinforced composites are utilized for the construction of pipes in structural
reconstruction whereas synthetic fibres are not suitable for it because synthetic fibres
are viable to corrosion, high weight, low strength, etc. Further, some research on the
use of jute/polypropylene composites are reported for the manufacturing of struc-
tural beams and panels [70]. Moreover, jute, hemp, and flax polyester composites
can be used for manufacturing of load bearing composites such as cellular beams and
panels with enhanced efficiency which also depend arrangement of cellular materials.
A NFR-based construction structure can be developed by several international and
Indian companies. Permali Wallace Pvt.Ltd, an Indian company is specialized in the
development of NFR composites for the development of houses, buildings, automo-
biles, railways components, etc. [71]. Bamboo fibre reinforced bethink is constructed
by CSIR-AMPRI, Bhopal in which bamboo composites are employed for structural
components of housing sectors. The use of bamboo composites in housing sectors is
recognized as a good earthquake resistance construction material [72]. In addition,
some interlocking blocks can also be manufactured for mortar free structures. These
blocks may smooth the progress of energy dissipation during earthquakes and ground
excitations.

10.5.2 Building Non-Structural Components

NFR composites are recognized as a great substitute for wall building. The NFR built
composites have excellent shear resistance. NFR panels reduce the time of erection
of wall and prove to be economical due to great weight to strength ratio, which is
not the case with brickwork. NFR fibres are widely used in the insulation of walls
due to compatible properties such as flexural strength, thermal insulation, acoustic
insulation, etc. Li et al. stated that tensile properties of natural fibres such as flax fibres
have comparable properties to that of glass fibres [73]. Hasan et al. suggested that
flexural strength of coir reinforced cementitious is 10 times greater as compared to
steel reinforced composites due to coir fibre bridging effects [74]. Flexural strength of
wooden sheets with plastic composites is investigated for hollow cross sections [75].
NFR composites are great replacement for cementitious paste used in walls to form
mortar free walls. The uses of NFR composites are helpful in making sustainable
construction industries. These natural fibres include flax, coir, sisal, pineapple leaf,
kenaf, bamboo, abaca, hemp, banana, sugarcane, and cotton fibres. All these fibres are
vegetable fibres and naturally occurring in many countries. The use of NFR increases
the properties of composites and costs very little when compared. NFR composites
are used in tropical earthquake regions as low cost construction materials. Natural
fibres reinforced composites are gaining insight in non-structural applications such
as window frames and floor lamination, etc. [76, 77] Different fibres reduce the
loss of building material and enhance the energy efficiency which promotes the
idea of sustainability and provide the solution for infrastructure need. Natural fibres
320 N. Kumari et al.

are much cheaper as compared to other materials required for construction. Coir
fibre reinforced composite boards are used in applications like bricks, tiles, hollow
blocks plywood, etc. which are recognized as a material for exterior walls, roofing,
frames, etc. [78]. More importantly, coir fibres in any matrix possess high durability
and excellent tensile strength. Coir fibre consists of 46% lignin which results in
resistance to weather conditions such as wet and dry and prevents rotting. Coir/
rubber/jute boards can be used for making wardrobes, surface lamination, ceiling,
furniture, etc. Das et al. investigated the use of jute reinforced polymer composites
in structural applications such as floor, wall partitions, window frames, ceiling, etc.
[79]. Li et al. used wood fibre reinforced composites in the manufacturing of window
frames, floor lamination, ceiling, etc. [80]. Sisal fibres reinforced in polymer matrix
are very suitable for the development of roofing and ceiling sheets. Cement and
gypsum blocks can be developed by using rice husk. Whereas, rice straws are useful
for the production of cement bonded boards, medium density boards, particle boards,
etc. Cotton stalks can be used in wall, roofing, furniture, door shutters, and in wall
plastering.

10.6 Packaging

Currently, non-biodegradable polymers are used in a majority of packaging mate-

rials such as food containers, etc. due to their indestructible nature. However, envi-
ronmental perseverance of these materials resulted in excessive litter, pollution, and
waste dumping problems [81]. With growing environmental problems have triggered
a spark in researchers to produce environmentally compatible products by keeping the
preservation of natural resources and environmental safety a concern. NFR compos-
ites are readily manufactured products with desired properties. However, use of
biodegradable resin in packaging material enhances the cost of overall products.
Whereas, incorporation of natural fibres in biodegradable resin substantially reduces
the cost. In addition, NF reinforcement relatively enhances the strength and thermal
deformation of material without loss of degradability. Some polymers derived from
plants such as polylactic acid (PLA) and starch are commercially available and
being used as packaging material for food and drinks which significantly preserve
the food items. Bast fibres (flax, hemp, etc.) composites are mostly employed in
packaging materials because of their lightweight and adequate natural availability.
For instance, mobile companies are using flax fibre-based packaging materials for
packing their smart, high-end mobile phones. In coming times, it would be possible
to develop plant-based fibres for the production of packaging material for food and
drinks which subsequently may replace the poly bags, plastics, and other paper based
packaging materials. However, some of the plastic beer bottle’s interior surface is
clad with glass layer. In a study oil palm bunch fibres derived cellulose and ther-
moplastic starch hybrid composites are used in packaging materials with enhanced
mechanical properties [82]. Varghese et al. prepared strawberries packaging mate-
rial for preservation of fruit’s freshness from bark fibres. At higher bark loading in
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 321

polymer matrix, the packing material also exhibited antibacterial properties due to
the presence of phenolic compound increasing the evolution of certain microbial
organisms in lignin. This packaging is an eco-friendly one which protects the life of
perishable fruits [83].

10.7 Consumer Goods

For the development of cost-effective consumer goods, short natural fibres are consid-
ered promising candidates due to easy moulding of natural fibres in any shape.
Due to high demand of environment friendly goods, NFR composites are readily
adopted for the development of products with high performance and good life span.
NFR composites are suitable elements to utilize in furniture applications like desks,
windows, household furniture, etc. as they resemble the wood and require minimal
maintenance [84]. Wood products are prone to being captured by termites whereas
NFR composite based products are not prone to it. Hence, NFR composites-based
products exhibited a better life span as compared to wooden products. Parameter
such as moisture absorbance is significantly affecting the mechanical tenacity of
products. Increase in moisture rate considerably deteriorates the tensile and flex-
ural strength of products. Wooden products are apt to moisture uptaking whereas
NFR are better in this regard. Fruit based fibres are suitable substitutes for wood in
plywood and boards. Better acoustical properties of NFR composites devoted the
plant and fruit-based fibres a good candidate to employ in furniture segment with
better properties. Household goods like tables, kitchen cabinets, decks, electrical
goods, mobile phones, planters, and chairs are produced by using jute reinforced
polymer for development of lightweight, easy movable, cost effective, and finished
products as depicted in Fig. 10.8. Back support plate of chair is feasibly produced by
using bagasse/polypropylene granules due to excellent support and elastic properties
[85].
NFR composites seldom serve as catalysts for products for maintaining sustain-
ability and low consumption of natural resources. A lightweight cabinet was devel-
oped by Sheffield Hallam University Art and design Research Centre and Net
composites using flax/Polypropylene woven textile panels. A variety of furniture can
be created by modular arrangement of panels [86]. In a study, Hemp and epoxy resin
are used to produce chairs with complex geometry and good mechanical behaviour
[87]. Electrical goods such as electrical switchboards, coolers, air conditioner bodies,
and fens are nowadays made up of NFR composites with better finishing, and different
colours. The colours of electrical goods can be obtained be polishing or coating NFR
composites.
322 N. Kumari et al.

Fig. 10.8 Use of natural fibre reinforced composites in household applications

10.8 Conclusion

A wide range of natural fibres exists in nature such as plants-based fibres, animal-
based fibres, and mineral-based fibres. Due to utmost mechanical properties of
flax, hemp, and jute, these fibres are widely employed in industrial applications
for the development of various components. Besides excellent specific strength of
NFs, they also exhibited excellent stiffness to weight ratio, strength to weight ratio,
sustainability and complete biodegradability which made them successfully replace
commercial fibres. NFs consume negligible energy during production and are sustain-
able mediums due to absorption of CO2 i.e. NFs have considerable positive impact
on the environment. NFs also have the potential to apply in load bearing applica-
tions. Fibre quality is considerably affected by several parameters such as growing
environment, and processing parameters. The type of NFs used determines the actual
cost of the final product and performance of composites.
For better strength of NFR composites, impurity and waxy substance must be
low. Long length fibres offer excellent mechanical properties. For full impregna-
tion of fibres in polymer resin, fibres must have low bends and twists. Selection of
NFs for NFR composites greatly depends on the required properties for a particular
application. NFR composites exhibited tremendous applications in industries such
as applicability in sports sector, automobile sector, marine structure, food industries,
10 Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites for Industrial Applications 323

and construction sector. However, some shortcomings occurred including matrix-

polymer adhesion, moisture uptaking, and incompatibility with the matrix. Tayota
Car Company makes interior components using Kenaf/PLA mats. Most notably,
short length fibres in different polymer matrices are used to produce outdoor furni-
ture with excellent water resistance property, automobile parts with less weight,
structural applications, and decking with excellent mechanical properties. Fibre treat-
ment is considered as an appropriate option for enhancing the compatibility of fibres
with matrix. Short fibres are compounded for small screws injected into automotive
components. Woven flax/epoxy prepregs exhibited higher mechanical strength due to
alignment of NFs. While considering environment safety, commercial resins have a
greater negative environmental impact as compared to NFs. Therefore, development
of bioresin is also an important aspect to be considered to facilitate the manufacturing
of 100% natural industrial products.

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