Review

Natural Fibers Composites: Origin, Importance, Consumption

Pattern, and Challenges †
Devyani Thapliyal 1 , Sarojini Verma 1 , Pramita Sen 2 , Rahul Kumar 3 , Amit Thakur 3 ,
Anurag Kumar Tiwari 1 , Dhananjay Singh 4 , George D. Verros 5, * and Raj Kumar Arya 1, *

1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,

Jalandhar 144011, India; devyanithapliyal5@gmail.com (D.T.); vermasarojini488@gmail.com (S.V.);
tiwaria@nitj.ac.in (A.K.T.)
2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology Kolkata, Chowbaga Road,
Kolkata 700107, India; pramita.sen@gmail.com
3 Department of Chemical Engineering, Energy Cluster, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun 248007, India; rahul.kumar@ddn.upes.ac.in (R.K.); akthakur@ddn.upes.ac.in (A.T.)
4 Department of Chemical Engineering, IET Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India; dsa768008@gmail.com
5 Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH), 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
* Correspondence: gdverros@gmail.com or gverros@chem.auth.gr (G.D.V.);
aryark@nitj.ac.in or rajaryache@gmail.com (R.K.A.)
† Dedicated to the memory of Dimitrios G. Verros (1926–2018) pioneer chemist in the Greek textile industry.

Abstract: This comprehensive review explores the multifaceted world of natural fiber applications
within the domain of composite materials. Natural fibers are meticulously examined in detail, consid-
ering their diverse origins, which encompass plant-derived fibers (cellulose-based), animal-derived
fibers (protein-based), and even mineral-derived variations. This review conducts a profound anal-
ysis, not only scrutinizing their chemical compositions, intricate structures, and inherent physical
properties but also highlighting their wide-ranging applications across various industries. The inves-
tigation extends to composites utilizing mineral or polymer matrices, delving into their synergistic
interplay and the resulting material properties. Furthermore, this review does not limit itself to the
Citation: Thapliyal, D.; Verma, S.; intrinsic attributes of natural fibers but ventures into the realm of innovative enhancements. The
Sen, P.; Kumar, R.; Thakur, A.; Tiwari, exploration encompasses the augmentation of composites through the integration of natural fibers,
A.K.; Singh, D.; Verros, G.D.; Arya, including the incorporation of nano-fillers, offering a compelling avenue for further research and
R.K. Natural Fibers Composites: technological development. In conclusion, this review synthesizes a comprehensive understanding
Origin, Importance, Consumption of the pivotal role of natural fibers in the realm of composite materials. It brings together insights
Pattern, and Challenges. J. Compos. from their diverse origins, intrinsic properties, and practical applications across sectors. As the final
Sci. 2023, 7, 506. https://doi.org/
curtain is drawn, the discourse transcends the present to outline the trajectories of future work in the
10.3390/jcs7120506
dynamic arena of natural fiber composites, shedding light on emerging trends that promise to shape
Academic Editors: Kim L. Pickering the course of scientific and industrial advancements.
and Jian-Guo Dai
Keywords: nanofillers; polymer matrix; natural fibers; composites; nanocomposites; mineral
Received: 17 September 2023
Revised: 20 October 2023
Accepted: 27 November 2023
Published: 4 December 2023
1. Introduction
A fiber is a natural or synthetic material having a sufficiently large length-to-width
ratio [1]. Natural fibers are derived from bio-based sources such as plants and animals or
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
exist in nature as minerals in spite of man-made fibers, i.e., synthetic ones.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Natural fibers have been used to make textiles since before the invention of writing.
This article is an open access article
The first indication of the use of fibers is most likely the discovery of flax and wool garments
distributed under the terms and
from Swiss lake dweller excavation sites (7th and 6th centuries BCE). People also used
conditions of the Creative Commons
many vegetative fibers in prehistoric times. It is believed that hemp, the earliest cultivated
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
fiber plant, originated in Southeast Asia before moving to China, where cultivation is
4.0/).
documented as far back as 4500 BCE. Egypt had perfected linen weaving and spinning

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7120506 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 2 of 44

by 3400 BCE, which shows flax farming had started earlier. India has records of cotton
spinning dating back to 3000 BCE. Silk and other products are produced in the highly
developed Chinese culture, where sericulture, silkworm cultivation for the production of
raw silk, and ways to spin silk date back to 264 BCE [2].
Thinking of these environmentally friendly materials was prompted by the rise in
environmental awareness and public interest, new environmental restrictions, and the
unsustainable usage of petroleum. Natural fiber is thought to be one of the more environ-
mentally benign materials, outperforming synthetic fiber in many ways [3]. In particular,
synthetic fibers show higher mechanical properties than natural fibers, but their sensitivity
to heat or moisture is low. However, there are infinite resources for natural fibers compared
to the limited resources of synthetic fibers, while the recyclability of natural fibers is higher
than that of synthetic fibers. Moreover, natural fibers are low-cost to produce.
Due to their favorable effects on the environment and their lower cost, natural fibers
are now favored over synthetic ones. Natural fibers have attracted significant attention due
to their non-toxicity, high performance, low cost, ease of processing, abundance, versatility,
lack of irritation to the respiratory system, skin, or eyes, and non-corrosive nature as
compared with synthetic fibers, in line with the global energy crisis and sustainability.
Moreover, the manufacture of natural fibers uses 17% less energy than that of synthetic
fibers like glass fibers [4].
In particular, the unique properties of natural fibers have led to important applications
in the building and construction industry, transportation, storage devices, electric devices,
and everyday applications. The main form of natural fibers used in the above applications
is natural fiber—reinforced material composites. Materials such as polymers play the
crucial role of matrix phase in these composites.
From the beginning of civilization, natural fibers have been used as a reinforcement
material in composite materials. However, mud bricks are generally known as adobe
when reinforced with straw, grass, or animal hair. Pharaoh mummies were shielded and
strengthened in ancient Egypt by being wrapped in linen cloth that had been soaked with
natural resins, Dead Sea salts, and honey. They were most likely the earliest composites of
man-made materials known to mankind. Man has copied natural patterns to improve the
qualities of materials [5].
Composite materials are defined as heterogeneous substances made up of two or more
solid phases that are microscopically in intimate contact with one another [6]. They can also
be considered homogeneous materials at the microscopic level because every component
in them will have the same physical features. Ceramic matrix composites, polymer matrix
composites, and metal matrix composites are three matrix materials.
Natural fibers are divided into animal or protein-based (wool, mohair, avian fiber, and
silk), plant or cellulose-based (cotton, sisal, hemp, flax, jute, and coir etc.), and mineral-
based, i.e., asbestos.
The major aspects of natural fiber composites, with regard to their manufacture, chem-
ical structure, morphology, characteristics, and applications, are discussed in this article.
The aim of this work is to provide an in-depth analysis addressing the varied applications of
natural fibers in the field of composite materials. Natural fibers are painstakingly analyzed
in great depth, taking into account their different origins, which include fibers generated
from plants (cellulose-based), fibers obtained from animals (protein-based), and even fibers
derived from minerals.
This article offers a thorough examination, examining not only their chemical make-
ups, complex structural details, and innate physical characteristics but also emphasizing
their numerous uses in a variety of industries. The inquiry extends to composites made
from mineral or polymer matrices, exploring how they work together synergistically and
the qualities of the materials they produce. Additionally, this review explores the world
of cutting-edge improvements rather than just focusing on the inherent qualities of natu-
ral fibers.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 3 of 44

The investigation includes the enhancement of composites by the application of

natural coatings, including the use of nano-fillers, providing a compelling path for further
study and technical advancement. In summary, this review provides a thorough grasp
of the crucial position that natural fibers have in the field of composite materials. It
combines knowledge from their various historical backgrounds, inherent qualities, and
useful applications in various fields. As the discussion comes to a close, it moves beyond the
present to define future work in the dynamic field of natural fiber composites, highlighting
new themes that could influence how science and industry develop.
The structure of this work is as follows. The cellulosic natural fiber composites
are thoroughly explored in the first half. Then, a comprehensive literature review on
protein natural fiber composites is made. Finally, the mineral composites and nanocom-
posites are examined in detail, and then conclusions are drawn, and challenges in the area
are presented.

2. Plant (Cellulose Base) Fibers and Composites

2.1. Origin, Physical Properties, and Classification of Plant-Based Fibers
Cellulose-based fibers make up the major plant fibers, such as cotton, ramie, jute,
hemp, flax, and sisal. Cellulose-based fibers are used to make cloth and paper. Plant
fibers were the subject of extensive investigation [3–13] and may be further classified as in 4 of 47
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Table 1. Table 1 presents an eloquent classification of these plant-based fibers, unraveling
the fascinating intricacies of each category.

Figure 1. 1.
Figure Plants
Plantsfor
forthe
theproduction ofcellulose
production of cellulosebase
base fibers
fibers [3].[3] (open access).

Figure 1 offers a visual atlas of the key plants responsible for yielding cellulose-
based fibers. This illustrative depiction underscores the rich tapestry of natural resources
that humans have harnessed for millennia, culminating in the creation of essential
materials that underpin multiple industries.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 4 of 44

Table 1. Classification of plant-based fibers [3–14].

Name of Fiber Detail

These fibers are gathered from the bast or skin that surrounds the
plant’s stem. These fibers have very high tensile strength as compared
Skin fiber or bast fiber to others. These fibers are used to make strong ramie, fabric, yarn,
packaging, and paper. Flax, industrial hemp, soybean fiber, jute, kenaf,
rattan, and even vine and banana fibers are a few examples.
Fruit fibers Coconut (coir) fiber is gathered from the plant’s fruit.
Grass or reed fiber Grass and bamboo fibers are two examples.
Leaf fibers Fibers gathered from leaves, e.g., abaca and sisal
Fibers are taken from the seeds or seed casings. The most popular seed
Seed fibers
fiber is cotton.
Stalk fiber Plant stalks serve as its natural fiber, like wheat or rice straws.
Classified either as softwood or hardwood. Such a fiber also exists in
tree wood like barley and various plants, such as grass and bamboo.
Although kenaf, sisal, jute, and coconut are widely used, cotton, flax,
and hemp are the most commonly used natural fibers. Because of their
Wood fiber
high suppleness and tolerance to a hostile environment, hemp fibers
are mostly utilized for ropes and aerofoils. For instance, the heating
and sanitary sectors already use hemp fibers as a seal. Figure 1
illustrates the main plants that produce cellulosic base fibers.

Figure 1 offers a visual atlas of the key plants responsible for yielding cellulose-based
fibers. This illustrative depiction underscores the rich tapestry of natural resources that
humans have harnessed for millennia, culminating in the creation of essential materials
that underpin multiple industries.
The natural characteristics of plant fibers are summarized in Table 2. Table 2 stands
as a testament to the natural prowess of these fibers, summarizing their inherent char-
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
acteristics and botanical origins [3–14]. This comprehensive overview delves into 6 of the
47
distinctive qualities that set each fiber apart, shedding light on their potential uses and
ecological significance.
The polysaccharides,
complex plant fibers are made up of lignin,
primarily cellulose,
consisting of and hemicellulose,
arabinose, mannose,andglucose,
their structure
and
is shown in Figure 2. In this figure, a visual representation of the lignocellulosic
xylose, that act as a bridge between cellulose and lignin. Lignin is entirely amorphous structure
offers
and is acomposed
glimpse into
of the intricate arrangement
hydrocarbon polymers, of a cellulose,
complicatedhemicellulose,
group withand lignin within
aromatic and
plant fibers. This illustration
aliphatic components [14]. elucidates the synergistic interplay between these components,
shedding light on their contributions to the fiber’s composition and behavior.

Figure 2. Schematic representation of a lignocellulosic structure [10].

Figure 2. Schematic representation of a lignocellulosic structure [10] (open access).

Natural fibers might have different properties even though they are obtained from
the same plant due to differences in chemical makeup, microfibrillar angle, structure,
physical characteristics, crystalline cellulose diameter, defects, and isolation process. The
mechanical characteristics and properties may also differ significantly. The chemical
compositions of various natural fibers are given in Table 3. This table presents an
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 5 of 44

Table 2. Summary of natural characteristics of plant fibers [3–14].

Plant Scientific
Fiber Description
Name
Abaca is a plant that is related to bananas and is often referred to as Manila hemp.
Abaca plants resemble bananas, but unlike bananas, they produce fruit that cannot
Abaca/ Musa textilis/ be commercially produced and is not fit for human eating. Abaca plants, in
Banana Musa basjoo contrast to bananas, are only grown for their fiber. The abaca fiber has good
mechanical properties and resistance to saltwater deterioration. The banana fiber
is lightweight and highly strong with strong moisture absorption properties.
Bamboo has a high strength-to-weight ratio, and it is a fast-growing plant. It has
attracted huge attention due to its excellent properties.
(good durability, tenacity, flexibility and stability properties, excellent permeability,
and ultraviolet resistance behavior) and availability. It consumes less water, and
no herbicides or pesticides are used during cultivation and is taken at the base,
Bamboo Bambusoideae
keeping the root intact. Moreover, the fiber surface is rounded and smooth and
has a high length-to-diameter ratio. Compared to glass fiber, it is lighter, stiffer,
and stronger. The energy required to produce one mat made of bamboo fiber is
just 17% compared to that of a mat made of glass fiber, as per the United States
Department of Energy Assessment.
Due to its superior durability compared to most natural fibers, lack of chemical
Coir Cocos nucifera
processing, strong resistance to salt water, and availability, coir is very appealing.
A cotton fiber’s absorbency is superb. In terms of natural and synthetic fiber
Cotton Gossypium
output worldwide, cotton accounts for 46%. It also offers excellent textile strength.
While being abundantly available, eucalyptus fiber has limited resilience to fire
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus Labill
and mold damage. These fibers from bark work well as insulation.
Comparing flax fiber to glass fiber, flax fiber has a higher specific tensile. It also
Flax Linum usitatissimum has high rigidity, high strength, and low density, as well as swift absorption and
desorption of water.
Mechanical strength and Young’s modulus of hemp fiber are outstanding, with
Hemp Cannabis sativa L. excellent insulating qualities. Good ultraviolet light blocking and heat-conducting
properties, excellent antibacterial properties.
High length-to-diameter ratio, excellent strength-to-weight ratio, and superior
Jute Corchronus capsularis insulating capabilities and antistatic properties, low thermal conductivity are all
characteristics of jute fiber.
Hibiscus
Kenaf Low density and strong specific mechanical characteristics characterize kenaf fiber.
cannabinus L.
Excellent mechanical, physical, and thermal qualities can be found in
Pineapple Ananas magdalenae
pineapple fiber.
Ramie fiber could outperform as compared to glass fiber with respect to strength
and modulus. It has low elasticity and easy dying behavior. It also has swift
Ramie Boehmeria nivea
adsorption and desorption of water. However, because it needs pricey
pre-treatments, it is less well-liked than the other natural fibers.
Sisal has quick regeneration cycles and is simple to cultivate. The fiber has high
Sisal Agave sisalana tensile strength and tenacity as well as high resistance to alkali, salt water,
abrasion, and acid.

A naturally occurring polysaccharide called cellulose is created when the rings of

D-glucose-pyranose and the bond of -(1-4)-glycosidic come together. The chemical structure
of cellulose can be found in several textbooks. A hemicellulose is a collection of complex
polysaccharides, primarily consisting of arabinose, mannose, glucose, and xylose, that act
as a bridge between cellulose and lignin. Lignin is entirely amorphous and is composed of
hydrocarbon polymers, a complicated group with aromatic and aliphatic components [14].
Natural fibers might have different properties even though they are obtained from the
same plant due to differences in chemical makeup, microfibrillar angle, structure, physical
characteristics, crystalline cellulose diameter, defects, and isolation process. The mechanical
characteristics and properties may also differ significantly. The chemical compositions of
various natural fibers are given in Table 3. This table presents an insightful snapshot of
the chemical composition of various natural fibers. Hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 6 of 44

constitute the core components that shape fiber stiffness. The balance between these
elements contributes to the fiber’s overall characteristics. Notably, hydrogen bonds play a
crucial role, linking hemicelluloses and lignin to linear cellulosic macromolecules. These
bonds not only bind fibers together but also reinforce the cellulose within the fiber’s
cell wall.

Table 3. Chemical composition of natural fibers [3–13].

Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin

Fiber
(wt%) (wt%) (wt%)
Bamboo 30 26–43 21–31
Coir 0.15–0.25 32–43 40–45
Date palm 18–25 41–46 20–27
Banana 38.54 43.46 9
Bagasse (sugar cane) 16.8 55.2 25.3
Abaca 20–25 56–63 7–9
Jute 14–20 61–71 12–13
Sisal 65 9.9
Hemp 15 68 10
Ramie 13–16 68.6–76.2 0.6–0.7
Flax 18.6–20.6 71 2.2
Kenaf 20.3 72 9
Pineapple – 81 12.7
Cotton 5.7 82.7–90 <2

Mechanical properties provide a glimpse into the inherent strength and resilience of
different plant fibers. Table 4 offers a comprehensive overview of the mechanical attributes
of selected natural fibers [8]. The density, diameter, length, tensile strength, Young’s
modulus, elongation at break, and moisture content collectively define their mechanical
behavior. These values reflect the intricate balance between components like cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin within the fibers.

Table 4. Mechanical properties of some natural fibers adapted from Reference [8]: a average value
between parenthesis.

Young’s
Density Diameter Length Tensile Strength Elongation at Moisture
Fiber Modulus
(g/cm3 ) a (µm) a (mm) a (MPa) a Break (%) a Content (%) a
(GPa) a
Coir 1.2 7–30 (18.5) 0.3–3 (1.65) 175 6 15–25 (20) 10
Banana 1.35 12–30 (21) 0.4–0.9 (0.65) 529–914 (721.5) 27–32 (29.5) 5–6 (5.5) 10–11 (10.5)
Jute 1.23 5–25 (15) 0.8–6 (3.4) 187–773 (480) 20–55 (37.5) 1.5–3.1 (2.3) 12
Sisal 1.2 7–47 (27) 0.8–8 (4.4) 507–855 (981) 9–22 (15.5) 1.9–3 (2.45) 11
Kenaf 1.2 12–36 (24) 1.4–11 (6.2) 295–930 (612.5) 22–60 (41) 2.7–6.9 (4.8) 6.2–12 (9.1)
Bamboo 0.6–1.1 (0.85) 25–88 (56.5) 1.5–4 (2.75) 270–862 (566) 18–89 (53) 1.6–8 (4.65) 11–17 (14)
Flax 1.38 5–38 (21.5) 10–65 (37.5) 343–1035 (689) 50–70 (60) 1.2–3 (2.1) 7
Cotton 1.21 12–35 (23.5) 15–56 (35.5) 287–597 (442) 6–10 (8) 2–10 (6) 33–34 (33.5)
Pineapple 1.5 8–41 (24.5) 3–8 (5.5) 170–1627 (898.5) 60–82 (71) 1–3 (2) 14
Abaca 1.5 10–30 (20) 4.6–5.2 (4.9) 430–813 (621.5) 31.1–33.6 (32.35) 2.9 14
Ramie 1.44 18–80 (49) 40–250(145) 400–938 (669) 61.4–128 (94.7) 2–4 (3) 12–17 (14.5)
Hemp 1.47 10–51 (30.5) 5–55 (30) 580–1110 (845) 30–60 (45) 1.6–4.5 (3.05) 8

Figure 3 visually showcases the interrelation between the composition of fibers and
their resulting properties [8]. This illustration underscores how the dynamic interplay
between cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin dictates the characteristics that define the
performance and application of plant fibers.
 Sisal 65 9.9
Hemp 15 68 10
Ramie 13–16 68.6–76.2 0.6–0.7
Flax 18.6–20.6 71 2.2
Kenaf 20.3 72 9
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 7 of 44
Pineapple – 81 12.7
Cotton 5.7 82.7–90 <2

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Properties
Properties of
of fiber
fiber with
with their
their composition
composition [8].
[8] (open access).

TableTable
4. Mechanical
5 unveilsproperties of some
the universal natural fibers
production adapted
pattern from Reference
of various [8] (open access):
fibers, consolidating data
a average value between parenthesis.
from Faruk et al. [15]. This schematic diagram captures the overarching process of fiber
Density production,
Diameter highlighting
Length theStrength
Tensile diverse routes followed
Young’s by different
Modulus plant at
Elongation fibers in the Content
Moisture journey
Fiber from botanical source to end applications.
(g/cm3) a (μm) a (mm) a (MPa) a (GPa) a Break (%) a (%) a
Coir 1.2 7–30 (18.5) 0.3–3 (1.65) 175 6 15–25 (20) 10
Table 5. Universal production pattern of various fibers.
Banana 1.35 12–30 (21) 0.4–0.9 (0.65) 529–914 (721.5) 27–32 (29.5) 5–6 (5.5) 10–11 (10.5)
Jute 1.23 5–25 (15) 0.8–6 (3.4) 187–773 (480) 20–55 (37.5) 1.5–3.1 (2.3)(%) in
Percentage 12
Sisal 1.2 7–47 (27) 0.8–8 (4.4) Fiber 507–855
Source (981) 9–22 (15.5) 1.9–3 (2.45)
World Production 11
Kenaf 1.2 12–36 (24) 1.4–11 (6.2) 295–930 (612.5) 22–60 (41) 2.7–6.9 (4.8) 6.2–12 (9.1)
Bagasse (Sugar cane) 67.8
Bamboo 0.6–1.1 (0.85) 25–88 (56.5) 1.5–4 (2.75) 270–862 (566) 18–89 (53) 1.6–8 (4.65) 11–17 (14)
Bamboo 27.1
Flax 1.38 5–38 (21.5) 10–65 (37.5) 343–1035
Jute (689) 50–70 (60) 1.2–3 (2.1)
2.1 7
Cotton 1.21 12–35 (23.5) 15–56 (35.5) 287–597
Kenaf (442) 6–10 (8) 2–10 0.9
(6) 33–34 (33.5)
Pineapple 1.5 8–41 (24.5) 3–8 (5.5) 170–1627 (898.5)
Flax 60–82 (71) 1–3 0.73
(2) 14
Abaca 1.5 10–30 (20) 4.6–5.2 (4.9) 430–813 (621.5)
Grass 31.1–33.6 (32.35) 2.90.6 14
Ramie 1.44 18–80 (49) 40–250(145) Sisal
400–938 (669) 61.4–128 (94.7) 0.3
2–4 (3) 12–17 (14.5)
Hemp 1.47 10–51 (30.5) 5–55 (30) Hemp
580–1110 (845) 30–60 (45) 1.6–4.5 0.2
(3.05) 8
Coir 0.1
Ramie 0.1
Table 5. Universal production pattern of various fibers.
Abaca 0.07
A recent detailed overview of plant fibers is given in Reference [16]. Percentage (%) in
Fiber Source
World Production
2.2. Natural Fiber Processing
The phases of the life cycle of natural fibers generally include extraction, processing,
manufacture, usage, disposal, and recycling. Many difficulties prevent the production
and usage of fibers on a wide scale. These factors, which include the wide range in soil
composition and shape, the hydrophilic character of the fibers, microbial deterioration,
service life, and sunlight, have an effect on various stages of the life cycle of natural fibers.
Natural fibers’ physical and chemical characteristics are influenced by the plant’s
origin, the area where it was grown, pesticides, use of genetically modified organisms
(GMO), climate, time of harvesting, and fertilizers. Natural fibers typically require multiple
treatments to improve fiber-matrix interfacial adhesion and overcome other constraints.
During the processing of the plant fibers, the main issue to be mitigated is the fiber
extraction method, which will significantly influence the quality of the fibers. Retting is
the method generally used for the separation of fibers from different parts of the plant,
and there are four categories of retting extraction processes available. They are biological
retting (natural and artificial), mechanical decortication, physical retting (steam explosion
and ultrasound methods), and chemical retting processes [3–14].
The hand scraping, mechanical decorticator, raspador, and retting procedures are
the most frequently used fiber extraction techniques. While pulling and gathering fibers,
the manual extraction method removes 50% of foreign substances from the plant sheath.
The quantity of times the fibers are scraped from the sheath determines the grade of the
retrieved fiber. This technique works well with fibers that have flat surfaces and longer
lengths. Although there are fewer fibers and they are of lower quality and quantity, the
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 8 of 44

extraction procedure might take a longer period. Leaf fibers are often extracted using the
hand-scraping technique. Fresh leaves are harvested, preserved, and manually scraped
using a stone, ceramic plate, coconut shell, or knife [3–14].
One method of mechanical fiber extraction is decortication. The mechanical decortica-
tor, which has a scrapper roller, plane roller, and squeezing roller, is used for mechanical
extraction. The spacing between the rollers is between 3 and 8 mm, and it is used to
remove fibers. Under shear, compression, and impact stresses, they squish the fibers. This
procedure aids in separating the fiber bundle from the plant stalk’s inner core. Following
extraction, the decorticated fibers are repeatedly washed and allowed to dry for 48 h in the
sun to eliminate the water content [3–14].
Another piece of equipment used to harvest plant fibers is called a raspador. This
method of extraction is less expensive and uses less water. The raspador, which works
similarly to decorticator rollers, consists of revolving blades that crush leaves and scrape
them to remove pulp for fiber extraction [3–14].
Retting extraction is the most popular, cost-effective, and straightforward way to
extract plant fibers [3–14]. Chemical, enzymatic, dew, and water retting are only a few of
the several types of retting processes. Compared to dew retting and water, enzyme and
chemical retting is more manageable and sustainable.
Plant stalk constituents, including lignin, hemicelluloses, and pectin, are broken down
by chemical retting. Chemical remediation can be used to extract high-quality fibers by
regulating the chemical concentration, reaction time, and temperature. Several climatic
factors may have an impact on the fibers’ strength and color. Chemicals, including sodium
benzoate, mild acids, sodium hydroxide, salts, enzymes, and detergents containing sulfuric
acid, are typically used in this procedure [3–14].
The fiber straws are placed in aqueous chemical solutions such as potassium hydroxide,
sodium hydroxide, and sulfuric acid during the chemical retting process, which causes the
fiber to dissolve and eliminates undesired non-cellulosic elements. The extracted fiber is of
excellent quality, but the cost of the finished product is high since chemical retting includes
the chemicals utilized and wastewater disposal.
Anaerobic bacteria are responsible for the water retting process, which divides the
pectin content in the bundles of plant straw that are immersed in a water bath. This process
requires 6–14 days of duration based on environmental parameters. Artificial retting is
one of the quick processes to extract high-quality fibers in 4–5 days using a warm water
medium [3–14].
Dew retting or field retting is one of the common and oldest extraction methods for
fibers. This process has limited constraints regarding temperature and moisture range;
hence, it is not being used widely in the world. Harvested plants are left in the countryside
during dew retting so they can absorb the dew. In this state, the fiber bundles are separated
from the microorganisms and bacteria growing on the plants and fibers. This method of
extraction is less expensive and uses less water. Care must be taken at the right time during
this process to avoid cellulose degradation by fungi, and this is called over-retting [3–14].
A variety of methods, including coupling agents, water-repellent chemicals, and heat
treatments, are used to alter the surface’s morphological, topological, roughness, and water
absorption index of the fibers. In order to create new solutions and applications, research and
technological efforts have been stated to promote the improvement of crop quality and fiber
performance from a technical and economic perspective. Table 6 [8,13,14,16–20] provides
a summary of the chemical treatment methods and how they affect the characteristics of
natural fibers.
 Table 6. Functional properties of natural fiber for various chemical treatments. Adapted from [8,13,14,16–20].
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 47
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEERExample
Treatment REVIEW Specific Effect 10 of 47 General Effect
Sodium chlorite Cotton Bleaching Improve Young’s modulus, tensile strength, and elongation at break
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 Improve mechanical and hydrophobic properties by applying the reactions:
9 of 44

Table 6. Functional Silane treatment

properties removes
of natural fibernoncellulosic
for various chemical materialstreatments.
from the Adapted from [8,13,14,16–20].
Kenaf and Pineapple
Silane fibers.
Table 6. Functional properties of natural fiber for various chemical treatments. Adapted from [8,13,14,16–20].
Treatment TableHemp Functional properties ofSilane
6.Example natural fiber for Increases
various
SpecificchemicalEffect treatments. Adapted from [8,13,14,16–20]. General Effect
treatment tensile modulus.
Treatment
Sodium chlorite Example Cotton Specific Effect
Bleaching Improve Young’s modulus,General Effect and elongation at break
tensile strength,
Treatment
Sodium chlorite CottonExample Bleaching Specific Effect General Effect
Improve mechanical and hydrophobic properties and
Improve Young’s modulus, tensile strength, elongation
by applying the at break
reactions:
Treatment improves the fiber interfacial adhesion and me-
Sodium chlorite
Plasma Jute fibersCotton Silane treatmentchanical removesproperties. Bleaching
noncellulosic materials from the Improve Improve Young’s
mechanical modulus,
and Improve tensile
hydrophobic strength,
hydrophobicity
properties and elongation
by applying at break
the reactions:
Kenaf and Pineapple Improve mechanical and hydrophobic properties by applying the reactions:
Silane Silane treatment removes fibers.
noncellulosic materials from the
Kenaf and Hemp
Pineapple Thermal Silane properties
treatment were
removes enhanced
noncellulosicfor both
materials from
Silane Kenaf and Pineapple Silane treatmentfibers. Increases tensile modulus. Reduce the moisture regain as shown by reactions:
Silane Hemp Hemp fibers and resultant composites. the fibers.
Improvement in tensile prop-
Sugarcane bagasse fiber: KMnO4 Silane treatment Increases
Silane treatmenterties. Increasestensiletensile
modulus. modulus.

Peroxides Jute: KMnO Treatment

Physicomechanical properties were enhanced and me-
improves the fiber interfacial adhesion
Plasma Jute fibers
4
Treatment improves the fiber interfacial adhesion and Improve hydrophobicity
Plasma Jute fibers Treatment improves in thechanical
fiber properties.
interfacial adhesion and me- Improve hydrophobicity
Plasma Kenaf: Peroxide
Jute fibers treatment treated
mechanicalfibers.properties. Improve hydrophobicity
Thermalchanical properties were enhanced for both
properties.
Increases crystalline
Thermal properties index andenhanced
were surface for both Reduce
Reduce the moistureregain
the moisture regainasasshown
shown by reactions:
by reactions:
fibers and resultant composites. Improvement in tensile prop-
Thermalfibers and
properties
roughness resultant
were
of the composites.
enhanced
fiber. for Improvement
both in
Sugarcane
Sugarcane bagasse
bagassefiber:fiber:KMnO
KMnO 4 erties.properties.
tensile Reduce the moisture regain as shown by reactions:
fibers4 and resultant composites. Improvement in tensile prop-
Peroxides Jute: KMnO
Changes in physical and chemical
Physicomechanical
properties
properties
and
were
also lignin
enhanced
Ozone Peroxides Jute:
Jute fibers KMnO 4 4 Physicomechanical properties were enhanced Affect contact angle and surface energy
Sugarcane bagasse
Kenaf: fiber: KMnO
Peroxide 4
treatment erties.
degradation. in treated fibers.
Kenaf: Peroxide treatment in treated fibers.
Peroxides Jute: KMnO4 The causticPhysicomechanical
rearranges Increases properties
crystalline were
indexenhanced
andinsurface
Cotton Increasesthe cellulose
crystalline molecules
index and surface the fiber to
Mercerization Kenaf:treated
Peroxide with a caustic
treatment further improve properties in treated roughness
such fibers.
as of the
fiber fiber. shrinkage
strength, Improve the mechanical properties and reduce the moisture regain
(NaOH) solution. Changes in roughness
physical and of the fiber. properties and also
chemical
Ozone Jute fibers Increases
resistance, crystalline
Changes in physical and chemical luster, index
and dye and surface
affinity.
properties and also lignin
lignin degradation.
Affect contact angle and surface energy
Ozone Jute fibers Isocyanate treatment
The caustic roughness
increases
rearranges of thethe
storage fiber.
modulus
cellulose and
molecules Young’s
in the fiber to
Affect contact angle and surface energy
Isocyanate Cotton
Cellulose treated with a caustic degradation. Surface modification
Mercerization
(NaOH) solution. Changes
The infurther
physical
caustic rearrangesand modulus.
improve chemical
properties
the cellulosepropertiesas fiberand
suchmolecules inalso
the lignin
strength, shrinkage
fiber to Improve the mechanical properties and reduce the moisture regain
Ozone CottonJutetreated
fibers with a caustic resistance, luster, and dye affinity. Affect contact angle and surface energy
Grafting
Mercerization Sisal, pineapple Acrylonitrile
further improve (AN) degradation.
grafting
properties improves
such as fiber tensile strength.
strength, shrinkage Improve hydrophobicity,
Improve UV-protective
the mechanical properties properties,
and reduce theandmoisture
mechanical properties
regain
(NaOH) solution. Isocyanate treatment increases storage modulus and
Isocyanate Hemp fiber: fungal Cellulose
and enzymes The caustic
Improves rearranges
moisture the cellulose
resistance.
resistance, Increases
luster, andmolecules
dye acid-base in characteris-
affinity. the fiber to Surface modification
Cotton treated with a caustic Young’s modulus.
Enzyme
Mercerization further improve properties such as fiber strength, shrinkage Improve Reduce
the mechanical the lignin
properties andcontent
reduce
Grafting treatmentSisal, pineapple Isocyanate treatment
tics Acrylonitrile
of fibers. increases
Good(AN) storage
grafting
interfacial modulus
improves
adhesion. and
tensile Young’s
strength. Improve hydrophobicity, UV-protective properties, andthe moisture
mechanical regain
properties
Isocyanate (NaOH)
Hemp solution.
Cellulose
fiber: fungal and enzymes Improves moisture resistance. Increases acid-base Surface modification
Enzyme sisal fibers: 10% benzoyl chloride resistance, luster, and
modulus. dye affinity. Reduce the lignin content
treatment characteristics of fibers. Good interfacial adhesion.
Grafting and NaOH Sisal,
for pineapple
15 min Isocyanate treatment(AN)
Acrylonitrile increasesgrafting storage
improves modulus tensile and Young’s Improve hydrophobicity, UV-protective properties, and mechanical properties
strength.
Isocyanate sisal fibers:
Cellulose10% benzoyl chloride and Reduces activation of cellulose andacid-base
lignin OH Surface modification
Improve hydrophobicity by applying the reaction:
Hempflax fiber: fungal
fibers:
NaOH for and
15 minenzymes Improves moisture Reduces resistance.
modulus.
activation Increases
of cellulose and lignin characteris-
OH Improve hydrophobicity by applying the reaction:
Enzyme groups present in the sisal fiber. Increases the compatibility Reduce the lignin content
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7,Pretreatment:
Grafting x FOR PEER
Sisal,REVIEW
18% treatment
pineapple
flax
wt% fibers:
NaOH Acrylonitrile tics(AN)
groups of fibers.
present inGood
grafting interfacial
improves
the sisal adhesion.
tensile
fiber. Increases strength.
the compatibility 11 of 47
Improve hydrophobicity, UV-protective properties, and mechanical properties
Benzoylation
Benzoylation Hemp Pretreatment:
sisal
fiber:fibers:
fungal 18%
10% andwt%
benzoyl NaOH
enzymes for
chloride 30 min, moisture
Improves with the polymer
resistance. with Increases matrices.
the polymer matrices. characteris-
acid-base
Enzyme for 30 min, filtration,
filtration, washing
washing water. Reduce the lignin content
and NaOH
treatment for 15withmin This treatment This treatment
also reduces also thereduces the hydroxyl
hydroxyl groupsgroups presentpresent
in in
with
Main treatment: water.10% benzoyl chloride and tics ofthe
Reduces fibers.
flax Good
activation
fibers and interfacial
of cellulose
reduces adhesion.
theand lignin OH
hydrophilic nature. Improve hydrophobicity by applying the reaction:
sisal fibers: 10% and flax fibers:
benzoyl chloride the flax fibers and reduces the hydrophilic nature.
Main
Agave,treatment:
pine, NaOH10%coirsolutions.
benzoyl
fibers: The groups
uniform presentfiberindistribution
the sisal fiber. andIncreases
morphology the compatibility
were ob-
Benzoylation and
chloride
Pretreatment:
NaOH
and NaOH for 18%
15 minwt% NaOH
solutions. The uniform with fiberpolymer
the distribution and morphology were Improve fiber-matrix adhesion, heat resistivity, and thermal stability, and re-
matrices.
2% NaOH for 15 min served without gaps and voids between the matrix and fiber.
for 30 min, filtration, washing
flax fibers:
Reduces activation
observed without of cellulose
gaps and voids and lignin
between OH the matrix ImproveImprove hydrophobicity
duce
fiber-matrix the lignin
adhesion, by applying
heatcontent. andthe
Reaction:
resistivity, reaction:
thermal stability, and
Sugar palmAgave, fiber: pine,
with18% and
NaOH
water.
coir for
fibers:The This
groupsfiber treatment
color
present was
in
also
the
reduces
changed
sisal from
fiber.
the hydroxyl
black
Increases to groups
dark brown,
and fiber. the compatibility present
andin reduce the lignin content. Reaction:
Alkali Pretreatment: 2%18%NaOH for
wt% NaOH 15 min the flax fibers and reduces the hydrophilic nature.
Alkali
Benzoylation 30 min The fiber
the color
fiber
with the was
diameter changed
polymer was from black to dark
reduced.
matrices. brown, and
Main
Sugar palmtreatment:
fiber: 18% 10%NaOHbenzoyl
for 30 min
for 30
Kenaf
Kenaf
min,
fiber:2,filtration,
fiber:2,and 5,
5, and
and
washing
10wt%
10 wt% NaOH Formation
for 1treatment
h of glycoside the fiber diameter was reduced.
bondthe andhydroxyl
hemicellulose removal due
chloride NaOH solutions. This also reduces
Formation of glycoside bond and groups hemicellulosepresent in
removal
with water.
NaOH for 1 h to alkali
the flax fibers and duetreatment.
reduces tothe hydrophilic
alkali treatment. nature.
Main treatment: 10% benzoyl Improve flexural and tensile strength by introducing acetyl groups, as shown
chloride and NaOH solutions. by the following reaction:
Treated fibers show optimum tensile
Acetylation Jute fibers
properties and provide effective surface area.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 47

Agave, pine, and coir fibers: The uniform fiber distribution and morphology were ob- Improve fiber-matrix adhesion, heat resistivity, and thermal stability, and re-
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 2% NaOH for 15 min served without gaps and voids between the matrix and fiber. 10 of 44
duce the lignin content. Reaction:
Sugar palm fiber: 18% NaOH for The fiber color was changed from black to dark brown, and
Alkali
30 min the fiber diameter was reduced.
Kenaf fiber:2, Cont.
Table5,6.and 10 wt% Formation of glycoside bond and hemicellulose removal due
NaOH for 1 h to alkali treatment.
Treatment Example Specific Effect General Effect
Improve flexural and tensile strength by introducing acetyl groups, as shown
Improve flexural and tensile strength by introducing acetyl groups, as shown
bybythe following reaction:
the following reaction:
Treated fibers show optimum tensile
Acetylation Jute fibers Treated fibers show optimum tensile
Acetylation Jute fibers properties properties
and provideand effective surfacesurface
provide effective area. area.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 11 of 44

This table outlines the impact of different chemical treatments on natural fiber proper-
ties, offering insights into their enhancement for specific applications. Treatments include
sodium chlorite bleaching, silane treatment, plasma treatment, peroxide treatment, ozone
treatment, mercerization, isocyanate treatment, grafting, enzyme treatment, benzoylation,
alkali treatment, and acetylation. This table presents the chemical reactions associated with
diverse chemical treatments applied to natural fibers, elucidating how treatments influence
fiber properties and performance. These treatments contribute to shaping the compatibility
and characteristics of natural fiber-based materials for various applications.
A thorough overview of natural fiber extraction, characterization, and processing is
given in References [16,21–27]. Vinoth et al. [28] reported in detail the chemical treatments
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and mechanical characterization of natural fiber-reinforced composites. Pankaj et al. 12[29]
of 47
provided a critical review of the chemical treatment of natural fibers to enhance the me-
chanical properties of composites. Sathishkumar et al. [30] reviewed the characterization of
natural fiber and composites in detail.
2.3. Natural Fibers Composites Manufacture, Consumption Pattern and Importance
2.3. Natural Fibers Composites Manufacture, Consumption Pattern and Importance
2.3.1. Classification
2.3.1. Classification
In general, natural fiber composites can be categorized as partially environmentally
In general, natural fiber composites can be categorized as partially environmentally
friendly ororgreen,
friendly green,depending
depending ononthethe nature
nature of ingredients.
of the the ingredients.
GreenGreen composites
composites are
are those
those whose components are all sourced from renewable resources,
whose components are all sourced from renewable resources, potentially lowering their potentially lowering
their dependence
dependence on petroleum-derived
on petroleum-derived materialsmaterials
and theirand theirdioxide
carbon carbonemissions.
dioxide emissions.
Partially
Partially eco-friendly products are those whose fiber or matrix
eco-friendly products are those whose fiber or matrix is derived from non-renewable is derived from non-
renewable
sources sources fiber
[8]. Natural [8]. Natural fiber reinforcement
reinforcement can be dividedcan be divided
according according
to length, to length,
dimension, and
dimension, and orientation, as shown in Figure 4. This figure provides an illustration
orientation, as shown in Figure 4. This figure provides an illustration of this classification, of
this classification, indicating the different types of natural fiber reinforcement
indicating the different types of natural fiber reinforcement that can be employed to enhance that can be
employed materials.
composite to enhanceThiscomposite materials.
classification Thisasclassification
is crucial it guides theischoice
crucial
of as it guides
fibers the
to match
choice of fibers to match the intended application
the intended application and desired mechanical properties. and desired mechanical properties.

Figure4.4.Type
Figure Typeof
ofnatural
naturalfiber
fiberreinforcement
reinforcement[8].
[8] (open access).

Using
Using international
internationalISO ISOstandards,
standards,transparent
transparent conformity
conformity evaluations
evaluationscan be
canper-
be
formed for commercial and research objectives to accurately label a specific
performed for commercial and research objectives to accurately label a specific polymeric resin
as (a) biobased
polymeric (ISO
resin as 16620:2015),
(a) biobased(b) biodegradable
(ISO 16620:2015),(ISO(b) 14852:2018),
biodegradable and(ISO
(c) compostable
14852:2018),
(ISO 17088:2012)
and (c) compostable[8]. (ISO 17088:2012) [8].
â Biobased
Biobased (ISO(ISO16620:2015): ThisThis
16620:2015): labellabel
is applied to materials
is applied derived from
to materials renewable
derived from
resources,
renewable emphasizing their reduced
resources, emphasizing theirreliance
reduced onreliance
fossil fuels and their
on fossil fuels potential
and their
positive
potentialimpact
positive onimpact
carbononemissions.
carbon emissions.
â Biodegradable (ISO 14852:2018):
 Biodegradable (ISO 14852:2018): Composites Compositesfalling
falling under
under this
this category
category possess
possess the
the
ability to break down naturally through biological processes, minimizing waste
ability to break down naturally through biological processes, minimizing waste
accumulation
accumulation and and environmental
environmental burden.
burden.
â Compostable (ISO17088:2012):
Compostable (ISO 17088:2012):Materials
Materialsclassified as compostable
classified undergo
as compostable degra-
undergo
dation under under
degradation specificspecific
conditions, ultimately
conditions, leading leading
ultimately to the generation of compost,
to the generation of
contributing to sustainable waste management.
compost, contributing to sustainable waste management.

2.3.2. Plant Fiber Composites with Polymers

Lignocellulose natural fibers come in a range of lengths and shapes that can be
reinforced with polymer matrices, including long fibers, short fibers, woven mats,
unidirectional woven fibers, bidirectional woven fibers, and random orientations woven
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 12 of 44

2.3.2. Plant Fiber Composites with Polymers

Lignocellulose natural fibers come in a range of lengths and shapes that can be rein-
forced with polymer matrices, including long fibers, short fibers, woven mats, unidirec-
tional woven fibers, bidirectional woven fibers, and random orientations woven fibers.
Natural fiber composites have been produced using a number of fabrication techniques,
and in recent years, numerous ways have been developed to address production difficulties.
A pivotal aspect of comprehending the landscape of natural fiber composites is the
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 47
classification scheme for natural fiber composite polymers (NFCP). This schema, as graph-
ically depicted in Figure 5, serves as a compass to navigate the vast expanse of natural
fiber-polymer composites. It segments NFCPs into distinct categories: thermosetting, ther-
aids in categorizing
moplastic, these
rubber, and composites
natural polymers.but also
This informs the
classification notselection
only aidsofinappropriate
categorizing
materials and processing
these composites but also techniques
informs thebased on of
selection theappropriate
intended application
materials andandprocessing
desired
properties.
techniques based on the intended application and desired properties.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Natural
Naturalfiber-polymer
fiber-polymercomposites
compositesclassification
classification[5]
[5](reproduced
(reproducedafter
afterpermission).
permission).

In theorchestration
In the orchestrationof of thethe manufacturing
manufacturing process,
process, the selection
the selection of an technique
of an optimal optimal
technique
emerges as emerges as a crucial This
a crucial consideration. consideration. This on
selection hinges selection hinges on aevaluation
a multi-dimensional multi-
dimensional
encompassing evaluation
the type of encompassing
fiber employed, the the
typenature
of fiber employed,
of the the nature
matrix material, theof the
desired
matrix
quality material,
benchmarks, the desired quality of
the complexity benchmarks,
the component,the complexity
the capacity ofof
the component,
production, the
and the
capacity of production,
cost implications. and the cost
This intricate implications.
balance of factorsThis intricate
guides balance oftoward
manufacturers factors the
guides
most
manufacturers
suitable methodology, towardensuring
the most the suitable
harmonious methodology,
amalgamation ensuring
of fiberstheandharmonious
polymers to
amalgamation
yield robust and of functional
fibers and polymers
composites. to yield robust and functional composites.
The
The role of of polymers
polymersin inthis
thissymbiotic
symbioticrelationship
relationshipis isof of paramount
paramount significance.
significance. The
The properties
properties of polymers
of polymers used in used in natural
natural fiber composites
fiber composites manifestmanifest
in various in attributes
various
attributes
that dictate that
thedictate
behaviorthe and
behavior and performance
performance of the resultant
of the resultant materials.materials. Table 7as
Table 7 stands
stands as a to
a testament testament to this, showcasing
this, showcasing a range properties,
a range of polymer of polymer including
properties,density,
including
glass
density,
transition glass transition temperature,
temperature, melting temperature,
melting temperature, thermal conductivity,
thermal conductivity, tensile
tensile strength, ten-
strength, tensile modulus, and elongation. This tableau of properties
sile modulus, and elongation. This tableau of properties provides insights that guide provides insights
that guide
material materialand
selection selection and formulation,
formulation, driving thedriving
tailoringthe of tailoring
composites of composites
to meet specificto
meet specific performance
performance objectives. objectives.
The selection of an appropriate natural fiber to be combined with a polymer matrix
Table 7. Properties
composite (PMC)of is theinfluenced
polymers [3–13].
by a variety of factors, as depicted in Figure 6. These
factorsGlass
encompass a range of considerations, including the type of fiber, the characteristics
Thermal Conduc-
of the Tensile Tensile
Density of the matrix material,
Transition the desired
Melting quality final product, the complexity
Elongationof the
Polymer tivity Strength Modulus
(g/cm ) part
3 being manufactured,
Temperature Temperature the(°C)
production capacity, and the associated costs. This (%) careful
selection process ensures that the resulting (W/m.°C) composite (MPa)
possesses (GPa)
the desired performance
(°C)
Polyurethane 0.8–1.4 characteristics
–63 and is suited
240 for its intended0.022 application. 10–30 0.2–0.3 100–380
Epoxy 1.1–1.4 50–80 177 0.14 35–100 3–6 1–6
Polylactic acid 1.2–1.4 60–65 150–160 1.13 50 3.5 6.5
Polypropylene 0.92 –20 130 0.1–0.2 40 1.9 15–700
Polyethylene 0.93 –78 105–115 0.33–0.51 15 0.8 90–800
Polystyrene (PS) 1.1 100 240 0.03 40 3 1–2.5
Polyvinyl
1.19 30–45 200 0.31 40 1.7 1.76
Acetate
Polycarbonates 1.2 147 157 0.19 70 2.6 80–150
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 13 of 44

Table 7. Properties of the polymers [3–13].

Glass
Melting Thermal Tensile Tensile
Density Transition Elongation
Polymer Temperature Conductivity Strength Modulus
(g/cm3 ) Temperature (%)
(◦ C) (W/m.◦ C) (MPa) (GPa)
(◦ C)
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of
Polyurethane 0.8–1.4 −63 240 0.022 10–30 0.2–0.3 100–380
Epoxy 1.1–1.4 50–80 177 0.14 35–100 3–6 1–6
Polylactic acid 1.2–1.4 60–65 150–160 1.13 50 3.5 6.5
Polypropylene 0.92 −20 130 0.1–0.2 40 1.9 15–700
Polyethylene 0.93 −The
78 selection of an
105–115 appropriate
0.33–0.51 natural fiber
to be
15 combined
0.8 with90–800
a polymer
matr
Polystyrene (PS) 1.1 100 240 0.03 40 3 1–2.5
Polyvinyl
composite (PMC) is influenced by a variety of factors, as depicted in Figure 6. Thes
1.19 30–45 200
Acetate factors encompass a range 0.31 40
of considerations, 1.7
including the type1.76
of fiber, th
Polycarbonates 1.2 147 157 0.19 70 2.6 80–150
Polyvinyl
characteristics of the matrix material, the desired quality of the final product, th
1.4 82
complexity of the160 0.19
part being manufactured, 51
the production 2.4 capacity, and
50–80the associate
Chloride
Starch 1.5 20–60 0 0.38 5–9 0.2–0.3 35–100
costs. This careful selection process ensures that the resulting composite possesses th
Polyglycolic acid 1.53 35–40 225–230 0.35 70 0.3 5.5–6.5
desired performance characteristics and is suited for its intended application.

Figure
Figure 6. 6. Factors
Factors affecting
affecting the selection
the selection of natural
of natural fiber
fiber for PMC for PMC [10] (open access).
[10].

Figure
Figure6 illustrates the the
6 illustrates various factors
various that impact
factors the choice
that impact the of natural
choice of fiber for fiber fo
natural
integration
integrationinto a PMC.
into a PMC.These factors
These guideguide
factors the decision-making process,process,
the decision-making allowing allowing
for fo
informed selections that align with the desired composite properties.
informed selections that align with the desired composite properties.
Furthermore, the main manufacturing techniques employed for creating natural fiber
Furthermore,
composites are outlinedtheinmain
Table manufacturing techniques
8. This table provides employed overview
a comprehensive for creatingof natur
the manufacturing methods associated with specific combinations of fibers and matrices.overvie
fiber composites are outlined in Table 8. This table provides a comprehensive
of instance,
For the manufacturing methods
it highlights that bamboo associated
and abaca withfibers specific combinations
are commonly combined of fibers an
with
matrices.
epoxy using For
resininstance, it highlights
transfer molding, that bamboo
while bamboo and paired
fiber is often abaca with
fibers are commonl
polylactic
acid through with
combined fusedepoxy
deposition modeling.
using Variousmolding,
resin transfer other combinations
while bambooof fibers, matrices,
fiber is often paire
and manufacturing techniques are also detailed in the table, showcasing
with polylactic acid through fused deposition modeling. Various other combinations the diversity of o
possibilities for creating composite materials with specific properties and applications.
fibers, matrices, and manufacturing techniques are also detailed in the table, showcasin
These manufacturing techniques play a crucial role in shaping the final form and properties
the diversity of possibilities for creating composite materials with specific properties an
of the composite, catering to a wide array of industrial and functional needs.
applications. These manufacturing techniques play a crucial role in shaping the fin
form and properties of the composite, catering to a wide array of industrial an
functional needs.

Table 8. Manufacturing techniques for natural fiber composites [3–13].

 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 14 of 44

Table 8. Manufacturing techniques for natural fiber composites [3–13].

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 47

Fiber Matrix Manufacturing Method

Bamboo and abaca Epoxy Resin transfer molding
Bamboo fiber thane
Polylactic acid Fused deposition modeling
JuteCalotropis gigantean and palmyra Phenol-formaldehyde
Polyester Hand-layup
Hand-layup fabrication technique
Coir and sugarcane bagasse Polyurethane Extrusion
Jute Polyurethane Injection molding and extrusion
Flax, hemp, and sisal Polyurethane Injection molding
Jute/glass
Flax/basalt Epoxy
Epoxy Hot press
Vacuum compression molding
bagging technique
Kenaf
Hemp and wool Polyester
Polyester, vinyl ester, and polyurethane Vacuum bag resin transfer molding
Pultrusion
Juteand kenaf
Glass Polyester
Epoxy Hand-layup
Filament windingfabrication
process technique
Jute Polyurethane Injection molding and extrusion
Neem, glass, and kenaf Epoxy Vacuum-assisted compression molding
Jute/glass Epoxy Hot press compression molding
PalmKenaf stalk, glass, and jute
leaf Polyester
Polyester Compression
Vacuum bagmolding
resin transfer molding
Pineapple
Glass and kenaf Epoxy
Epoxy Hand-layup
Filament winding process
Neem,
Sisal and glass,
Grewiaandoptiva
kenaf Epoxy acid
Polylactic Vacuum-assisted compression molding
Hot compression
Palm leaf
Sisal/red mudstalk, glass, and jute Polyester
Polyester Compression
Compression molding
molding
Pineapple Epoxy Hand-layup
Soybean hull
Sisal and fiber optiva
Grewia Thermoplastic
Polylactic acid copolyester Fused filament
Hot fabrication
compression
Sisal/red mud Polyhydroxyalkanoate
Polyester and polylactic Compression molding
Wood fiber Fused deposition modeling
Soybean hull fiber acid
Thermoplastic copolyester Fused filament fabrication
WoodWood fiber
flour Polyhydroxyalkanoate
High-density and polylactic acid
polyethylene Fused deposition modeling
Extrusion
Wood flour High-density polyethylene Extrusion

The diagrams presented in Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the consumption patterns

The diagrams
associated presented inofFigures
with the integration natural7 fibers
and 8 into
illustrate the consumption
polymer patterns
composites. These associ-
figures
ated with the integration of natural fibers into polymer composites. These figures
provide insights into the utilization of natural fibers within polymer-based composite provide
insights into
materials. the7utilization
Figure showcasesofthenatural fibers within
distribution polymer-based
of natural fibers used incomposite materials.
conjunction with
polymers in composite applications, highlighting the varying proportions and types ofin
Figure 7 showcases the distribution of natural fibers used in conjunction with polymers
composite
fibers applications,
incorporated. Thishighlighting
depiction the varying
offers proportions
a visual and typesof
representation of fibers incorpo-
the relative
rated. This depiction offers a visual representation of the relative prevalence
prevalence of different natural fibers within the realm of polymer composites, providing of different
natural information
valuable fibers withinabout
the realm of polymer
their usage trends.composites, providing valuable information
about their usage trends.

Figure
Figure7.7.Consumption
Consumption pattern
patternofofnatural
naturalfibers
fibersused
usedinincomposites
compositeswith
withpolymers.
polymers.Adopted
Adoptedfrom
from
Reference
Reference[31] (open access).
[31].

On the other hand, Figure 8 focuses on the consumption pattern of thermoplastics in

the context of composites that incorporate natural fibers. This figure presents an overview
of how different thermoplastic materials are employed alongside natural fibers to create
composite structures. By illustrating the proportions and preferences for specific thermo-
plastic matrices, this figure enhances our understanding of the interplay between polymers
and natural fibers in composite fabrication.
Collectively, Figures 7 and 8 contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the
dynamics and trends in the usage of natural fibers and thermoplastics within the field of
composite materials. These visual representations serve as valuable tools for researchers,
practitioners, and stakeholders in assessing the evolving landscape of polymer composites

Figure 8. Consumption pattern of thermoplastics used in composites with natural fibers. Adopted
from Reference [31] (open access).
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 15 of 44

and their integration with natural fibers. The figures offer insights into the relative signifi-
cance of different materials, aiding in the strategic design and development of composite
materials with enhanced properties and performance. The adoption of these figures from
Figure 7. Consumption pattern of natural fibers used in composites with polymers. Adopted from
Reference [31] underscores the significance of this work in the broader context of research
Reference [31] (open access).
and development within the domain of natural fiber-polymer composites.

Figure 8.Consumption
Figure 8. Consumption pattern
pattern of thermoplastics
of thermoplastics usedused in composites
in composites with natural
with natural fibers. Adopted
fibers. Adopted
from Reference[31].
from Reference [31] (open access).

The wide-ranging applications of natural fiber composites with polymers (NFCP)

span across various industries, with a significant focus on the automotive sector. These
applications are comprehensively outlined and categorized in Tables 9 and 10.

Table 9. Applications of natural fibers composites with polymers in the automotive industry [8].

Natural Fibers Component Description Other Constituents

Carrier for soft amuses and hard, headliners, seat
back panels, sear deck trays, door fosters, center
Bast fibers (flax, sisal, kenaf, hemp, consoles, side and back walls, seat backs, pillars,
Polypropylene (PP) and polyester
jute, etc.) load floor, and trunk trim. Carrier for covered door
panels, covered inserts, covered instrument panel
components, and carrier for covered inserts
Seat bachnest /surfaces, headrests, interior trim,
Coconut Natural rubber
back rests, seat cushioning, and seat bottoms
Cotton Insulation, soundproofing a trunk panel PP/PEY
Fiberwood recycled Plastic container and seat back panel PP granules, thermoplastic
Pillar panels, floor trays, rear parcel shelves,
Mat with PP
Flax seatbacks, control consoles, covers, floor panels,
(floor panels)
and additional interior trim
Flax or hemp Carrier for door panels with coverings Epoxy resin
Flax/sisal Door frames, interior door linings, and door panels Thermoset resin
Kenaf Internal door panel PP
Fiber in the seat back cushion, carriers for covered
door panels, foamed instrument panels, covered
Wood Acrylic fibers and synthetic fiber
inserts and components, spare tire, covered seat
back panels, covered inserts, and covers
Carrier for covered door panels, carrier for covered
Wood flour PP or polyolefin (POE)
inserts, and carrier for armrest

Table 9 presents a detailed overview of the utilization of natural fiber composites with
polymers in the automotive industry, referencing an open-access source [8]. Within this
table, different types of natural fibers, including bast fibers like flax, social, kenaf, hemp,
and jute, find use in diverse automotive components. These fibers serve as carriers for both
soft and hard materials, contributing to headliners, seat back panels, door fosters, center
consoles, side and back walls, seat backs, pillars, load floors, and trunk trims. Additionally,
they are employed for covered door panels, inserts, instrument panel components, and
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 16 of 44

other applications. The incorporation of natural fibers is often paired with materials like
polypropylene (PP) and polyester to achieve desired properties. Coconut fibers, on the other
hand, are employed in areas such as seat backrests, headrests, interior trim, seat cushioning,
and seat bottoms, often used alongside natural rubber. Cotton fibers contribute to insulation
and soundproofing, often paired with PP/PEY materials. The versatile application of
natural fiber composites is also evident in the use of recycled fiberwood, flex, and hemp,
each catering to specific automotive components and enhancing their performance. These
examples showcase the effectiveness of combining natural fibers with different polymer
matrices to achieve desirable properties for diverse automotive applications.

Table 10. Other applications of NFC [3–13].

Sector Parts Made of NFC Materials

Door panel Bamboo mat composite
Roof Jute coir composite
Wardrobes Natural fiber-reinforced boards
Bicycle frame Flax fiber composite
Table Oil palm-based biocomposite
Curaua fiber wood flour-based
Container for perfume
composites
Acoustic Acoustic absorber Cotton fiber-rubber granulate composites
Building materials Panel Sisal jute sandwich composites
Furniture Chair Coir fiber polyester composite
Wood fibers with polylactic
Packaging Food packaging
acid
Sport Tennis racket hemp epoxy composite and flax

Table 10 further expands the horizons of NFCP applications beyond the automotive
sector. Various sectors benefit from the integration of natural fiber composites. These
applications include components like door panels made from bamboo mat composites, roofs
incorporating jute coir composites, wardrobes reinforced with natural fibers, bicycle frames
using flax fiber composites, tables featuring oil palm-based biocomposites, containers for
perfume utilizing Curaua fiber wood flour composites, and acoustic absorbers composed
of cotton fiber-rubber granulate composites. The utility of NFCP extends to building
materials like panels constructed from sisal jute sandwich composites, furniture items such
as chairs composed of coir fiber-polyester composites, and even sport-related products
like tennis rackets made from hemp epoxy composites and flax. This array of applications
highlights the versatility and broad potential of natural fiber composites with polymers
across diverse industries.
In summary, Tables 9 and 10 provide a comprehensive overview of the multifaceted
applications of NFCP in both the automotive industry and other sectors. These tables serve
as valuable references, illustrating the diverse ways in which natural fiber composites are
harnessed in combination with polymer matrices to create functional and performance-
enhanced products across a wide range of applications.
Figure 9 graphically represents the distribution of different application categories
for natural fiber composites with polymers. The data presented in this figure is derived
from a referenced source [31], emphasizing the open accessibility of the information used
for analysis.
This figure provides a visual representation of the allocation of natural fiber composite
applications across various categories. It serves as a useful reference to understand the
prevalence and significance of these composites in different sectors. By presenting this
information in a graphical format, the figure enhances the comprehension of how natural
fiber composites are contributing to diverse industries and applications.
 J. Compos.
J. Compos. Sci.7,2023,
Sci. 2023, x FOR7, 506
PEER REVIEW 17 of 44
18 of 47

Figure 9. Different application categories in %. Adopted from Reference [31].

Figure 9. Different application categories in %. Adopted from Reference [31] (open access).
A detailed review of natural fiber composite materials in automotive applications was
This
givenfigure
by Naik provides
et al. [32]. a Other
visualimportant
representation of theinclude
applications allocation of natural
fire retardant fiber [33],
materials
composite applications across various
ballistic applications [34], food packaging [35], etc.categories. It serves as a useful reference to
understand the prevalence and significance of these composites
There are numerous published works dealing with natural fiber composites with in different sectors. By
presenting
polymers this information
(NFCP). Sinha et al. in[36] a examined
graphicaltheformat, the figure polymer
abaca fiber-reinforced enhancescomposites
the
comprehension
in detail. The of review
how natural fiber composites
in Reference [37] describes areseveral
contributing
banana to diverse
fiber extractionindustries
techniques,
and applications.
fiber’s biochemical and mechanical characteristics, and applications. Badanayak et al. [38]
A detailed
also reviewed review of natural
banana fiber composite
pseudostem materials in
fiber extraction, automotive applications
characterization, and surface was given
modifica-
by Naik et al. [32]. Other important applications include fire retardant
tion. Mousavi et al. [39] deals with the mechanical properties of bamboo fiber-reinforced materials [33],
ballistic applications
polymer [34], food packaging [35], etc.
composites.
ThereHasan
are numerous
et al. [40] published
conducted works dealing with
a state-of-the-art natural
review fiber
on coir composites with
fiber-reinforced biocom-
polymers
posites.(NFCP).
Wankhede Sinha et[41]
et al. al. reviewed
[36] examined
the cotton thefiber-reinforced
abaca fiber-reinforced polymer and
polymer composites
composites in detail. The
their applications. Li et review in Reference
al. [42] reported [37] progress
the recent describesinseveral banana functional
flax fiber-based fiber
extraction techniques, fiber’s biochemical and mechanical
composites. Yan et al. [43] also reviewed the flax fiber and its composites. Dahal et characteristics, and al. [44]
applications. Badanayak et al. [38] also reviewed banana pseudostem
reported in detail the mechanical, thermal, and acoustic properties of hemp and biocom- fiber extraction,
characterization,
posite materials.and surface
Sepe et al. modification.
[45] reported Mousavi et al. [39]
in full detail deals with
the influence of the mechanical
chemical treatments
properties
on theofmechanical
bamboo fiber-reinforced
properties of hemp polymer composites. composites. The work of Palaniku-
fiber-reinforced
Hasan
mar et al. et [46]
al. deals
[40] conducted
with the targeted a state-of-the-art
pre-treatment review
of hemp on fibers
coir fiber-reinforced
and the effect on the
biocomposites.
mechanicalWankhede
properties of etpolymer
al. [41] composites.
reviewed the cotton fiber-reinforced polymer
composites and their
Pokharel applications.
et al. [47] thoroughly Li etreviewed
al. [42] reported the recent
biobased polymer progress Shahinur
composites. in flax fiber-et al. [48]
basedreported
functional composites.
the current Yan et and
development al. [43]
future also reviewedonthe
perspective flax jute
natural fiber andand
fibers its their
biocomposites.
composites. Dahal etDevarajan et al. [49]in
al. [44] reported examined
detail the in detail the additive
mechanical, thermal,manufacturing
and acousticof jute
fiber-reinforced
properties of hemp and polymer composites.
biocomposite materials. Sepe et al. [45] reported in full detail the
influence The mechanical
of chemical and thermal
treatments on the properties
mechanicalofproperties
pineappleofleaf hemp fiber (PALF) reinforced
fiber-reinforced
composite
composites. The were
workthe subject of theetreview
of Palanikumar al. [46]conducted
deals with by theJoshi and pre-treatment
targeted Patel [50]. Sahu of and
Gupta [51] reviewed the sisal fiber and its polymer-based
hemp fibers and the effect on the mechanical properties of polymer composites. composites. Imraan et al. [52]
reported on the properties of sugar palm (arenga pinnata)
Pokharel et al. [47] thoroughly reviewed biobased polymer composites. Shahinur et fibers.
The flexural
al. [48] reported properties
the current of wood-polymer
development and futurecomposites
perspectivewere examined
on natural juteinfibers
detail by
and Jian
theiret biocomposites.
al. [53]. Ahmad et al. [54]etprovided
Devarajan al. [49]detailed
examined information
in detailonthe the additive
construction
applications
manufacturing and fiber-reinforced
of jute life cycle sustainabilitypolymerofcomposites.
natural fiber biocomposites. Rabbi et al. [55]
The mechanical and thermal properties of pineapplepolymer
reviewed the injection-molded natural fiber-reinforced leaf fiber composites in detail. Other
(PALF) reinforced
composite were the subject of the review conducted by Joshi and Patel [50]. Sahuin
interesting reviews can be found in References [56–59]. The reader interested andfurther
reading also has to resort to standard books in the area [60–63].
Gupta [51] reviewed the sisal fiber and its polymer-based composites. Imraan et al. [52]
reported on the properties of sugar palm (arenga pinnata) fibers.
2.3.3. Plant Fiber-Mineral Composites
The flexural properties of wood-polymer composites were examined in detail by
Jian et al.The
[53].inorganic-bonded
Ahmad et al. [54] wood composites,
provided which
detailed have a lengthy
information on thehistory, are another
construction
significant class. They fall into the following categories [5]:
applications and life cycle sustainability of natural fiber biocomposites. Rabbi et al. [55]
reviewed the injection-molded natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites in detail.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 18 of 44

â Gypsum-bonded composites;
â Cement-bonded composites (made of Portland and magnesia cement);
â Mineral adhesive bonded composites (made of sodium glass and lime);
â Organic resin-bonded composites made up of mineral particles and lignocellulosic;
â Gypsum boards covered in paper and other lignocellulosic materials.
The building materials known as cement-bound lignocellulosic composites can be used
both inside and outside. After a particular application of fungicides to THE lignocellulosic
material, they can be made more rot-resistant and more fire-resistant. They also have
excellent sound-dampening qualities. Asbestos is typically replaced by lignocellulosic
fibers in construction. Its use includes asbestos-cement boards, which were formerly often
used for roofing. Asbestos can be replaced with paper scraps and short fibers [5].
Gypsum-bonded composites can be made using lignocellulosic waste, wood waste,
and gypsum [64]. Although widely used in the building sector, gypsum-bonded composites
are not water-resistant [5].
Investigations were conducted into the impact of cement hydration on the resilience
of natural fiber-reinforced cement composites and the degradation of the embedded nat-
ural fibers [65]. The utilization of coir fibers as reinforcement materials for polymer and
cementitious composites was investigated in this work. On the microstructure and me-
chanical characteristics of coir fiber, coir fiber reinforced epoxy (CFRE), and coir fiber
reinforced cementitious (CFRC) composites, the effects of fiber treatment were examined
by Yan et al. [66].
The recent advancements in cellulosic fiber fabric-reinforced cementitious (FRC), fabric-
reinforced geopolymer (FRG), and cellulosic fabric-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites as
reinforcement for concrete, masonry, and wood structures for civil engineering applications
are summarized in the review of Yan et al. [67].
The geopolymer matrix can also be reinforced with natural fibers like bamboo, flax,
hemp, and jute, which has additional advantages like better tensile and flexural strength,
lower density, and improved thermal and acoustic insulation qualities. In order to better
understand the raw materials and manufacturing processes used to create compact and
porous geopolymer materials, the review paper by Moujoud et al. [68] examined them.
de Lima et al. [69] examined the potential of using Amazon natural fibers to reinforce
cementitious composites.
Ahmad et al. [70] provided a comprehensive overview of the mechanical and physical
properties of concrete reinforced with sisal fibers (SSF). A detailed review of coir fiber and
coir fiber-reinforced cement-based composite materials from 2000 to 2021 was performed
by Wang et al. [71].
Shah et al. examined the chemical modification using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
detail and its effect on the mechanical properties of sisal, coir, and hemp fiber-reinforced
concrete composites [72]. Abbas et al. [73] reviewed the Kenaf fiber-reinforced cementitious
composites. Marvila et al. [74] examined the utilization of natural vegetable fibers in
cementitious composites. Martinelli et al. [75] examined the use of coconut fiber in cement
composites.
Lv et al. [76] reviewed the alkaline degradation of plant fiber reinforcements in geopoly-
mers. They also examined the properties of 3D printing fiber-reinforced geopolymers [77]
and the mechanical properties of plant fiber-reinforced geopolymers [78].
Labib [79] and Hasan et al. [80] investigated in detail the applications of plant fibers in
composites with cement. Finally, Li et al. [81] examined the treatment methods for plant
fibers for use as reinforcement in cement-based materials.

2.3.4. Hybrid Cellulosic Composites

Hybrid composites are defined as materials that consist of two or more types of fibers
embedded in a single matrix. Natural/glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites have
been undergoing development to expand their engineering and technological uses. The
study by Sanjay and Yogesha [82] focuses on recent advancements in hand-lay-up and
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 19 of 44

compression-molded natural fiber-reinforced polymer hybrid composites. The goal of this

study was to comprehend a summary of the findings related to the use of natural fiber in
composites made of glass fiber-reinforced polymers [82].
There are two evaluations that go into deeper detail about the natural fiber hybrids
that are currently available: Jawaid and Abdul Khalil [83] and Nunna et al. [84]. The de-
crease in moisture absorption and limiting the variability in characteristics are two themes
that appear frequently in many of these works. All natural fibers are prone to absorbing
moisture, which results in swelling problems and changes to their mechanical qualities.
Normal moisture absorption increases strength and failure strain while decreasing the mod-
ulus. Malik et al. [85] provided a detailed review of the physical and mechanical properties
of kenaf/flax hybrid composites. Nurazzi et al. [86] reviewed in detail the mechanical
performance of hybrid natural fiber polymer composites for structural applications. Suriani
et al. [87] thoroughly examined the natural fiber-reinforced hybrid composites in terms of
their processing, properties, applications, and cost. Neto et al. [88] reported the thermal
characterization of these fibers in detail.
The reader interested in specific applications of natural fiber hybrid composites, such
as aerospace applications or their properties, has to resort to References [89–92].

3. Animal (Protein Base) Fibers and Composites

3.1. Origin, Classification, and Physical Properties of Animal Fibers
Animal fibers, also known as protein fibers, are largely used in the textile industry.
These are the second most widely used fibers after plant-based fibers. They are generated
from alpacas, silk, sheep, cashmere, chickens, and ducks [93–99]. Animal fibers are typi-
cally employed as particles or chopped fibers when creating biocomposites. The protein
fibers have remarkable qualities like built-in thermal stability and fire resistance. How-
ever, because protein fibers are more expensive than plant fibers, animal fibers are not
frequently employed in the commercial production of naturally reinforced fiber composites
NFRCs [93]. Table 11 provides a comprehensive overview of natural fibers sourced from
animals, elucidating their distinct properties and applications. These fibers, originating
from diverse animals such as silkworms, yaks, and llamas, exhibit a wide range of qualities,
including warmth, softness, tensile strength, and elasticity. These attributes are instru-
mental in determining the suitability of fibers for various applications across industries,
particularly in textiles and materials. The table underscores the versatility and unique
characteristics of animal-derived fibers, shedding light on their potential contributions to
the realm of natural reinforced fiber composites.
In addition to acting as guardians for cells, organisms, and tissues, animal fibers are
protein-rich and contribute to qualities like elasticity, stability, and scaffolding. The type and
order of the polypeptide chain made up of amino acids determines how these fibers behave.
Animal fibers include a significant amount of keratin, which has a complicated structure and
an uneven chemical composition. The three primary components of mammalian fiber are
the cortex, cuticle, and medulla. The cortex builds the bulk of the main fiber and determines
its mechanical qualities. The cuticle serves as a protective outer layer and prevents water
from penetrating the fiber with its wax coating. The medulla degeneration results in lesser
fiber strength and lower quality. Due to their chemical makeup, animal fibers interact well
with polymer matrices and increase tolerance to alkaline environments [14].
Moreover, animal fibers are superior to plant fibers at absorbing moisture. Animal
fibers, including silk, wool, fur, and feathers, come in second place among all the natural
fiber sources for composite reinforcing because of their broad availability and lack of toxicity.
Also, animal fibers are eco-friendly biodegradable composites that provide a technique to
get rid of huge volumes of solid waste. Many varieties of animal fiber, including wool, have
their beginnings in sheep, alpacas, bison, cashmere, muskox, and other species. Several
publications claim that silk, fur, and feathers are typical choices. Chicken feathers are
wastes that are used for the reinforcement of fibers. However, wool is routinely used in the
textile industry for various purposes [93].
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 20 of 44

Table 11. Properties of natural fibers derived from animals [93].

Tensile Elongation Young

Diameter Density
Fiber Properties Strength at Break Modulus
(µm) (g/cm3 )
(MPa) (in µm) (GPa)
Wool Warmth 16–40 120–174 25–35 2.3–3.4 –
Mulberry White-tined and
10 208.45 19.55 6.10 1.33
silkworm fiber more reproducible
Eild (Tussah)
Beige to brownish-tined 25 165.27 20.57 3.82 1.32
silkworm fiber
Twisted B.
10 248.77 33.48 5.79 –
mori silk
Catgut fiber 790 100 –
Warmth, odor-resistant
Yak fiber 15–19 270.05 14.53 45.0943 3.42
softness, breathability
Bison Soft and red-brown 59
Llama Soft, Fine 30–40
Smooth, long, 8 times
Qiviut 15–20
warmer than sheep
Camel hair Warmth, softness, 20.04 212.15 37.05 3.87 –
Smooth fabric finish with
Spider silk 10–13 875–972 17–18 11–13 –
high shine
Angora wool Thin fibers, softness 12–16
Luxurious, fine,
Alpaca 12–29 53.5 42.3 1.38
lightweight, soft, glossy

Wool, sourced from sheep’s fleece, boasts a distinct structure consisting of a cortex
and a protective cuticle layer. This intricate arrangement makes it one of the most com-
plex textile fibers, as illustrated in Figure 10. The exceptional properties and versatile
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 47
applications of wool highlight the significance of animal fibers and composite materials in
various industries.

Figure 10. Schematic representation of wool fiber structure [96] (open access).
Figure 10. Schematic representation of wool fiber structure [96].

Thestructural
The structural composition
composition of fibers
of wool wool isfibers is consisting
intricate, intricate, ofconsisting of distinct
distinct components,
components, each comprised of unique morphological elements. Within
each comprised of unique morphological elements. Within the cortex, one finds the cell the cortex, one
finds the complex
membrane cell membrane complex
and cortical and cortical
cells collectively cells collectively
responsible responsible
for mechanical for
behavior.
mechanical
The behavior. bilateral
cortex, exhibiting The cortex, exhibiting
symmetry, playsbilateral
a vital symmetry, playsthe
role in housing a vital role in
mechanical
housing the
attributes mechanical
of wool, such as attributes of wool, and
elasticity, ductility, suchswelling
as elasticity, ductility, On
characteristics. andtheswelling
other
characteristics. On the other hand, cuticle cells possess a specialized surface
hand, cuticle cells possess a specialized surface structure that secures the fiber within structure
thatsheep’s
the securesskin.
the Notably,
fiber withinwoolthe sheep’s
fibers skin.
exhibit Notably, wool
a markedly fibers
different exhibit
surface a markedly
compared to
different surface
conventional compared
man-made fibers,to conventional
featuring man-made
a relatively unevenfibers,
texturefeaturing
[94]. a relatively
uneven texture [94].
The chemical constitution of wool is succinctly presented in Table 12, shedding light
on the amino acid composition of cashmere, wool, and yak fibers. This composition
significantly influences the properties and performance of wool in various applications.
Likewise, the mechanical properties of wool fibers, outlined in Table 13, provide
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 21 of 44

The chemical constitution of wool is succinctly presented in Table 12, shedding light
on the amino acid composition of cashmere, wool, and yak fibers. This composition signifi-
cantly influences the properties and performance of wool in various applications. Likewise,
the mechanical properties of wool fibers, outlined in Table 13, provide valuable insights.
At 22 ◦ C, wool fibers exhibit distinct behavior under varying conditions. For instance,
their breaking stress ranges from 250 to 350 MPa when dry and 100 to 200 MPa when wet,
with a corresponding strength loss of approximately 20% in wet conditions. Similarly, the
breaking strain, elasticity modulus, recovery at different strains, bending modulus, stretch-
ing modulus, torsion modulus, and shear modulus showcase the mechanical response of
wool fibers under specific conditions. These properties underscore the versatile and unique
attributes of wool fibers, highlighting their significance in various industrial and composite
applications [93].

Table 12. Amino acid composition of cashmere, wool, and yak fibers [93].

Amino Acid (mol %) Cashmere Wool Yak

Glutamine + glutamic acid 12.4 12.1 12.5
Serine 12.2 10.2 10
Glycine 9.9 8.1 9.8
Leucine 7.5 6.9 8.3
Arginine 7 7.2 7.1
Proline 6.7 7.5 6.6
Threonine 6.6 6.5 6.6
Asparagine + aspartic acid 6.2 6 6.7
Cystine 6 11.2 6.4
Alamine 5.8 5 5.6
Valine 5.5 5.1 5.9
Tyrosine 3.5 4.2 3.4
Isoleucine 3.2 2.8 3.5
Phenylalanine 2.8 2.5 3
Lysine 2.8 2.3 3
Histidine 1.2 0.7 1
Methionine 0.5 0.5 0.5
Tryptophan – 1.2 –

Table 13. Mechanical properties of wool fiber at 22 ◦ C [93].

Property Condition Value

Dry 250–350 MPa
Breaking stress Wet 100–200 MPa
Strength loss when wet 20%
Dry 28–48%
Breaking strain
Wet 40–61%
Dry 4.0–5.0 GPa
Elasticity modulus
Wet 2.0–3.0 GPa
2% 95–99%
Recovery at strain 5% 60–70%
10% 40–50%
Bending modulus 4.0–5.5 GPa
Stretching modulus 5.0–6.0 GPa
Torsion modulus parallel 1.1–1.3 GPa
Stretching modulus in torsion 3.0–4.0 GPa
Dry 1.2 GPa
Shear modulus in torsion
Wet 0.1 GPa

Due to its unique blend of attributes and cost, natural silk is a desirable raw material.
It has excellent levels of chemical resistance, elongation at break, and breaking strength
and is composed of well-organized proteins. Silk has a wide range of qualities because it
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 22 of 44

is produced by several sources. Bombyx mori silkworms are the principal producers of
natural silk. Spider silk, made from the fibroins produced by spiders (such as the Nephila
spider), comes in second place.
Table 14 offers a breakdown of the amino acid composition in two key components of
Bombyx mori silk: fibroin and sericin. These amino acids are the fundamental building
blocks of proteins, which form the structural foundation of silk fibers. Glycine is the most
abundant amino acid in fibroin, comprising around 42.75% of the total. This high glycine
content contributes to the silk’s remarkable flexibility and tensile strength. Sericin, which
surrounds fibroin, has a different amino acid profile, including higher amounts of serine
and aspartic acid. This diversity in amino acid composition influences the overall properties
of the silk, including its elasticity, strength, and affinity for moisture.

Table 14. Amino acid composition of sericin and fibroin in natural silk Bombix mori [97].

Sericin
Amino Acids Fibroin (%)
(%)
Glycine 42.75 ± 2.75 11.0 ± 3.0
Alanine 25.0 ± 9.0 4.0 ± 1.0
Serine 13.0 ± 3.0 29.0 ± 8.0
Tyrosine 9.0 ± 4.0 4.25 ± 1.75
Valin 3.0 ± 1.0 3.5 ± 0.5
Aspartic acid 1.9 ± 0.9 15.75 ± 1.75
Glutamic acid 1.35 ± 0.35 4.75 ± 1.25
Threonine 1.45 ± 0.45 8.25 ± 1.75
Arginine 0.9 ± 0.6 4.75 ± 1.25
Lysine 0.9 ± 0.6 3.25 ± 0.75

Table 15 outlines a comparison between two types of silk: Nephila dragline silk and
mulberry silk. One key aspect highlighted is the degree of crystallinity, which indicates
the extent of molecular order within the silk fibers. Nephila silk has a lower degree of
crystallinity (20–45%) compared to mulberry silk (38–66%). This difference influences the
mechanical properties of the silk, such as its tensile strength and flexibility. The density
of mulberry silk falls between 1.35 and 1.42 g/cm3 , indicating its lightweight nature.
Maximum application temperatures and thermal degradation points also provide insights
into the silk’s heat resistance and stability. The data emphasize how the silk’s origin and
composition affect its characteristics and suitability for different applications.

Table 15. Properties of Nephila dragline silk and mulberry [93].

Property Bombyx Mori Nephila Dragline

Degree of crystallinity in % 38–66 20–45
Density in g/cm3 1.35–1.42
Crystallite size in nm 1.0–2.5 4.7 × 5.3 × 6.0
Index of refraction 1.591 parallel to fiber 1.538 perpendicular to the fiber
Maximum application
170 150
temperature, ◦ C
Thermal degradation, ◦ C 250 234
Heat capacity, J/g K 1.38
Glass transition temperature 178 ◦ C at 0% RH 39 ◦ C at 75% RH
Supercontraction in water No ~50%

Table 16 presents a comparative analysis of the mechanical properties of various

materials, including rubber, nylon, silk, and high-strength steel. One crucial parameter is
elongation at break, indicating how much a material can stretch before breaking. Rubber
exhibits impressive elasticity, stretching up to 600% at the break, while silk shows an
elongation of 18%. Breaking strength, another crucial aspect, showcases the material’s
ability to withstand stress. Silk demonstrates a significant breaking strength of 1500 MPa,
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 23 of 44

indicating its robustness. Comparing these values with those of other materials like high-
strength steel, which has much higher breaking strength but limited elongation, provides
valuable insights into how different materials can be selected for diverse applications based
on their mechanical performance.

Table 16. Mechanical properties of various polymers, silk, and steel [97].

Material Elongation at Break. % Breaking Strength, MPa Fracture Toughness, J/m3

Rubber 600 100 100
Artificial web 35 4000 160
Nylon 20 3000 80
Silk 18 1500 70
Revlar 5 4000 50
High-strength steel 1 5500 6

By examining these tables in detail, researchers and engineers gain a comprehensive

understanding of the molecular composition, physical characteristics, and mechanical
behavior of various natural fibers, helping them make informed decisions when designing
and using these materials in a wide range of applications.
The center shaft and the vanes make up most of a feather. The rachis and calamus are
the two components of the shaft. The medulla is a hollow tube-shaped cortex that is filled
with honeycomb-structured foam. Interconnected hooks from the barbules, which make up
the vanes, create them. Similar to this, the barbules’ connection to the central shaft creates
the barb, which connects to the vanes’ characteristics and prevents them from collapsing.
The structure resembles hooklets, which improves the bulking.
Feathers from chickens have hollow interiors. They can effectively adsorb heavy
metals such as strontium, lead, mercury, copper, chromium, uranium, nickel, and cesium
thanks to internal holes. When the phenolic content, temperature, and pH rise, so do
the adsorption characteristics of feathers. Moreover, the properties of being hydrophilic,
hydrophobic, and hygroscopic aid in adsorption and biosorption.
A chicken feather’s typical length is 135 mm, and its aspect ratio ranges from 400 to
2200. The diameter of a feather is between 5 and 6 µm, making it the smallest available
natural fiber. The fiber weight has a higher surface area due to its small diameter and high
aspect ratio, which make it suitable for lightweight applications. The chemical makeup
of several avian feathers, including those of ducks, pigeons, and chickens, has been docu-
mented. Chicken feathers include 82–91% protein (keratin), 1% lipids, and 2.2–2.5% crude
fiber, while final examination reveals carbon levels of 62–65, nitrogen levels of 16–17, and
sulfur levels of 2–3%. The quantities of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, arginine, glycine,
proline, alanines, cysteine, valine, serine, leucines, and other amino acids in keratin fiber
are 7, 5, 5, 11, 12, 8, 7, 9, 4, 11, and 16%, respectively. Around 60% of the amino acids in
chicken feathers are hygroscopic, with the remaining 40% being hydrophilic [97].

3.2. Applications and Importance of Animal Fibers

Because the primary protein in animal fibers is biocompatible, they exhibit cross-
linking properties. Two forms of fibers made from animals, silk and wool, are valuable
for use in many eco-friendly applications. Also, because hydrogen bonds exist and the
protein has a hydrophobic shape, these strands are more stable than spherical proteins.
Silk from silkworms is employed in biomedicine to regenerate tissues. The automobile
sector can benefit from these renewable fibers because they can be used as reinforcement
in composite interior parts for commercial and passenger vehicles. A review providing a
summary of recent research initiatives in the area of cement-based composites with sheep
wool reinforcing is also available [95].
In order to generate a new type of composites known as “green composites,” renewable
fibers and polymers (matrix) must be combined. Paulraj et al. [98] reviewed the research
on the mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced polymer (NFRP) materials.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 24 of 44

Silk is utilized as a reinforcing material during the manufacturing of composites such

as polyethylene and natural rubber. A paradigm shift in materials science is being brought
about by contemporary smart gadgets used in biomedical applications. Silk fibroin films
have high permeability to dissolved oxygen when they are wet despite being too delicate
to be employed in dry conditions. The mechanical properties of silk fibroin composites are
enhanced using polysaccharides. Crystallinity and tensile characteristics are significantly
increased by increasing the concentration of silk fibroin composites with chitosan, which
were later applied in biomedical applications. Silk is used in tissue engineering as a
biomaterial to help with the repair of ligaments, tendons, and bones.
Life has become simpler because of tremendous advancements in electronics and
communication technologies. Wireless electronics is one such development, where devices
work at gigahertz frequencies while sending and receiving signals in the form of electro-
magnetic (EM) waves. EM pollution is a result of the increased amount of EM waves in the
atmosphere. During operation, “electromagnetic interference” (EMI), which is caused by
an increase in the amount of sophisticated circuitry in a constrained space as a result of
device shrinking, occurs. As they are viewed as serious dangers to electronics and their
functionality, EMI worries are growing. Flexible and lightweight EMI shielding materi-
als are essential to address this problem. Due to their exceptional flexibility, functional
textiles are regarded as viable options and are receiving more attention. Jagadeshvaran
and Bose [100] reviewed the recent advance of surface engineering in the development of
textile-based EMI shields.
The use of neutral aqueous zinc ion batteries (ZIBs) for wearable electronics and grid-
level energy storage is incredibly promising. However, the use of ZIBs in actual applications
has been constrained by specific component performance flaws. In order to overcome the
existing issues in ZIBs, a variety of pure materials and their composites with fiber-based
structures have recently been employed to create more effective cathodes, anodes, current
collectors, and separators. To achieve diverse electrochemical performances and mechanical
flexibility, many functional materials can be produced into various fiber forms that can
then be transformed into various yarn structures or interlaced into various 2D and 3D
fabric-like constructions. In the review by Jia et al. [101], the ideas and fundamentals behind
fiber-based materials for ZIBs as well as the use of various materials, are discussed.
Other important applications of silk-based composites include the remediation of
toxic contaminants from wastewater [102] and sensors for humidity and gas sensing [103].
Hardy and Scheibel gave a detailed review of silk protein applications [104]. Finally, the
formation of all-silk composites and the time-temperature superposition were reviewed by
King et al. [105].
Figure 11 provides an illustrative depiction of the manufacturing process involving
chicken feather composites. The process begins with the collection of chicken feathers,
which are abundant due to the large-scale poultry industry. These feathers, often consid-
ered waste, offer an eco-friendly and sustainable raw material for composite fabrication.
The feathers undergo a series of treatment steps, including cleaning and sterilization, to
prepare them for integration into composite materials. The cleaned feathers are then pro-
cessed, possibly involving grinding or cutting to achieve a suitable form for composite
incorporation. These feather particles are mixed with a polymer matrix material, which
may be a biodegradable polymer, to create the composite mixture. This mixture is then
shaped into the desired form, such as sheets or panels, using molding or extrusion tech-
niques. The resulting chicken feather composite products exhibit qualities like robustness,
water resistance, and thermal and acoustic insulation, making them suitable for a wide
range of applications. The depicted manufacturing process showcases how a seemingly
unconventional material like chicken feathers can be transformed into valuable composite
materials, contributing to sustainability and resource optimization.
J. Compos.
Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506
x FOR PEER REVIEW 25
27 of 44
47

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Commonly
Commonly used
used chicken
chicken feather
feather composite
composite manufacturing
manufacturing process
process [106]
[106] (reproduced
(reproduced
after permission).
after permission).

findingsofofthethe
The findings analysis
analysis of thermoplastic
of the the thermoplastic filmsthe
films from from the characteristics
characteristics showed
showed
that that the
the feather feather
films werefilms
robust were
androbust and water
water resistant. resistant.
This might be Thisusedmight be used
to create bioma- to
create for
terials biomaterials
many biomedicalfor many biomedical
uses. uses. The
The advantage advantage
of feathers of low
is their feathers is their
relative bulk and low
relative bulk
superior thermal and andsuperior
acousticthermal
insulation. and acoustic
Figure insulation.
11 depicts Figure of11feathers
the handling depicts[106]. the
handling
Since of feathers
billions of chickens[106].areSince billionseach
harvested of chickens are harvested
year, a variety of uses areeachpossible,
year, a variety
as can be of
seen
uses inareTable 17. Table
possible, as can17 outlines
be seenthe in diverse
Table 17.range
Tableof potential
17 outlines applications
the diverse forrange
chicken of
feather
potential fiber (CFF) composites.
applications for chicken Thesefeather
composites,
fiber derived from a readily
(CFF) composites. available
These waste
composites,
material,
derived from holdapromise
readily across
availablevarious
wastesectors.
material,In the
holdarchitectural
promise across and various
civil domain,
sectors. CFFIn
composites can find utility in wall panels and roofs, enhancing
the architectural and civil domain, CFF composites can find utility in wall panels and insulation and structural
properties. The transport
roofs, enhancing insulationindustry can benefit
and structural from theirThe
properties. integration
transportinto automotive
industry inner
can benefit
insulation
from theirparts and aircraft
integration intobody components,
automotive potentially
inner reducing
insulation partsweight
and and enhancing
aircraft body
efficiency.
components, In the biomedical
potentially field, CFF
reducing weightcomposites exhibit efficiency.
and enhancing potential for In hydrogels,
the biomedical scaf-
folds, and hydrofilms in tissue engineering, as well as orthopedic
field, CFF composites exhibit potential for hydrogels, scaffolds, and hydrofilms in tissue and dental implants
and replacements.
engineering, as well In the electrical sector,
as orthopedic and they
dental canimplants
serve as and base replacements.
materials for printed In the
circuit boards (PCBs), electrical insulators, and sensor
electrical sector, they can serve as base materials for printed circuit applications. Thermal applications
boards (PCBs),
include
electricalflame resistance
insulators, andandsensor
thermal insulation, catering
applications. Thermalto applications
safety and energy-efficiency
include flame
needs.
resistanceFiltration applications
and thermal encompass
insulation, the removal
catering to safety of heavy metals, phenols, and
and energy-efficiency needs.air
filtration mats, addressing environmental concerns. CFF composites
Filtration applications encompass the removal of heavy metals, phenols, and air also contribute to food
packaging as bio-degradable
filtration mats, thin films, aligning
addressing environmental withCFF
concerns. sustainability
composites goals.
also Finally,
contribute in fire
to
safety, they can play a role as protective housing parts, smoke retardants,
food packaging as bio-degradable thin films, aligning with sustainability goals. Finally, flame retardants,
and even
in fire carbon
safety, they monoxide
can playabsorbents, enhancing
a role as protective safety standards.
housing parts, smoke Theretardants,
table highlightsflame
the versatility of CFF composites and underscores their
retardants, and even carbon monoxide absorbents, enhancing safety standards. potential to meet multifaceted
The table
industry
highlights requirements
the versatility while of offering a sustainable
CFF composites andsolution
underscoresto wastetheirmanagement.
potential to meet
The effect of chemical treatments and additives on the properties of chicken feathers
multifaceted industry requirements while offering a sustainable solution to waste
thermoplastic biocomposites were reported in full detail by Casadesús et al. [107].
management.
Human hair is strong enough to be used as sutures in the majority of surgical proce-
The effect of chemical treatments and additives on the properties of chicken
dures. Research has demonstrated the potential of using human hair sutures in general
feathers thermoplastic biocomposites were reported in full detail by Casadesús et al.
surgeries on both people and animals, as well as in the treatment of conjunctival wounds
[107].
and cataracts [93,106]. There is a wealth of information available regarding biomedical
devices made from animal fibers [108–117]. Cutting-edge methods for extracting keratin
Table 17. Suggested applications of CFF composites [106].
from feathers to create biomaterials were also disclosed [118]. Innovative methods like 3D
Area of Application printing were also used to produce Application
biomaterials Form
[119].
Architectural and civil Wall panels and roofs
Transport industry Automotive inner insulation parts and aircraft body parts
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 26 of 44

Table 17. Suggested applications of CFF composites [106].

Area of Application Application Form

Architectural and civil Wall panels and roofs
Transport industry Automotive inner insulation parts and aircraft body parts
Hydrogels, scaffolds, and hydrofilms in tissue engineering,
Biomedical
orthopedic and dental implants, and replacements
Electrical PCB base materials, electrical insulators, sensor base materials
Thermal Flame resistance applications and thermal insulations
Filtration Removal of heavy metals, phenols, and mats for air filtration
Food packaging Bio-degradable thin films for foods
protective housing parts, smoke retardant, flame retardant,
Fire safety
carbon monoxide absorbent

4. Mineral Fibers: Origin and Applications

Due to their advantages over other fibers, natural mineral fiber composites are widely
used in a range of industries. Natural mineral fibers have demonstrated their efficacy
in a number of fields, including electronics, aviation, medicine, seafaring, automobiles,
and structural components for concrete. Natural mineral fibers could be classified as
toxic (e.g., asbestos) and non-toxic [120,121]. The name “asbestos” is used in commerce to
describe a group of amphibole minerals and fibrous serpentine with exceptional tensile
strength, moderate chemical resistance, and low heat conductivity. The use of asbestos
was abandoned since it is carcinogenic [122]. The most often used natural mineral fibers in
composites are basalt and wollastonite.
Among all igneous rocks, basalt is the most prevalent; it makes up more than 90%
of all volcanic materials. The pace at which molten lava cools has a significant impact on
the microstructural components of basalt rock. Basalt microstructure shows a potentially
crystalline atomic arrangement when the solidification rate is sluggish, whereas a quicker
solidification rate results in an amorphous structure [121].
For the creation of materials for a variety of applications, nature continuously offers a
variety of resources. Although many natural textile fibers are fibrous in character, there
are other raw materials that can be transformed and turned into a filament in a manner
akin to melting and solution spinning of other textile fibers. Igneous basalt is composed
of hardened volcanic lava. Basalt has drawn interest as an alternative to asbestos fibers.
Basalt has become a contender in the field of composite fiber reinforcing [123].
Basalt fiber (BF) has a low energy need, a low carbon footprint, strong mechanical
strength, excellent temperature resistance, good chemical stability, and good temperature
stability. The application requirements of electrical equipment, such as new conductors,
insulated pull rods, and composite cross-arms, are met by BF-reinforced polymers (BFRPs),
which also offer good corrosion resistance and designability. Basalt fiber (BF) can be
employed in high high-performance applications and can tolerate very high temperatures.
Table 18 provides insight into the chemical compositions of three types of fibers: basalt,
wollastonite, and synthetic e-glass. Basalt fibers are primarily composed of silica (SiO2 ),
alumina (Al2 O3 ), and iron oxide (Fe2 O3 ), which are common minerals found in volcanic
rocks. Wollastonite fibers are dominated by calcium oxide (CaO) and silica (SiO2 ), making
them primarily composed of calcium silicate. In contrast, synthetic e-glass fibers consist of
silica (SiO2 ) as the major component, along with alumina (Al2 O3 ), boron oxide (B2 O3 ), and
sodium oxide (Na2 O) as additives to improve the glass-forming process.
Tables 19 and 20 compare the thermal and mechanical properties of different fiber
types, including basalt, e-glass, s-glass, carbon, and aramid fibers. When we examine the
tensile strength and modulus of elasticity, we find that basalt fibers generally exhibit higher
values than e-glass fibers. This means that basalt fibers possess a greater ability to resist
stretching and deformation under load, making them suitable for applications demanding
structural integrity and strength.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 27 of 44

Table 18. Chemical composition of e-glass fibers, wollastonite, and basalt [120,121].

Oxides Content (wt. %) Basalt Wollastonite E-Glass

Na2 O + K2 O 2.5–6.0 0.364 0.29
MgO 3.5–5.0 0.47 3.3
TiO2 0.2–3.5 0.49 0.14
Fe2 O3 7.0–14.0 0.17 0.28
MnO 0.17–0.22 - N/A
B2 O3 0.8 - 10.3
ZrO2 0.0 - 0.8
Al2 O3 13.3–18.0 0.83 14.3
CaO 8.0–11.0 44.55 19.0
SiO2 47.5–53.0 50.78 53.4
SO3 - 0.04 N/A

Table 19. Comparison of properties of fibers commonly used in fiber-reinforced polymer compos-
ites [121].

Fiber Density Tensile Strength Modulus of Elongation

Fiber
Diameter (µm) (g/cm3 ) (MPa) Elasticity (GPa) at Break (%)
Basalt 9–23 2.8–3.0 3000–4840 79.3–93.1 3.1
E-glass 9–13 2.5–2.6 3100–3800 72.5–75.5 4.7
S-glass 9–13 2.46–2.5 4590–4830 88–91 5.6
Carbon 4–7.5 1.75–1.9 3500–6000 230–600 1.5–2.0
Aramid 5–18 1.44 2900–3400 70–112 2.8–3.6

Table 20. Thermal stability of different fibers [121].

Working Thermal Thermal Expansion

Fiber Temperature Range, Conductivity Co-Efficient
∆T (◦ C) (W m−1 K−1 ) (10−6 ◦ C−1 )
Carbon −50 to 700 5–185 (axial only) 0.05 (axial only)
E-glass −50 to 380 0.034–0.040 5.40
S-glass −50 to 300 0.034–0.040 29.00
Basalt −260 to 700 0.031–0.038 8.00

In terms of thermal conductivity, basalt fibers have a lower value compared to e-

glass fibers. This implies that basalt fibers offer better insulation properties, which is
advantageous for applications requiring heat resistance and thermal insulation.
Table 21 outlines the environmental impact comparison between basalt and glass fibers.
Basalt fibers typically have a lower energy requirement and carbon footprint during manu-
facturing compared to e-glass fibers. This lower environmental impact can be attributed to
the natural abundance of basaltic minerals and the lower processing temperatures needed
for basalt fiber production.
Moreover, the recyclability of basalt fibers contributes to their reduced environmental
footprint, aligning with sustainable practices. Recycling basalt fibers can help minimize
waste and resource consumption, which is becoming increasingly important in the context
of environmental sustainability.
The comprehensive analysis of these tables underscores the potential benefits of basalt
fibers over synthetic e-glass fibers. Basalt fibers exhibit superior mechanical properties,
including higher tensile strength and modulus of elasticity, which are critical for applica-
tions demanding strength and durability. Additionally, the better insulation capabilities of
basalt fibers make them attractive for applications involving thermal management. From
an environmental perspective, basalt fibers’ lower carbon footprint, energy consumption,
and recyclability position them as a more sustainable option compared to e-glass fibers.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 28 of 44

As industries increasingly prioritize sustainability and eco-friendly practices, the charac-

teristics highlighted in these tables can guide material selection for various applications,
considering both performance and environmental considerations.

Table 21. Environmental externalities associated with the production of 1 ton of basalt and glass
fiber [121].

Category Unit Basalt Fiber Glass Fiber

Source
Carcinogens kg C2 H3 Cl eq 15.2 —-
Non-carcinogens kg C2 H3 Cl eq 12.1 —-
Respiratory inorganics kg PM2.5 eq 0.320 —-
Ionizing radiation Bq C14 eq 2.30 × 103 —-
Ozone layer depletion kg CFC11 eq 35.1 × 10−6 483 × 10−10
Respiratory organics kg C2 H4 eq 0.175 —-
Photochemical oxidant kg NMVOC —- 5.26
Human toxicity kg 1.4-DB eg. —- 20.8
Aquatic ecotoxicity kg TEG water 256 × 103 —-
Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq —- 0.461
Terrestrial ecotoxicity terrestrial kg TEG soil 57.4 × 103 —-
Acidification/nutrification kg SO2 eq 6.56 10.3
Land occupation m2 organic arable 8.05 —-
Aquatic acidification kg SO2 eq 1.34 —-
Aquatic eutrophication kg PO4 P-lim 40.3 × 10−3 5.25 × 10−3
Global warming kg CO2 eq 398 1740
Non-renewable energy MJ primary 6630 —-
Fossil depletion kg oil eq —- 578
Mineral extraction MJ surplus 6.55 —-

The use of basalt as reinforcement of a polymer matrix was reviewed by Tao et al. [124].
The chemical, thermal, and additive treatment of the mechanical properties of basalt fiber
and their composites was examined in detail by Jain et al. [125]. To transfer stress and
improve the composite’s mechanical properties, the matrix and BF must adhere to one
another. This was the subject of [126]. The characterization of basalt fibers in relation to
basalt fiber-reinforced composites was investigated by Yang et al. [127].
Uses of the basalt-reinforced polymer matrix include the strengthening of concrete
structures [128]. A comprehensive review of the effects of different simulated environmental
conditions and hybridization processes on the mechanical behavior of different FRP bars
was given by Mirdarsoltany et al. [129].
Industrial applications of basalt fibers include the oil and gas industry [130], the
clean energy sector and power grids [131], the automotive industry [132,133], and ballistic
applications [134]. An overview of basalt fiber industrial applications was given in [135].
One of the most important applications of basalt is the construction industry as a composite
with cement, geopolymers, etc. A detailed review of basalt composites with other minerals
is given in [136–144]. The use of basalt in hybrid composites with carbon particles or
nanotubes was examined in [145,146].
Mortar is composed of cement, water, and fine gravel, whereas cement paste is com-
posed of cement and water. Studies on cement slurry or mortar were carried out by
replacing sand and/or cement with wollastonite, as given in Table 22.
Wong et al. [147] and Chan et al. [148] reviewed the thermal-flammability and mechani-
cal properties of wollastonite-filled thermoplastic composites. Other important applications
of wollastonite composites include the bioengineering [149].
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 29 of 44

Table 22. Usage and different effects of wollastonite in the cement [120].

Wollastonite Replacement Instead of Cement Effect of Wollastonite

5–10% Fracture toughness increases up to 34%.
Compressive and flexural strength increases to
0–15%
12% and 6%, respectively.
Cement hydration increases and
0–50%
workability decreases.
5–15% Ductility and crack growth resistance increase.
Drying shrinkage decreases up to 47%, and
10–30%
initial setting time increases.
Flexural and compress strengths increase up to
11% and 8%, respectively; water sorptivity
0–12% coefficient decreases up to 15%; gas
permeability and rapid chloride permeability
decrease up to 25% and 4%, respectively.
Water permeability, carbonation depth,
0–25%
chloride diffusion, and porosity decrease.
0–25% instead of cement Corrosion resistance enhanced.

5. Natural Fibers and Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

5.1. Introduction
With its numerous applications, spanning from industrial advancements to influencing
our daily lives, nanotechnology has changed the planet. It can be used in a variety of
financial sectors and promotes the advancement of research endeavors with significant
economic potential. The science of nanotechnology has expanded in new directions thanks
to nanomaterials, particularly those that have demonstrated biological and other health-
related features. Recently, the scientific community has paid close attention to the use
of bioresources in nanotechnology because of its availability, complete environmental
friendliness, and affordable price.
Nearly every industry is using nanomaterials. It has a vast array of uses in biological,
electrical, and sensing applications. Nanomaterials such as nanoparticles, nanofibers,
nanotubes, and polymeric nanocomposites are widely used in these sectors.
Researchers have been drawn to discover innovative techniques to manufacture these
nanomaterials in a more efficient and regulated manner, which can further enhance the de-
sired qualities of the material due to the growing use of nanomaterials in various industries.
Natural fibers might be strengthened by adding some elements, like nanomaterials.
Nano-bio composites and natural or biofiber-reinforced bio-composites are thought to be
superior to traditional composites. Materials in the category of polymer nanocomposites
utilize nanoparticles as one of their reinforcements. The category of materials known as
“nanofillers” or “nanoparticles” includes all substances with at least one dimension in the
nanoscale range (less than 100 nm) [150,151].
The fascinating qualities provided by nanocomposites are a result of the particle size.
Based on their size, nano-fillers are often divided into three categories. The first class of
nanoparticles are sheet-like particles, such as graphene, which have a thickness of only a
few nanometers and a length of 100–1000 nanometers. They fall within the category of
multilayer polymer nanocomposites. The second sort of particle has two dimensions: a
nanoscale and an elongated third dimension that is a few thousand nanometers long. This
category includes nanofibers and nanotubes, such as carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes,
and halloyte nanotubes [150,151].
The aspect ratio (L/D), indicating the ratio of length to diameter, becomes a pivotal
geometric parameter governing the properties of particles within this category. The third
category encapsulates nanoparticles wherein all dimensions remain confined within the
nanoscale realm. Spherical and cubical nanoparticles like calcite, silica, and alumina exem-
plify this category. Figure 12 visually encapsulates the different types of nanofillers based
on their dimensions, presenting a comprehensive depiction of their classifications. The
 The figure categorizes nanofillers into three distinct classes, each characterized by their
dimensional attributes. These categories serve as a fundamental framework for
understanding the diverse nature of nanofillers and their applications within
nanotechnology [150].
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 Table 23 provides an insightful comparison between natural fibers and nanofibers,
30 of 44
elucidating their defining characteristics and primary applications. It contrasts the
attributes of fibers originating from natural sources with those of nanofibers,
showcasing
figure categorizes their distinct
nanofillers features
into three and
distinct utilization.
classes, The table highlights
each characterized key aspects
by their dimen-
related toThese
sional attributes. sources, categories,
categories serve treatments, and applications
as a fundamental framework forof understanding
both types of fibers,
offering
the diverse a comprehensive
nature of nanofillers andunderstanding of their
their applications respective
within roles and significance.
nanotechnology [150].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12.Figure
Types12.
of Types of nanofillers
nanofillers according according to their dimensions
to their dimensions [150] (reproduced
[150] (reproduced after permission).
after permission).
(a) 3D, (b) 2D, (c) 1D.
(a) 3D, (b) 2D, (c) 1D.

TableTable
23 23. A comparison
provides between
an insightful nanofiber and
comparison naturalnatural
between fibers along with
fibers andtheir characterizations
nanofibers,
and main applications [151].
elucidating their defining characteristics and primary applications. It contrasts the at-
tributes
Natural of fibers originating from natural sources with thoseNanofibers
Fibers of nanofibers, showcasing
Definition their distinct features and utilization. The table highlights key aspects related to sources,
categories, treatments, and applications of both types of fibers, offering a comprehensive
A substrate of natural origin is considered to be a fiber if Fibers with nanometric-sized diameters are known as nan-
understanding of their respective roles and significance.
its length-to-diameter ratio is more than 1:200. ofibers.
The main sources Table 23. A comparison between nanofiber and natural fibers along with their characterizations and
main applications Nanofibes are often categorized as metal oxides, polymers,
Compared to fiber composites made of[151].
petroleum, natural
metals, carbon, ceramics, and hybrids, according to their
fiber composites are more environmentally friendly.
Natural Fibers composition. Nanofibers
Main categories of natural fibers
Definition Main types of nano-lignocellulose fibers
A substrate of natural
1–Mineral fibers (asbestos, basalt, and brucite) origin is considered to be a
1–Lignocelluse
Fibersnanofiber
with nanometric-sized diameters are
fiberand
2–Animal fibers (hair, silk, if itswool)
length-to-diameter ratio is more 2–Bacterialknown
nanocellulose
as nanofibers.
than 1:200.
3–Plant fibers (lignocelluloses)
The main sources 3–Nanocrystalline cellulose
Compared to fiber composites made of 4–Nano-fibrillated Nanofibescellulose
are often categorized as metal
petroleum,
Main treatments for natural fibersnatural fiber composites are more oxides, polymers,
Main fabrication techniquesmetals, carbon, ceramics,
of nanofibers
environmentally friendly. and hybrids, according to their composition.
Main categories of natural fibers Main types of nano-lignocellulose fibers
1–Mineral fibers (asbestos, basalt, and brucite) 1–Lignocelluse nanofiber
2–Animal fibers (hair, silk, and wool) 2–Bacterial nanocellulose
3–Plant fibers (lignocelluloses) 3–Nanocrystalline cellulose
4–Nano-fibrillated cellulose
Main treatments for natural fibers Main fabrication techniques of nanofibers
Hydrothermal, electrospinning, and
Chemical (acetylation, alkaline, benzoylation,
non-electrospinning methods (such as phase
peroxide, potassium permanganate, silane, and
separation drawing, self-assembly, and
stearic acid) and surface treatments
template synthesis)
The main applications of natural fibers The main applications of nanofibers
Structural applications, 3D printing industry,
Automobile, construction, aerospace, and marine
aerospace, polyurethane matrix, paper,
structural industries
orthopedic, and textile industry

The nanoparticles’ vast surface area helps to ensure that they are properly bonded
to the matrix. The dispersion of the particles in the matrix is another phenomenon that is
crucial to the polymer nanocomposite. Typically, 1 to 10% of the volume of the polymers is
filled with nanofillers [150–152].
Due to their abundance and large form factor, nanoclays are the most frequently used
category of nanomaterials. Clays are divided into five groups based on their chemical
makeup: smectite, chlorite, kaolinite, illite, and halloysite. Nanoclays are layered mineral
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 31 of 44

silicate nanoparticles having layered structural units that, when stacked, can create intricate
clay crystallites. There are about 30 different varieties of nanoclays that can be employed
for diverse applications, depending on the mineralogical makeup of the nanoclays. Mont-
morillonite (MMT) clay, also known as smectite, has been the subject of the most research
and is the clay that is used most frequently [150,151].
Calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, aluminum dioxide, silicon dioxide (silica), magne-
sium oxide, tungsten oxide, and zinc oxide are the most often utilized metal nano oxides
used as fillers in polymer composites. These metal oxides work more effectively when
employed in nano form compared to other sizes. They have been used in a variety of in-
dustries, including electronics, optical, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and a number of others.
Metal oxides are produced using several different synthetic processes. Coprecipitation,
microemulsion, thermal breakdown, hydrothermal synthesis, and sonochemical synthesis
are the top five methods for making metal oxides.
Agro-waste materials have been harnessed to produce nanofibers with promising
applications, contributing to sustainability and resource optimization. In this context,
Table 24 compiles notable instances of agro-waste-based nanofiber production, highlighting
the versatility and potential of these biodegradable materials across various sectors [152].

Table 24. List of some different agro-wastes that are used in producing nanofibers [151].

S.No. Nanofibers Obtained from Agro-Wastes and Used Method Comment on Nanofibers
A starch/ polyvinyl alcohol nanocomposite film reinforced with
1. cellulose nanofiber from sugarcane bagasse was created using Nanocomposite film-reinforced cellulose nanofiber
alkaline acid treatment and ultrasonication.
Using bamboo eaters (Phyllostachus pubescens) as
2. lignocellulosic biomass and producing cellulose nanofiber by Cellulose nanofibers
microwave-assisted ethanol solvent treatment.
Washing the Eucalyptus sawdust with an aqueous surfactant
3. Bio-nanocomposite films
solution will yield lignocellulosic nanofiber.
Waste products from the production of orange juice can be used
4. to create biodegradable films reinforced with Nano-nanocomposite films
cellulose nanofiber.
Combining polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyvinyl alcohol with
5. Nanofibers for cosmeceutical purposes
pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) peel extract.
Quinta wastes mixed with multi-walled C-nano tubes and ZnO
6. Bio-nanocomposite
can be employed to create natural cellulose fibers.
The electrospinning process produced cellulose nanofibers
7. Cellulose nanofibers
made from pomegranate peel ethanolic extract.
Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract nanofibers were tested
8. Gelatin nanofiber
in vitro using the electrospinning process.
To create peach branch-cellulose nanofiber, peach branches are
9. Nanofiber-reinforced gelatin hydrogel
employed in a high-pressure homogenous process.
Clysical nanocellulose was produced via hydrolysis
10. Mechanically reinforced polymer composites
disintegration using rice and coconut husks.
Acid hydrolysis was used to create the poly-lactic acid matrix
11. Production of nanocellulose
that contains nanocellulose from cotton waste.
Waste pineapple leaf is used to create cellulose nanofiber, which Cellulose nanofiber-reinforced polystyrene
12.
is then reinforced into a polystyrene substrate. nanocomposites

Sugarcane bagasse, a byproduct of sugarcane processing, was utilized to create cellu-

lose nanofibers that were incorporated into a starch/polyvinyl alcohol nanocomposite film.
This approach enhanced the film’s mechanical properties, offering a sustainable alternative
for biodegradable materials with improved strength.
By employing microwave-assisted ethanol solvent treatment, bamboo eaters’ ligno-
cellulosic biomass was converted into cellulose nanofibers. These fibers present unique
properties derived from their natural source, showing promise in diverse industries.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 32 of 44

Eucalyptus sawdust, often considered waste, was transformed into lignocellulosic

nanofibers by washing with an aqueous surfactant solution. The resulting bio-nanocomposite
films hold potential in eco-friendly packaging and biodegradable materials.
Waste generated during orange juice production found purpose in the creation of
biodegradable films reinforced with cellulose nanofibers. This innovation repurposes waste
and simultaneously enhances the mechanical properties of the resulting films.
In the cosmetic and skincare sector, nanofibers with cosmeceutical applications were
developed by combining polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyvinyl alcohol with pomegranate
peel extract. This aligns with the growing trend of utilizing natural ingredients in personal
care products.
Quinoa wastes were repurposed by incorporating them with multi-walled carbon nan-
otubes and zinc oxide to create natural cellulose fibers. This innovative approach showcases
the potential of incorporating agricultural waste into advanced bio-nanocomposites.
Electrospinning techniques were employed to derive cellulose nanofibers from
pomegranate peel ethanolic extract. These nanofibers hold promise in wound healing
and tissue engineering applications owing to their potential biocompatibility.
Peach branches, through a high-pressure homogenous process, were transformed
into natural cellulose fibers that reinforced gelatin hydrogels. This development finds
applications in biomedical areas, including tissue engineering and drug delivery.
Hydrolysis disintegration was used to extract crystalline nanocellulose from rice and
coconut husks. These nanocellulose materials offer the potential to enhance the mechanical
properties of polymer composites, introducing possibilities for eco-friendly materials.
Cotton waste was subjected to acid hydrolysis to create a poly-lactic acid matrix
containing nanocellulose. This innovation converts waste into valuable nanocellulose, with
prospects for biodegradable materials across various sectors.
Waste pineapple leaves yielded cellulose nanofibers, which were incorporated into
polystyrene substrates using a unique process. This resulted in cellulose nanofiber-reinforced
polystyrene nanocomposites, showcasing potential in multiple applications.
These instances demonstrate the power of agro-waste integration in nanofiber pro-
duction, addressing waste management challenges and presenting sustainable alternatives
in diverse sectors. Through creative utilization of natural resources, these innovative
approaches contribute to the advancement of environmentally friendly materials.
One of the most popular nanofillers for enhancing the performance of polymer com-
posites is carbon-based nanoparticles. The most widely utilized carbon-based nanoparticles
include fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene and its numerous derivatives, and graphene
oxide. Just trace amounts of naturally occurring carbon-based nanoparticles are known,
and the vast majority are created by engineering or synthetic synthesis. Applications for
carbon-based nanomaterials include gas storage, manufacturing of conductive materials,
and micro- and nanoelectronics.

5.2. Plant Fibers and Nanocomposites

One of the most popular nanomaterials is green nanocomposites. The green nanocom-
posites have become particularly popular among these nanocomposite materials. These green
nanocomposite materials are reasonably priced, lightweight, eco-friendly, and sustainable.
The primary source of the green nanocomposite material is fibers made from various
plants [153]. Selecting a good matrix-filler combination and then combining them in the
right ratio gives it a highly special ability to modify the properties of the material. It is
crucial to use the right synthesis method while creating nanocomposites [153].
On the other hand, plant fibers and sticks mostly consist of cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin and contain a small amount of ash. Because of this, plants such as jute are now the
best source for pure nanocellulose, nanolignin, and nanocarbon preparation. Additionally,
it has served as a source in the development of nanomaterials that are used in a variety of
applications. Hemicellulose and lignin, which can be extracted from jute fibers and sticks,
could also be used as a stabilizer or reductant when creating other nanomaterials [154,155].
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 33 of 44

Traditional applications of plant fiber nanocomposites include the automotive industry

and, in general, the construction sector. Imran and Susan recently reviewed nanocom-
posite applications in the automotive industry [156]. Balea et al. [157] examined in detail
the applications of nanocelluloses for fiber-reinforced cement composites; biodegradable
flame retardant materials based on plant fibers nanocomposites were reviewed by Kovače-
vić [158], while Taib et al. [159] reported the recent progress in cellulose-based composites
regarding flame retardancy applications. Nanostructured cellulose and its application in the
construction industry was the subject of the study by Nasir et al. [160]. Cellulose nanofibers
also play an important role in epoxy composites, as reported by Biswas et al. [161]. Another
rapidly developing area of plant nanocomposites is the energy storage by phase-changing
materials, as reviewed by Shen et al. [162].
One of the most important fields for nanomaterial applications with cellulosic fibers is
the textile industry. In particular, as textile materials play a crucial part in the development
of human culture, there has been an increase in the quest for novel materials to create
smart textiles in order to meet customer expectations and needs. The textile materials’ high
surface area and moisture-retentive properties also make them ideal growth environments
for microorganisms.
Recently, the development of functional smart textiles with self-cleaning, UV protec-
tion, insect repellent, waterproof, anti-static, flame resistant, and antimicrobial resistance
has greatly benefited from the use of nanoparticles and nanomaterials in the textile indus-
try [163]. A detailed review of the applications of plant fiber nanocomposites in the textile
industry is given in [163]
Another important field for the utilization of cellulosic fibers nanocomposites is the
biomedical sector. Because they are soluble in both water and common organic solvents,
cellulose derivatives are an effective substitute for pure cellulose.
This, along with their affordability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, makes
them a desirable option for use in the biomedical and bioanalytical fields [164]. As films
and membranes for osseointegration, hemodialysis and biosensors, smart textile fibers,
tissue engineering scaffolds, hydrogels, and nanoparticles for drug delivery, cellulose
derivatives-based composites with better characteristics have been extensively studied in
the literature [165–169].
Other important applications of cellulosic nanomaterials include fluorescent com-
posites [170], candidate material for 3D printing applications [171], water purification by
photocatalysis [172], sustainable packaging systems [173], etc.
The interested reader seeking a detailed review of cellulosic nanomaterials properties
and applications has to resort to References [174–179].

5.3. Animal and Mineral Fibers and Nanocomposites

Silk is one of the most promising materials for high-performance nano-composites.
Kiseleva et al. [180] and Qin et al. [181] reviewed the recent advance in hybrid spider silk
with inorganic nanomaterials for diverse applications. Prakash et al. [182] reported in detail
on composites using regenerated silk fibroin loaded with natural additives. Saad et al. [183]
examined the sericin biomedical and pharmaceutical applications regarding nanomaterials.
Other important biomedical applications of silk fiber or its fibrous derivatives include
bone formation by fiber-reinforced calcium phosphate cement [184], formation of high-
strength hydrogels [185], tissues for repairing the injured nervous system [186], hard tissue
engineering [187], etc. Mechanical properties and application analysis of spider silk bionic
material were reviewed by Gu et al. [188].
The distinctive qualities of keratin and sericin-based electrospun nanofibers make
them appropriate for a variety of applications in diverse disciplines. These nanofibers are
mainly produced by electrospinning, and there are numerous tools commonly utilized
to create nanofibers. Sericin and keratin biopolymers’ chemistry as well as the processes
used to extract them from their respective natural resources, such as wool and natural silk
fibers, have come under fire in recent years. In the review by Mowafi et al. [189], it was
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 34 of 44

explained how keratin or sericin might be combined with different natural and synthetic
polymeric materials to enhance their rheological characteristics and create an electro-
spinnable composite that could be used to create a useful nanofibrous mat. Moreover, they
examined the addition of bioactive compounds, nanosized metals, and metal oxides to
keratin and sericin-based electrospun nanofibers that give them additional activities.
In particular, nanofibers have a lot of potential in the biomedical industry because
of their large specific surface area. Due to their biocompatibility and biofunctionality,
animal nanofibers have drawn a lot of attention in biomedical applications such as tissue
engineering, scaffolds for cell growth, and more [190].
Scaffolds are implants or injectable materials that are used to introduce genes, medicines,
and cells into living organisms. A standard three-dimensional porous matrix, a nanofibrous
matrix, a thermosensitive sol-gel transition hydrogel, and a porous microsphere are a few
examples of the various polymeric scaffolds for cell/drug transport. A scaffold offers
an appropriate surface for cell adhesion, proliferation, differentiation of function, and
migration. Drug delivery to specific areas can be accomplished with scaffold matrices using
high loading and efficiency. A detailed review of scaffolds produced by animal fibers is
given in [191–193].
Petre and Leeuwenburgh [194] reviewed the use of fibers in bone tissue engineering.
Ressler [195] examined chitosan-based biomaterials for bone tissue engineering applications
in detail. Qasim et al. [196] reviewed electrospinning of chitosan-based solutions for tissue
engineering and regenerative.
Biomaterials from animal fibers are also used in the additive manufacturing process
known as “bioprinting,” which creates a habitat for living cells. These substances, also
known as bioinks, are derived from hydrogel precursors that gel in a way that is appropriate
for various bioprinting techniques [197].
Flexible strain sensors with exceptional stretchability and sensitivity have numerous
applications in the realms of medicine, smart robots, intelligent clothing, and human-
machine interaction. Designing strain sensors in the face of escalating environmental
contamination is made possible by the use of natural fibers in green manufacturing. Natural
fibers that have been commercialized include cellulose fibers (cotton and fibrilla), protein
fibers (wool and silk), and their regenerated components (viscose and silk fibroin). These
materials are inexpensive, simple to obtain, and biodegradable [198].
The efforts in the literature using 3D woven fabrics in ballistic applications were
reviewed by Junare et al. [199]. Hammouche et al. [200] conducted a comparative study
of capacitive humidity sensors based on keratin film, keratin/graphene oxide, and ker-
atin/carbon fibers.
Feather nanocomposites were also extensively reviewed in the literature as hybrid
composites due to their unique biocompatible properties. Rangappa et al. [201] exam-
ined bioepoxy-based hybrid composites from nanofillers of chicken feathers in detail.
Vilchez et al. [202] reported in detail on the upcycling of poultry feathers with (nano)cellulose.
Alternatively, poultry feathers are used as a precursor for carbon fibers [203].
Table 25 presents a comprehensive overview of the diverse applications of nanofibers
in the pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. The table is divided into two main sections:
“Nanofibers in Medicine” and “Nanofibers in Pharmacology,” each containing a list of
specific applications. In the realm of medicine, nanofibers have found utility in various
areas, such as artificial tissue engineering, wound healing, and organ regeneration. They
are used to create artificial blood vessels, corneas, and skin while also serving as platforms
for controlled drug release in applications like drug-release capsules and artificial skin.
Nanofiber-based materials are also contributing to innovative medical solutions, including
surgical adhesives, nerve and organ patches, and even treatments for rhinosinusitis. These
applications underscore the potential of nanofibers to advance medical practices through
their versatile characteristics and controlled functionalities.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 35 of 44

Table 25. Applications of nanofibers in pharmaceutical and biomedical fields [151].

Nanofibers in Medicine Nanofibers in Pharmacology

Adhesion prevention materials Anticancer drug delivery
Artificial bold vessels, cornea, and skin Antimicrobial drug delivery
Dialysis membrane Cell delivery and tissue engineering
Drug release artificial skin Anti-inflammatory drugs
Drug release capsule Antibiotic drug delivery
Facemask, skin, and vascular tissue engineering Growth factor and protein delivery
Filling agent for artificial bone Smart active drugs release systems
Nerve or organ patch Neuroprotective drugs
Rhinosinusitis treatment Nucleic acid delivery
Surgical adhesive sheet Miscellaneous drugs delivery
Transdermal absorbent Controlled release of gentamicin
Double-layered planar nanofibrous
Wound and therapeutic applications
scaffold abdominal adhesion prevention
Wound covering and protective agent Localized chemotherapy
Wound dressing and healing systems Transdermal drugs delivery

In the context of pharmacology, nanofibers continue to revolutionize drug delivery

systems. They offer targeted drug release mechanisms for applications such as anticancer
and antimicrobial drug delivery, as well as the controlled delivery of growth factors,
proteins, and nucleic acids. The table highlights the role of nanofibers in enhancing
therapeutic outcomes through smart drug release systems, neuroprotective drugs, and
more. Moreover, nanofibers are leveraged for transdermal drug delivery, contributing
to the development of innovative therapies that improve patient comfort and treatment
efficacy. Overall, Table 25 provides a succinct overview of the extensive capabilities of
nanofibers in advancing both medical and pharmacological applications, showcasing their
potential to transform the healthcare and pharmaceutical industries.
Important applications of mineral nanocomposites such as wollastonite include bio-
engineering [149]. A detailed review of mineral nanocomposites is given in [150].

6. Conclusions and Challenges

This work examined the main aspects of plant, animal and mineral natural fibers com-
posites regarding end use applications in addition to structure and chemical composition.
The main aspects of natural fiber composites, such as plant (cellulose base), animal (protein
base), and mineral fiber composites, are discussed. In particular, composite materials with
mineral or polymer as the matrix ingredient are examined. This paper has undertaken a
comprehensive exploration of the diverse realms of natural fiber composites, specifically fo-
cusing on plant, animal, and mineral fibers, their structural compositions, and their end-use
applications. The discussions have revolved around composite materials where mineral
or polymer matrices interact with these natural fibers. A significant finding emerges from
this review—the potential enhancement of natural fiber composite properties through the
incorporation of nanofillers. By delving into the literature, it becomes evident that while
natural fiber composites present an array of advantages, they also confront limitations
and challenges.
The challenges that emerge from this study pave the way for a promising future in the
field. Novel techniques aimed at bolstering the material properties of natural fiber compos-
ites are anticipated to take center stage [204]. These composites, found to be increasingly
relevant across diverse sectors, indicate an ever-expanding scope for their application [205].
The synergistic application of nano-fillers alongside natural fibers within various matrix
composites promises to be a transformative avenue [206]. Additionally, the incorporation of
cellulose from plants, chitin from feathers, and silk into the production of green composites
is expected to contribute to sustainable practices [207]. The utilization of waste materials
for the manufacture of fiber composites not only addresses environmental concerns but
also demonstrates a practical circular economy approach [208–213]. A pivotal aspect of
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 506 36 of 44

the envisioned future involves embracing the principles of the circular economy, incorpo-
rating green raw materials, and ensuring the responsible disposal of high-performance
composites [214]. Another important challenge is the application of naturally occurring
polymers as polymer matrices, such as the polymers belonging to the group of polyhy-
droxyalkanoates (PHAs). A typical example is poly (3-hydroxybutyric-co-3-hydroxyvaleric
acid) (PHBV). This polymer is of natural origin, and it is fully biodegradable. A detailed
discussion about the application of PHBV in natural fiber composites is given in [215–217].
This review not only underscores the remarkable potential of natural fiber compos-
ites and their challenges but also offers a glimpse into the evolving landscape of their
applications. It may serve as a foundation for future research endeavors, innovations, and
advancements in material science and engineering.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: R.K.A., D.T., and G.D.V.; Methodology: R.K.A., D.T., and
G.D.V.; Resources: R.K.A., D.T., S.V., G.D.V., P.S., A.T., R.K., A.K.T., and D.S.; writing—original draft
preparation: R.K.A., D.T., S.V., G.D.V., P.S., A.T., R.K., A.K.T., and D.S.; writing—review and editing:
R.K.A., D.T., S.V., G.D.V., P.S., A.T., R.K., A.K.T., and D.S.; visualization: R.K.A., D.T., and G.D.V.;
supervision: R.K.A. and G.D.V.; project administration: R.K.A. and G.D.V. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to Sarada Paul Roy for proofreading and making
language corrections. The authors are also thankful to the anonymous reviewers of this work for
their constructive comments, which further improve this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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