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Chapter- 6
Measurement, Analysis and Interpretation of
Geological Structural Geological data
• Rock mass: Introduction, properties, classification systems
• Measurement of the structural geological data from rock
mass
• Stereographic projection: Plotting a line & plane
• Structural analysis; Principles, phases of the analysis, analysis
of the structural geological data using stereo net, rose
diagrams, block diagrams and histogram
• Determination of the mean value of the major discontinuity
sets
• Interpretation of structural geological data for the specific
engineering geological problems
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

Rock Mass Classification

Rock mass: The large volume of rock intersected by discontinuities is known as rock
mass.
The rock mass is heterogeneous in nature due to variation in rock type,
discontinuities and degree of weathering.
Rock mass = Intact rock + Discontinuities
The discontinuities highly influence the overall strength of rock mass.
Strength of rock mass < Intact rock Intact rock
Intact rock: The intact rock is the rock in which
there is absence of discontinuities.
Discontinuities: Discontinuities are the structural
features of rock which are developed due to existence
of different stress on the periphery of the earth.
Discontinuities includes bedding plane, joints or
fracture etc.
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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Properties of Intact rock

Rock Strength: Strength
is the fundamental
quantitative
engineering property of
rock specimen. Strength
of rock mass depends
on grain size, texture,
mineralogy and degree
of foliation etc.
Compressive strength is
more important than
tensile and shear
strength in engineering
applications.
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

Weathering Grade:
• Different intact rocks have
different degree of
weathering
• It highly influences the
engineering properties of
rock
• Highly weathered rocks have
low compressive strength
• Degree of weathering
depends upon various factors
such as size, orientation of
discontinuities etc.

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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Properties of Discontinuities
The properties of discontinuities
are:
a) Orientation
b) Spacing
c) Continuity (persistence)
d) Aperture (width) and Infilling
materials
e) Surface Characteristic
(Roughness)
f) Groundwater condition

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

Rock mass classification system

Different rock mass classification system has been established till now by different researcher. The
rock mass classification helps to improve the quality of site investigation by providing quantitative
information for design purpose. It is also used to determine the strength of rock and help to
determine the support condition required for rock to provide designed strength and leads to
successful completion of project.

Different rock mass classification systems are as follows:

a) Terzaghi’s rock mass classification system

b) Rock quality designation index (RQD)

c) Rock mass rating system (RMR)/ Bieniawski’s/ Geomechanical classification System

d) Rock tunneling quality index ( Q- value)

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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a) Terzaghi’s rock mass classification

This is the first organized rock mass classification system proposed by
Dr. Karl Terzaghi (1946). The system was mainly qualitative and used
for rock tunnel design and construction projects.
• Intact rock: Rock with no joints and hair cracks.
• Stratified rock: Rock with little strength along bedding surface.
• Moderately jointed rock: Rock mass jointed but cemented.
• Blocky and seamy rock: Jointed rock mass without any cementing of
joints.
• Crushing rock: Rock that has been reduced to sand size particles
without any chemical weathering.
• Squeezing rock: Rock containing considerable amount of clay.
• Swelling rock: Rock that squeezes primarily from mineral swelling.
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

b) Rock Quality Designation Index

The Rock Quality Designation index (RQD)
was developed by Deere (Deere et al 1967) to
provide a quantitative estimate of rock mass
quality from drill core logs. RQD is defined as
the percentage of intact core pieces longer than
100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of core.

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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.
Sometime the drilling core is not available in such case the RQD can
be determined by the relation suggested by Plamstrom as shows
below:
RQD = 115 – 3.3 Jv
Where,
Jv = Sum of no. of joints per unit length of all discontinuity sets
known as the volumetric joints count.
Rock are classified into various groups based on RQD:

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

c) Rock mass rating system (RMR)/ Bieniawski’s/ Geomechanical

classification System
Bieniawski (1976) published the details of a rock mass classification
called the Geomechanics Classification or the Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
system. He has given different rating to different parameter. The sum of
the rating of individual parameter gives the final rating value. The RQD is
used to classify a rock mass using RMR system are:
a) Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
b) Rock quality designation RQD
c) Spacing of discontinuities
d) Condition of discontinuities
e) Ground water conditions
f) Orientation of discontinuities

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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Each of the six

parameters is
assigned a value
corresponding to the
characteristic of the
rock. These values
are desired from field
surveys and
laboratory tests as
given in table below:

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

Classification based on RMR

Class No. Rating value Rock quality Guidelines for excavation and support of 10 m span
I 100-81 Very good rock rock tunnels in accordance with the RMR system
II 80-61 Good rock (After Bieniawski 1989).
III 60-41 Fair rock
IV 40-21 Poor rock
V <20 Very poor rock

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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Rock Tunneling Quality Index (Q- Value)

On the basis of an evaluation of a large number of case histories of underground
excavations, Barton et al (1974) of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute proposed a
Tunnelling Quality Index (Q) for the determination of rock mass characteristics and
tunnel support requirements. The numerical value of the index Q varies on a
logarithmic scale from 0.001 to a maximum of 1,000 and is defined by:
𝑹𝑸𝑫 𝑱𝒓 𝒘𝑱
𝑸= × × 𝑺𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑸𝑫
= represents block size
𝑱𝒏 𝑱𝒂 𝑱𝒏
Where, RQD = is the Rock Quality Designation
𝑱𝒓
Jn = is the joint set number = represents shear strength
𝑱𝒂
Jr = is the joint roughness number
𝑱𝒘
Ja = is the joint alteration number = represents condition or nature
𝑺𝑹𝑭
Jw = is the joint water reduction factor
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 of rock
SRF = is the stress reduction factor Deepak Gautam

Based on Q-value, rock mass is Permanent support recommendations based on

classified in various group as follows: Q-values and span/ESR

Q- Value range Rock mass

quality
0.001- 0.01 Exceptionally poor

0.01- 0.1 Extremely poor

0.1- 1 Very poor

1-4 Poor

4-10 Fair

10-40 Good

40-100 Very good

100-400 Extremely good
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020
400-1000 Exceptionally good Deepak Gautam

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Measure of the structural geological data from rock

Attitude: Attitude refers the 3D
orientation of geological features
like beds, joints, foliation etc. The
attitude of beds or joints is defined
by their strike and dip.
Strike: Strike is a geological
direction given by the line of
intersection of the horizontal plane
with bedding plane of the layer of
rock. It is measured in the field
with the help of compass

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

.
Dip Direction: Dip direction is
the direction in which the beds
inclined. It is measured by
Brunton compass, holding its
north towards the direction of
inclined beds or foliation.
Dip Amount: Dip amount is the
inclination with respect to
horizontal plane. The value of
dip amount ranges from 0⁰ to
90⁰.

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Ture dip: it is the steepest path or shortest distance down

a planer surface. Water will flow directly down the true
dip.
Apparent Dip: When the dip of the
layer is measured in any other
direction which is not a right angled
to the strike direction is called
apparent dip.
Relation between true and
apparent dip:
Tanɵ = tanα*sinƍ
Where, ɵ = apparent dip
ƍ = angle between strike and cross
section line
α = True dip

. Plunge: vertical angle

between the inclined
linear feature and an
imaginary horizontal
plane is called plunge
Trend: Compass bearing
in the direction of the
plunge of the linear
geological feature is
called trend

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Stereographic Projection
It a powerful method to solve geometric problems.
It preserves only the orientation of lines & planes with no ability to
preserve position relationships.
A stereonet is a lower hemisphere graph on to which
a variety of geological data can be plotted. Stereonets
are used in many different branches of geology and
can be used in a range of ways beyond those which
are discussed here (see references for further uses).
Stereographic projection involves plotting 3D data
(planar or linear) on to a 2D surface (stereonet)
where it can be manipulated and interpreted.
There are several varieties of stereonet available.
Schmidt net: which constructs an equal area projection.
Wulff net: which is used for the construction of the true, or
equal-angle stereographic projection .

General idea about stereonet : -

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How to plot a plane

000° ● Strike/dip 090/40S 000°

● Using a sharp pencil or

● Mark on the strike - 090°
colour pencil, draw in the
great circle from the north pole
● Note which way the plane is
270° 090°
through point to the south pole.
dipping, then rotate the tracing 270° 090°

paper round until this mark

is aligned with north on the
stereonet.
180° 180°

000° 000°
● Find the great circle of the
● Rotate the tracing paper
plane by counting in the angle
back to north. Check the
of dip along the equator from
plane is dipping in the correct
the primitive. Count in from
direction and admire your
the direction of dip as marked
270° 090° 270° 090° work.
on the tracing paper (in this
case S). Mark with a dot.

180° 180°

Plotting a lineation
Lineations are measured using plunge/azimuth.

Examples:- slickenslide and slicken fiber,fold axis , mineral

stretching lineation etc.

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School of Earth and Environment

How to plot a lineation

000° ● Plunge and azimuth: 25/225 000°

● From the primitive count in

● Mark on the azimuth reading the plunge 25°. Mark on the
270° 090° 090°
225° lineation

180° 180°

000° 000°

● Rotate the tracing paper ● Rotate the tracing paper

270° 090° back and admire your work.
090° round until this mark is aligned
with equator on the stereonet.

180° 180°

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Plotting a pole

The pole to a plane is an imaginar

perpendicular to the plane.
A stereonet with poles is known as
Plotting a pole to 055/20 SE.

● Mark on the strike reading 055°

● Note which way the plane is dipping, t

tracing paper round until this mark is aligned with north on
the stereonet.

● Find the great circle of the plane by counting along the

equator from the primitive. Count in from the direction of dip
as marked on the tracing paper (in this case SE) along the
equator line 20°.

● Count a further 90° through the centre of the net and mark
a point – this is the pole to the plane

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Slope Stability Analysis:

• Slope stability refers to the condition of inclined soil or rock slopes to
withstand or undergo movement. The stability condition of slopes is a
subject of study and research in soil mechanics, geotechnical
engineering and engineering geology.
• Slope stability analyses include static and dynamic, analytical or
empirical methods to evaluate the stability of earth and rock-fill
dams, embankments, excavated slopes, and natural slopes in soil and
rock. The analyses are generally aimed at understanding the causes of
an occurred slope failure, or the factors that can potentially trigger a
slope movement, resulting in a landslide, as well as at preventing the
initiation of such movement, slowing it down or arresting it through
mitigation countermeasures.

मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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Types of slope failure:

a) Plane failure
b) Wedge failure
c) Toppling failure
# Plane failure: Now take discontinuity whose dip direction is in same
direction to hill slope for plane failure analysis.
Condition for plane failure:
• Dip direction of hill slope/ cut slope and direction of discontinuity
planes must be in same direction.
• Dip amount of cut/hill slope must be greater than that of dip amount of
discontinuity.
• Dip amount of discontinuity plane must be greater than frictional angle.
• Additional conditional strike difference must be written 20⁰.
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

# Wedge failure:
Analysis of the intersection of discontinuity for wedge failure.
Condition for wedge failure:
• Dip direction of hill slope/ cut slope and intersection of discontinuity planes must be in
same direction.
• Dip amount of cut /hill slope must be greater than that of dip amount of intersection of
discontinuities.
• Dip amount of discontinuity plane must be greater than frictional angle.
# Toppling failure: Now take discontinuity whose dip direction is in opposite to the hill
slope for toppling failure.
Condition for Toppling failure:
• Dip direction of hill slope/ cut slope and direction of discontinuity planes must be in
opposite direction
• Dip amount of hill slope should at least 55⁰.
• Dip amount of discontinuity should steeper than hill slope. (dip of h/s < dip of
discontinuity)
• Strike difference must within 180±30⁰ (150-180)
मङ्गलवार, सेप्टे म्बर 15, 2020 Deepak Gautam

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