INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES BY Mr.

SHIANGO KEVIN

Introduction

Indigenous Languages

Indigenous is born or originating in, native to a land or region before intrusion.

Native is belonging to one or something by birth.

Indigenous language or autochthonous language is a language that is native and

spoken by indigenous people. It is a language from a linguistically distinct
community that originated in an area.

NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION

Education in Kenya should:

1. Foster nationalism and patriotism and promote national unity.

Kenya is a country with a lot of people who belong to different communities,

races, and religions, but these differences need not to divide them.

Education should help young people acquire this sense of national hood by
removing conflicts and promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect which
enables them to live together in harmony and foster patriotism.

2. Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for

national development.

Education in Kenya should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective
and productive role in life of the nation.

a) Social Needs

Education must prepare children for changes in attitudes and relationships which
are necessary for smooth progress of a rapid developing modern economy. Thus
education should assist our youth to adapt to this change.

b) Economic Needs

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Education in Kenya should produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and
personal qualities that are required to support a growing economy.

c) Technological and Industrial Needs

Education in Kenya should provide learners with necessary skills and attitudes for
industrial development.

3. Promote individual development and self- fulfilment.

Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual

talents and personality. It should help children to develop their potential interest
and abilities ie building of character.

4. Promote sound moral and religious values.

Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skill and attitudes
that will enhance the acquisition of sound moral values and help children to grow
up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and integrated citizens.

5. Promote social equality and responsibility.

Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility
within an education system which provides equal educational opportunities for all.

6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures.

Education should instil in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present
cultures and their valid place in contemporary society.

7. Promote International conscience and foster positive attitudes towards

other nations.

Kenya is part of the international community. Education should lead the youths of
the country to accept membership of this this international community with all the
obligations and responsibilities, rights and benefits that this membership entails.

8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental

protection.

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Education should inculcate in young people the value of good health in order for
them to avoid indulging in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health.
Thus education should foster positive attitudes towards environmental
development and conservation.

ESSENCE STATEMENT

This subject area equips the trainee teacher with the language skills required to
facilitate and foster a positive attitude towards indigenous languages. According to
the United Nations, indigenous languages promote peace, human rights, inclusion,
and diversity. The UN declared 2019 'The International Year of Indigenous
Languages' to preserve, promote and revitalize them.

The trainee teacher will be provided with a rich and supportive environment to
develop their talents through linguistic and cultural diversity. The knowledge will
in turn provide opportunities for nurturing the learners' acceptance and
appreciation of their cultural diversity.

The trainee teacher will also be equipped with the language skills which will
enable their learners to acquire indigenous language skills that will enable them to
communicate proficiently and acquire other relevant competencies. Acquisition of
Indigenous language skills will further enable the trainee teacher to interact
appropriately with the learners, parents, and instructional materials, as well as
enhance the learners' cognitive, affective and psychomotor development at this
level and beyond. This also resonates well with the Vygotsky's social Cultural
Development Theory, which asserts that learning is a social activity. Continuous
advancement of knowledge in indigenous language will inform the teacher on how
to guide the learners in making decisions on future career paths.

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GENERAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the Course the trainee teacher should be able to:

1. Use indigenous language to foster critical and creative thinking skills in learning
for application in life.

2. Inculcate appropriate communicative competencies in a variety of social

contexts.

3. Use appropriate methodology to facilitate language learning in school s.

4. Develop the learner’s interests, talents, and character for positive contribution to
the society.

5. Promote inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning in

schools.

6. Protect and revitalize indigenous languages to promote unity in diversity in the

society.

7. Apply effective skills to create a cultural approach to learning indigenous

languages.

8. Research and promote the development and use of Indigenous languages.

9. Appreciate the role of Indigenous languages in the preservation of our cultural

heritage.

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 COURSE OUTLINE

1.1 Overview of First Language Learning.

1.1.1 Legal status of the First Language

a) Legal status of the first Language Learning in Kenya.

b) How Language policy in Kenya impacts the learning of Indigenous

languages.

c) Rationale of Learning indigenous languages.

d) The roles of Indigenous language in promoting culture and unity in society.

e) Importance of learning indigenous languages as a way of preserving culture.

KIQ: I) In what ways do indigenous languages guide realization of the national

Goals of Education?

II) What can be done to prevent Indigenous Languages from becoming

extinct?

1.1 Background to First Language Learning

1.1.2 Language Acquisition Theories.

a) Language Learning Theories with a focus on the learning of Indigenous

languages.

b) Comparisons between basic Education core competencies and the Teacher

education competencies from the curriculum designs

c) Importance of Indigenous languages in learning.

KIQ: I) What is the importance of Vygotsky's social constructivism and social

Cultural theories to indigenous language learning?

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 II) How do theoretical concepts influence the facilitation of learning in
indigenous languages?

1.2 Listening and Speaking

1.2.1 Principles of effective Listening and Speaking.

a) Principles of effective Listening and Speaking in oral communication.

b) Pedagogical approaches in learning of oral skills.

c) Barriers to effective Listening and Speaking and how they hinder learning of
Indigenous Languages.

d) Role of the Principles of effective Listening and Speaking in enhancing

learning.

KIQ: I) How can we apply the principles of good listening and Speaking skills to
facilitate the learning of Indigenous languages?

II) Why is it important to cater to learners with difficulties in listening and

Speaking indigenous languages?

1.3 Reading

1.3.1 Effective Reading Skills

a) Importance of correct pronunciation and articulation during a reading lesson.

b) Effective Reading Skills in learners.

c) Use of variety of materials and approaches to facilitate the acquisition of

effective reading skills in indigenous languages.

d) Merits and demerits of different Pedagogical techniques used to facilitate

reading lessons

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 e) Appreciate the importance of using of using appropriate materials for
reading lessons in learning indigenous languages.

KIQ: I) How can we overcome barriers to effective reading?

II) Why should we pronounce words and articulate sounds correctly in reading?

1.4 Writing

1.4.1 Writing Skills

a) Appropriate strategies that enhance writing skills in indigenous languages.

b) Barriers to effective Writing and possible remedies.

c) Appropriate activities in enhancing writing in indigenous languages.

d) Relationship between learning outcomes and learning Experiences and how

they inform classroom approaches.

e) Importance of overcoming barriers to effective Writing.

KIQ: I) What are the qualities of good writing?

II) Why is it important to overcome barriers to effective Writing?

III) How do we generate writing activities from learning outcomes?

1.5 Grammar

1.5.1 Word classes

a) Various word classes in Grammar.

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 b) Various strategies in the learning of different word classes.

c) The Role of Key Inquiry Questions in enhancing critical thinking and

information finding skills

d) Design Key Inquiry Questions to enhance the learning of word classes in

indigenous languages.

KIQ: I) How do we design Key Inquiry Questions for a grammar lesson in

indigenous languages?

II) What is the role of grammatical structures in language use?

III) Which strategies do we use to facilitate the learning of grammatical

structures in indigenous languages?

1.1 OVERVIEW OF FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING

1.1.1 LEGAL STATUS OF THE FIRST LANGUAGE

LEGAL STATUS OF FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING IN KENYA

✓ In Kenya, the language policy states that the child’s first language either
Mother Tongue (MT) or the language commonly spoken in the school’s
catchment area (usually Kiswahili or English) should be used as the
Language of Instruction (LOI) in lower primary up to end of Grade Three.
The policy further states that English and Kiswahili should be taught as
subjects in lower primary and English should be used as the LOI from grade
four onwards.
✓ This means that in lower primary it is official for children to be taught in
English, Kiswahili or any of the vernacular languages. Many parents, even

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 those from the rural areas, prefer to have their children taught in either
English or Kiswahili and not in the vernacular languages which they
perceive to be of little benefit to their child.
✓ Teachers are faced with a dilemma of what language to use in lower primary
partly because of the pupil’s inability to understand and communicate in
English or Kiswahili, or the teacher’s inability to speak in the language of
the catchment area. The most common practice by teachers is to use a
mixture of Mother Tongue, Kiswahili and English as LOI in lower primary.
The Constitution of Kenya 2010 recognizes Kiswahili as the National
Language at Article 7. It also recognizes both English and Kiswahili as the
Official Languages. It tasks the state with the responsibility of promoting
and protecting the diversity of language of the people of Kenya and
promoting the development and use of indigenous languages, Kenyan Sign
language, Braille and other communication formats and technologies
accessible to persons with disabilities.
✓ Kenya is a highly multilingual country. The use of mother tongue for
instruction has always been challenged as well as supported by parents,
teachers, scholars and other stakeholders in the education sector.
✓ This is especially so in schools in villages where teachers tend to believe that
all pupils or students in their classes speak in their mother tongue and use it
as a means of instructions.
✓ A research by Elizabeth Asewe Oluoch published in February 2017
recommended that Educational reforms should pay attention to the crucial
question of the language of instruction and implementation of language
policy in education, particularly, the use of the language of the catchment
area in lower primary in schools in the rural areas because it provides a
foundation for all other subsequent learning. The teachers should help
parents and other stakeholders in the education sector understand the
benefits of use of mother tongue in the early years of learning.
✓ As much as this idea is recommended, people have migrated and
intermingled and it is rare to find a school with children from only one tribe.
Therefore, the language used for instructions in schools should never, at any
point in time make our children in schools feel discriminated on basis of
language used for instructions in schools.

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 ✓ A research by Noel Omukumbi in 2013 showed that mother tongue used as a
mode of instruction in school improved the quality of education. Education
being a basic human right, many children ended up missing out on it due to
fact that they felt the mode of instruction used in school was too complicated
for them to understand. Using mother tongue language in the former level of
education had to be encouraged to help eliminate the problem.

IMPACTS OF LANGUAGE POLICY IN THE LEARNING OF

INDIGENOUS

• Language policies are associated with a great deal of debate, policy action
and conflict. The use of uniform languages can lower the cost of
communication, facilitate education, and expand economic growth. Thus the
mismatch in education, that is, when students are taught in a language,
usually an official state language, that differ from the mother tongue may
benefit the learners or hinder long term educational achievement.

- Although the language of instruction policy appears to be clear, practical

implementation is less straightforward. The lack of instructional materials in
the indigenous languages, and a concern that students who do not begin the
instruction in English upon school entry will be disadvantaged when they
take exit exams, combine to increase the use of English in early primary
grades.

- A number of qualitative and quantitative studies on language of instruction

practices in the region indicate that using the language spoken by the child
significantly enhances learning outcomes compared to using a language of
instruction that the child does not speak.

- Reading assessment across the region point to very low overall reading
levels. Using a language of instruction that the learners can understand is a
central feature of improving these outcomes. Thus it is important and strong
component of reading pedagogy.

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 Impact of the new curriculum

Kenya’s new curriculum could boost the use of mother tongues quite significantly.

- Firstly, the methodology itself is likely to affect language use. The

curriculum is designed to build learner capacities by putting pupils at the
centre of learning activities. This implies the use of language to name things,
to discuss with the teacher and fellow pupils. Majority of lower primary
school pupils usually enter school with their mother tongues and this is the
only resource they have to negotiate ideas.

- The use of mother tongues to do this makes a great deal of sense. And also
suggests that using English at grade one for children in rural and other areas
is inappropriate.

- Secondly, new various languages have been published to meet the demands
of the new curriculum. At Kisii University recently, a publisher launched
literacy books in the Ekegusii language, which is the predominant language
in both Kisii and Nyamira Counties of western Kenya. Materials for other
indigenous languages for use in the new curriculum are being developed.

- The publication of literacy materials promises a rebirth of the use of these

languages in the school system. This might help preserve many local
languages from extinction.

Broader benefits to society.

- Firstly, children will have an opportunity to acquire and develop their

mother tongues. Very early introduction to second languages is in some
cases to blame for the poor language mastery of most young people – they
do not know any of the languages they speak competently.

- Secondly, it will improve early literacy outcomes in primary schools. Recent

research indicates that majority of pupils entering grade four have literacy
skills below expectations. Researchers attribute this to premature
introduction of pupils, especially from rural areas and informal settlements-
into the English medium.

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 - Thirdly, the new curriculum provides for the study of indigenous languages
as career subjects later on. This implies that learning the languages might be
sources of employment like in working as interpreters, book writers,
teachers, and as linguists.

- Fourth, it will make Kenya a truly multilingual society. Contrary to

arguments about many languages breeding tribalism, a country with a
multilingual and multicultural ethos is a truly cohesive society; the
population grows to appreciate others as different and not as good or bad.

- Finally, counties might consider making some indigenous languages as

additional official languages in their territories. This might give millions of
Kenyans a voice to negotiate development issues. Currently, the use of
Kiswahili and English only excludes some people from participating in
public affairs specifically in projects that require public participation. This
isn’t an optimal state of affairs.

RATIONALE OF LEARNING INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES

Rationale is an explanation of the basis or fundamental reasons for something or a

justification.

• The state of indigenous languages today mirrors the situation of indigenous

peoples. In many parts of the world, they are on the verge of disappearance.
The biggest factor contributing to their loss is state policy. Some
governments have embarked on campaigns to extinguish indigenous
languages by criminalizing their use – as was the case in the Americas, in
the early days of colonialism. Some countries continue to deny the existence
of indigenous peoples in their territories – indigenous languages are referred
to as dialects, and accorded less importance than national languages,
contributing to their eventual loss
• But today, the major influence on the sorry state of their languages is the fact
that indigenous peoples are threatened themselves.

1. Indigenous languages connect you to the landscape.

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Many Elders in communities assert that Indigenous languages come from the land,
and therefore act as a medium to connect us with the deeper elements and stories of
Country. Some also go as far to say that every single word contained within an
Indigenous language is a universe unto itself, which revolves around other words
and modes of expression such as dance, visual art, song and symbolism in a
'galaxy' of communication. While this idea extends far out into the cosmos,
language and land are the fundamental building blocks to understanding the bigger
concepts.

2. They can help find local solutions to universal problems

Problems can vary by scale. For example, while climate change is a global issue,
there are applied solutions that can be implemented at local levels to lessen the
greater impact of things such as pollution, carbon build-up and climate shift.
Indigenous languages contextualize the needs of the land at a bioregional level and
provide insight into patterned relationships across ecosystems.

3. They will expand your thinking and cognition

We travel to different countries around the world to have new experiences and to
expand our horizons. On a cognitive and neurological level, we can enjoy the same
experiences by making contact with different linguistic concepts within new and
old languages. While we may not be enjoying the physical and aesthetic
experiences of travelling to new worlds, we are employing similar processes of
immersing ourselves in the conceptual culture of language.

4. They will help you better understand Indigenous people

Arguably, Indigenous disadvantage today has stemmed from broken

communication between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in early colonial
times, along with greatly conflicting values and forced removal from traditional

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homelands. While some early colonists sought to learn and record Indigenous
languages, many only wrote them down without understanding their correct
context. Better examples of positive 'race relations' (although still somewhat
extractive) were with those such as Thomas Petrie and Alfred Howitt, or those who
lived with Indigenous communities for extensive periods. These people were fluent
speakers of local Indigenous languages and made the effort to understand their
contexts, and thus earned the trust and respect of local Indigenous people in those
areas.

5. They promote dynamism and higher order thinking

Innovation, creativity and knowledge are fluid and dynamic concepts which rely
heavily on a diversity of perspectives. With more than 400 different Indigenous
languages spoken across Australia, there are a multitude of new possibilities that
can arise from Indigenous language learning and communication which will
greatly benefit communities today.

6. You will be contributing to keeping Indigenous languages alive

Most Indigenous languages are on the verge of extinction. With more people - and
children especially - learning Indigenous languages we will be keeping them alive,
and thus retaining the knowledge that they hold which may prove to be important
or useful in the future. There is an old saying, “when an Elder dies we lose an
entire library”, but when a language is lost, we lose just as much - if not more.

As the world moves towards a greatly uncertain future, we will be needing to draw
on more unique and diverse perspectives than the ones that have led us into
situations of social, political and ecological unrest. Indigenous languages may
prove as a gateway into seeing the world differently, and approaching
contemporary issues from various, wide-ranging angles.

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ROLE OF INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE IN PROMOTING CULTURE AND
UNITY IN SOCIETY.

Language is culture and culture is language.

“If you know all the languages of the world, and you don't know your mother
tongue, or the language of your culture, that is ENSLAVEMENT. But if you know
your mother tongue or the language of your culture and add all the other
languages of the world to it, that is EMPOWERMENT”
Prof. Ngugi WA Thiong'o

He also stated that A man without culture is like a naked man.

The most effective engine of a people’s culture is their mother tongue. Indigenous
languages are treasures of our culture and self-identity. In other words, it is the
indicator of history and self-identification. Mother tongue is an indispensable
cultural legacy with which all forms of human interactions are carried out.
Language is the key to the heart of the people. If we lose the key, we lose the
people. If we treasure the key and keep it safe, it will unlock the door to wealth or
affluence. Therefore, the success of sustainable development projects depends on
the participation of indigenous people at all stages, including design, planning,
implementation and evaluation of plans. The need to the participation of local
people in development activities, in Kenya, makes the use of indigenous languages
and knowledge indispensable. Indigenous knowledge systems, rooted in
indigenous languages, are the basis of decision making at the local level. This is
because such knowledge is the result of the efforts of local people to identify
problems and find solutions to help innovation and to experiment them. Local
people develop new technologies at the local level and benefit from indigenous
communication organizations for their dissemination. The role of indigenous
knowledge in collaborative activities for achieving development has expanded in
recent years. In some communities, indigenous knowledge is considered as a
priceless national heritage that provides opportunities for social development
programs and helps to identify, prioritize and organize local interests. This implies

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that indigenous knowledge also has a big role to play in development issues.
Indigenous languages are the carriers, transmitters and actualizers of
indigenous knowledge. The perspective of indigenous peoples is vital in
identifying their development needs. However, the conflict between indigenous
knowledge and formal knowledge in development activities cannot be ignored and
requires the merging of the two. This is because given the current state of the
world, solutions to many development challenges need to be searched in the
integration of indigenous knowledge and formal knowledge. And also because due
to the current development needs of Kenya's population and vulnerability of
remaining natural resources, none of the two types of knowledge can alone meet
the required development needs. Proper detection of indigenous development
problems and effective communication with indigenous people can only be
achieved effectively through the use of indigenous languages. Indigenous
languages can play a big role in national development and unity. Indigenous
languages can act as catalysts in educational development which is an important
index of national development and achieving of the National Goals of Education.
Qualitative education in any nation is not a luxury, but an imperative to national
development. In order to achieve national cohesion and unity Kenya recognizes the
importance of indigenous languages as articulated in the Constitution. It also
recognizes the importance of mother tongue education as articulated in the
National Policy on Education that the language of instruction in lower primary
school should be initially in the child’s mother tongue or the language of the
catchment area. Multilingual education is capable of eradicating illiteracy as it
provides political awareness and socio-political stability. National unity depends
largely on mutual understanding of each other’s language and culture, including
interests. Kenya should thus consider it to be in the interest of national unity that
each person should be encouraged to learn other indigenous languages other than
his/her own mother tongue. Unity means strength or power, and it is language that
unifies people. Indigenous languages therefore confer power on a nation. Given
that indigenous languages are the most important tools with which society is
organized and that it is hardly possible to talk of national development without
including the languages with which the people formulate their thoughts, ideas and
needs, government’s programmes and policies on development issues should reach
the grassroots with the use of indigenous.

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 IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES AS A
WAY OF PRERSERVING CULTURE.

INTRODUCTION

A major concern exists in tribal communities for the preservation of the native
language and culture. For many generations, tribal people have relied on the
traditional educational system to support their future. Through this educational
process, the family role of transmitting tribal knowledge has been severely
weakened as formal educational institutions do not transmit tribal knowledge,
language, or cultural elements as part of their learning process. Since the public
and private schools are not supporting the cultural and language needs of the tribe,
the responsibility rests on community programs to provide alternative opportunities
of tribal holistic learning for tribal ways.

The perceptions of the elders as described through the indigenous language reveal
overwhelming, comprehensive, and rich reflections on families, schooling, and
community. The elders reflect on their experiences, mostly when they were young
and with their parents. The elders share the socializing of long visits, singing, and
dancing. The indigenous language was the bond because everyone spoke only the
language. Elders today probably faced and experienced the most change of any
generation of people. The fast pace of living has caught up to the society as a group
of people in areas where language loss is very evident. The elders are worried
about it. The spirituality in the families used to be strong. To be able to reflect
back in time provides comfort to many elders because they have carried forward
their knowledge and want the next generations to take over. Storytelling among
the people was a favorite form of visiting with each other. The elders valued the
extended family concept of living. The relatives took care of them as children.
Constant praying for the wellbeing of family members was done daily. Again, the
indigenous language was held in high regard by the elders. They were proud of the
family members that know and speak the indigenous language. Many elders took
their names from the fore fathers. People's names guide them through their journey
in life. It is very important that every individual have in their possession a
Blackfeet name.

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The elders hold knowledge sacred. This knowledge can only be obtained through
the indigenous language. Ceremonial rites and rituals have been handed down by
Creator Sun since the beginning of time and must continue to remain so. The
writing of information is not considered revealing of or disturbing to the
sacredness. The time is coming when many ceremonial rites need to be transferred
to new and younger people. Therefore, the urgency for reviving the teachings
through the indigenous language is of utmost concern. Ceremonies must continue
on to provide protection to the people. The elders have high regards for the
indigenous language.

The elders in regard to the education policy feel the language must be taught to the
children. The children are going to bring back what was lost in language retention.
Even though punishment was used to get rid of the language in the elders and
generations before them, it made everyone place a higher value on the language.
The elders are willing and anxious to take on apprentices of the language. Failure
to retain the language has weakened and is threatening the Blackfeet knowledge
base. The elders reflected on their educational experience in the formal school
setting. Those times were not totally enjoyable for many of the elders while others
knew that education was a means of survival. All formal education systems had
one goal in mind when teaching Blackfeet children; that goal was to produce
English speakers at any expense.

The devaluing of the Blackfeet way of life by education affected many generations
of people. The educational systems also dismantled the strong family structures of
the Blackfeet people. The elders feel the people must have their ceremonies to
provide support, their language to transmit culture, and the singing and dancing to
promote to restore the Blackfeet lifestyles.

The relationship between children and families is very strong. The elders have
come to a realization that the language needs to be restored again. It is through the
children where hope lies. Some elders have advocated teaching children at infancy
levels and breast feeding will provide the nurturing and support all children need.
The path must be paved for transferring tribal knowledge, which means more
language speakers are needed. One elder advocated for a reflection and action
process of seeking tribal knowledge by using tribal people to conduct field base
research.

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1.1 BACKGROUND TO FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING

1.1.2 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES.

Language learning theories with focus on learning Indigenous languages.

Language acquisition is the process by which we are able to develop and learn a
language. This generally includes speaking, listening, writing, and overall
communication. Our ability to acquire language is a uniquely human trait because
although bonobos, a species of primate, can produce vocalizations with meaning,
birds can produce songs, and whales have their own version of a language, no
species on Earth that we know of can express an unlimited amount of abstract
ideas with a limited set of symbols (gestures, words, and sounds).

The term language acquisition often refers to the first-language acquisition, which
simply means that it’s the first language learned as an infant (unless the child
learns two or more languages at the same time). However, there is also the
term second-language acquisition, which refers to the process in both children and
adults when they learn additional languages apart from their native one. Each of
these terms has at least one language acquisition theory behind them which seeks
to answer the big question of “how do we learn a language?”

Behaviourism

The behaviourist psychologists developed their theories while carrying out a

series of experiments on animals. They observed that rats or birds, for example,
could be taught to perform various tasks by encouraging habit-forming.
Researchers rewarded desirable behaviour. This was known as positive
reinforcement. Undesirable behaviour was punished or simply not rewarded -
negative reinforcement.

The behaviourist B. F. Skinner then proposed this theory as an explanation for

language acquisition in humans. In Verbal Behaviour (1957), he stated:

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 "The basic processes and relations which give verbal behaviour its special
characteristics are now fairly well understood. Much of the experimental work
responsible for this advance has been carried out on other species, but the results
have proved to be surprisingly free of species restrictions. Recent work has shown
that the methods can be extended to human behaviour without serious
modifications."

(cited in Lowe and Graham, 1998, p68)

Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents or carers.
Successful attempts are rewarded because an adult who recognises a word spoken
by a child will praise the child and/or give it what it is asking for. Successful
utterances are therefore reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten.

Limitations of Behaviourism

While there must be some truth in Skinner's explanation, there are many
objections to it.

• Language is based on a set of structures or rules, which could not be worked out
simply by imitating individual utterances. The mistakes made by children reveal
that they are not simply imitating but actively working out and applying rules.

For example, a child who says "drinked" instead of "drank" is not copying an adult
but rather over-applying a rule.

The child has discovered that past tense verbs are formed by adding a /d/ or /t/
sound to the base form. The "mistakes" occur because there are irregular verbs
which do not behave in this way. Such forms are often referred to as intelligent
mistakes or virtuous errors.

• The vast majority of children go through the same stages of language

acquisition. There appears to be a definite sequence of steps. We refer to
developmental milestones. Apart from certain extreme cases (see the case of
Genie), the sequence seems to be largely unaffected by the treatment the child
receives or the type of society in which s/he grows up.

• Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says, especially if the adult
utterance contains a structure the child has not yet started to use. The classic

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demonstration comes from the American psycholinguist David McNeill. The
structure in question here involves negating verbs:

Child: Nobody don't like me

Mother: No, say, "Nobody likes me."

Child: Nobody don't like me. (Eight repetitions of this dialogue)

Mother: No, now listen carefully: say, "Nobody likes me."

Child: Oh! Nobody don't likes me.

(McNeil in The Genesis of Language, 1966)

• Few children receive much explicit grammatical correction. Parents are more
interested in politeness and truthfulness. According to Brown, Cazden and Bellugi
(1969): "It seems to be truth value rather than well-formed syntax that chiefly
governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents - which renders mildly
paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult
whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful."

(cited in Lowe and Graham, 1998)

• There is evidence for a critical period for language acquisition. Children who
have not acquired language by the age of about seven will never entirely catch up.

The most famous example is that of Genie, discovered in 1970 at the age of 13.
She had been severely neglected, brought up in isolation and deprived of normal
human contact. Of course, she was disturbed and underdeveloped in many ways.
During subsequent attempts at rehabilitation, her carers tried to teach her to speak.
Despite some success, mainly in learning vocabulary, she never became a fluent
speaker, failing to acquire the grammatical competence of the average five-year-
old.

Innateness.

Noam Chomsky published a criticism of the behaviourist theory in 1957. In

addition to some of the arguments listed above, he focused particularly on the
impoverished language input children receive. Adults do not typically speak in
grammatically complete sentences.

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In addition, what the child hears is only a small sample of language. Chomsky
concluded that children must have an inborn faculty for language acquisition.
According to this theory, the process is biologically determined - the human
species has evolved a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic information at
birth. The child's natural predisposition to learn language is triggered by hearing
speech and the child's brain is able to interpret what s/he hears according to the
underlying principles or structures it already contains.

This natural faculty has become known as the Language Acquisition Device
(LAD). Chomsky did not suggest that an English child is born knowing anything
specific about English, of course. He stated that all human languages share
common principles. (For example, they all have words for things and actions -
nouns and verbs.) It is the child's task to establish how the specific language s/he
hears expresses these underlying principles. For example, the LAD already
contains the concept of verb tense. By listening to such forms as "worked",
"played" and "patted", the child will form the hypothesis that the past tense of
verbs is formed by adding the sound /d/, /t/ or /id/ to the base form. This, in turn,
will lead to the "virtuous errors" mentioned above. It hardly needs saying that the
process is unconscious. Chomsky does not envisage the small child lying in its cot
working out grammatical rules consciously!

Chomsky's ground-breaking theory remains at the centre of the debate about

language acquisition. However, it has been modified, both by Chomsky himself
and by others. Chomsky's original position was that the LAD contained specific
knowledge about language. Dan Isaac Slobin has proposed that it may be more like
a mechanism for working out the rules of language: "It seems to me that the child
is born not with a set of linguistic categories but with some sort of process
mechanism - a set of procedures and inference rules, if you will - that he uses to
process linguistic data. These mechanisms are such that, applying them to the input
data, the child ends up with something which is a member of the class of human
languages. The linguistic universals, then, are the result of an innate cognitive
competence rather than the content of such a competence."

(cited in Russell, 2001)

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Evidence to support the innateness theory Work in several areas of language study
has provided support for the idea of an innate language faculty.

Three types of evidence are offered here:

1. Slobin has pointed out that human anatomy is peculiarly adapted to the
production of speech. Unlike our nearest relatives, the great apes, we have evolved
a vocal tract which allows the precise articulation of a wide repertoire of vocal
sounds. Neuro-science has also identified specific areas of the brain with distinctly
linguistic functions, notably Broca's area and Wernicke's area. Stroke victims
provide valuable data: depending on the site of brain damage, they may suffer a
range of language dysfunction, from problems with finding words to an inability to
interpret syntax. Experiments aimed at teaching chimpanzees to communicate
using plastic symbols or manual gestures have proved controversial. It seems likely
that our ape cousins, while able to learn individual "words", have little or no
grammatical competence. Pinker (1994) offers a good account of this research.

2. The formation of creole varieties of English appears to be the result of the LAD
at work. The linguist Derek Bickerton has studied the formation of Dutch-based
creoles in Surinam. Escaped slaves, living together but originally from different
language groups, were forced to communicate in their very limited Dutch. The
result was the restricted form of language known as a pidgin. The adult speakers
were past the critical age at which they could learn a new language fluently - they
had learned Dutch as a foreign language and under unfavorable conditions.
Remarkably, the children of these slaves turned the pidgin into a full language,
known by linguists as a creole. They were presumably unaware of the process but
the outcome was a language variety which follows its own consistent rules and has
a full expressive range. Creoles based on English are also found, in the Caribbean
and elsewhere.

3. Studies of the sign languages used by the deaf have shown that, far from being
crude gestures replacing spoken words, these are complex, fully grammatical
languages in their own right. A sign language may exist in several dialects.
Children learning to sign as a first language pass through similar stages to hearing
children learning spoken language. Deprived of speech, the urge to communicate is
realised through a manual system which fulfils the same function. There is even a

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signing creole, again developed by children, in Nicaragua. For an account of this,
see Pinker, 1994 (pp 36-7). (Note: some of this section is derived from the BBC
television documentary The Mind Machine.) Limitations of Chomsky's theory
Chomsky's work on language was theoretical. He was interested in grammar and
much of his work consists of complex explanations of grammatical rules. He did
not study real children. The theory relies on children being exposed to language
but takes no account of the interaction between children and their carers. Nor does
it recognise the reasons why a child might want to speak, the functions of
language.

4. In 1977, Bard and Sachs published a study of a child known as Jim, the hearing
son of deaf parents. Jim's parents wanted their son to learn speech rather than the
sign language they used between themselves. He watched a lot of television and
listened to the radio, therefore receiving frequent language input. However, his
progress was limited until a speech therapist was enlisted to work with him.
Simply being exposed to language was not enough. Without the associated
interaction, it meant little to him. Subsequent theories have placed greater
emphasis on the ways in which real children develop language to fulfil their needs
and interact with their environment, including other people.

The Cognitive Theory

The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget placed acquisition of language within the
context of a child's mental or cognitive development. He argued that a child has to
understand a concept before s/he can acquire the particular language form which
expresses that concept. A good example of this is seriation. There will be a point in
a child's intellectual development when s/he can compare objects with respect to
size. This means that if you gave the child a number of sticks, s/he could arrange
them in order of size. Piaget suggested that a child who had not yet reached this
stage would not be able to learn and use comparative adjectives like "bigger" or
"smaller". Object permanence is another phenomenon often cited in relation to the
cognitive theory. During the first year of life, children seem unaware of the
existence of objects they cannot see. An object which moves out of sight ceases to
exist. By the time they reach the age of 18 months, children have realised that
objects have an existence independently of their perception. The cognitive theory

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draws attention to the large increase in children's vocabulary at around this age,
suggesting a link between object permanence and the learning of labels for objects.

Limitations of the Cognitive Theory

During the first year to 18 months, connections of the type explained above are
possible to trace but, as a child continues to develop, so it becomes harder to find
clear links between language and intellect. Some studies have focused on children
who have learned to speak fluently despite abnormal mental development. Syntax
in particular does not appear to rely on general intellectual growth.

Input or Interactionist Theories

In contrast to the work of Chomsky, more recent theorists have stressed the
imposrtance of the language input children receive from their care-givers.
Language exists for the purpose of communication and can only be learned in the
context of interaction with people who want to communicate with you.

Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner suggest that the language behaviour of adults
when talking to children (known by several names by most easily referred to as
child-directed speech or CDS) is specially adapted to support the acquisition
process. This support is often described to as scaffolding for the child's language
learning. Bruner also coined the term Language Acquisition Support System or
LASS in response to Chomsky's LAD. Colwyn Trevarthen studied the interaction
between parents and babies who were too young to speak. He concluded that the
turn-taking structure of conversation is developed through games and non-verbal
communication long before actual words are uttered.

Limitations of Input theories

These theories serve as a useful corrective to Chomsky's early position and it

seems likely that a child will learn more quickly with frequent interaction.
However, it has already been noted that children in all cultures pass through the
same stages in acquiring language. We have also seen that there are cultures in

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which adults do not adopt special ways of talking to children, so s may be useful
but seems not to be essential.

SUMMARY OF THEORIES

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is the innate biological ability of

humans to acquire and develop language. The LAD was developed by linguist
Noam Chomsky who contributed to the field of cognitive psychology through his
language research. He challenged the prevailing behaviorist theory that language
(like any other behavior) was acquired through exposure to it in our environment.
He theorized that all humans share a mechanism which allows us to comprehend,
develop, and use language like no other animal. Animals raised around humans
don't develop the ability to speak but humans do. He called this biological
language mechanism the Language Acquisition Device.

Our capacity for language is the same all over the world in wildly different cultures
and environments. Children quickly learn language and learn in developmental
stages that occur at the same age no matter what differing environments they grow
up in. Cognitive psychologists use the LAD theory as evidence to support the
concept that language is both a learned and innate capability.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION SUPPORT SYSTEM By Jerome

Seymour Bruner

The adults and older children who help a young child to acquire language.
Children learn language in and from conversation:

Family members talk to them, tailoring their language to the children’s level of
comprehension and often using higher pitch and exaggerated intonation. The LASS
is conceptualized as essential to language learning and may interact with the
language acquisition device of the younger child.

Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development

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Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning
and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level of
development obtained when children engage in social interactions with others; it is
the distance between a child’s potential to learn and the actual learning that takes
place. Vygotsky’s theory also demonstrated that Piaget underestimated the
importance of social interactions in the development of language. Piaget’s and
Vygotsky’s theories are often compared with each other, and both have been used
successfully in the field of education.

BASIC EDUCATION CORE COMPETENCIES

The Core Competencies are sets of intellectual, personal, and social and emotional
proficiencies that all students need in order to engage in deep, lifelong learning.
Along with literacy and numeracy foundations, they are central to BECF and
assessment system and directly support students in their growth as educated
citizens.

Students develop Core Competencies when they are engaged in the “doing” – the
Curricular Competencies – within a learning area. As such, they are an integral part
of the curriculum. While they manifest themselves uniquely in each area of
learning, the Core Competencies are often interconnected and are foundational to
all learning.

Before students enter school, development of Core Competencies begins at home

and then continues throughout their life. Students encounter opportunities to
develop their competence in formal and informal settings. They move from
demonstrating competence in relatively simple and highly supported situations, to
demonstrating independence in more complex and varied contexts. Competency
development does not end with school graduation but continues in personal, social,
educational, and workplace contexts.

Students, teachers, and parents/guardians share responsibility for the ongoing

development of Core Competencies. That is to develop across all academic
subject areas in order to become engaged, empowered, and ethical citizens
and thrive in the 21st century

These are: communication and collaboration, critical thinking and problem

solving, imagination and creativity, citizenship, learning to learn, self-efficacy
and digital literacy.

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COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION

The Communication and collaboration competency encompasses the knowledge,

skills, processes and dispositions we associate with interactions with others.
Through their communication, students acquire, develop and transform ideas and
information, and make connections with others to share their ideas, express their
individuality, further their learning, and get things done. The communication
competency is fundamental to finding satisfaction, purpose and joy.

The Communication and collaboration Core Competency has two interrelated sub-
competencies:

COMMUNICATING

Communicating encompasses the set of abilities that people use to impart and
exchange information, experiences, and ideas; to explore the world around them;
and to understand and effectively use communication forms, strategies, and
technologies. Communicating provides a bridge between peoples’ learning, their
personal and social identity, and the world in which they interact.

People who communicate effectively use their skills and strategies intentionally to
ensure understanding their audience. They communicate in an increasing variety of
contexts, for a variety of purposes, and often with multiple audiences. It involves:

Connecting and engaging with others

Students engage in informal and structured conversations in which they listen,
contribute, develop understanding and relationships, and learn to consider diverse
perspectives. This facet of communication is closely linked to the building and
sustaining of relationships at home, at school, in the community, and through
social media.

Focusing on intent and purpose

Students communicate with intention and purpose. They understand that
communication can influence, entertain, teach, inspire, and help us make sense of
the world and our experiences. They recognize the role the audience plays in
constructing meaning, and they make strategic choices to help convey their

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messages and create their intended impact. They draw from a range of forms,
media, and techniques, monitoring and adjusting their approaches and assessing
their effects.

Acquiring and presenting information

Students communicate by receiving and presenting information. They inquire into
topics of interest and topics related to their studies. They acquire information from
a variety of sources, including people, print materials, and media; this may involve
listening, viewing, or reading, and requires understanding of how to interpret
information. They present information for many purposes and audiences, and their
presentations often feature media and technology.

COLLABORATING

Collaborating involves the skills, strategies, and dispositions that people use to
work together to pursue common purposes and accomplish common goals.

People who collaborate effectively recognize how combining others’ perspectives,

strategies, and efforts with their own enhances collective understanding, use, and
impact. They value the contributions of group members, interact supportively and
effectively using inclusive practices, and strive for shared commitment and mutual
benefit. It involves:

Working collectively
Students combine their efforts with those of others to effectively accomplish
learning and tasks. As members of a group, they appreciate interdependence and
cooperation, commit to needed roles and responsibilities, and are conscientious
about contributing. They also negotiate respectfully and follow through on plans,
strategies, and actions as they share resources, time, and spaces for collaborative
projects.

Supporting group interactions

Students engage with others in ways that build and sustain trusting relationships
and contribute to collective approaches. They value diverse perspectives and
integrate the ideas of others with their own to tackle tasks, issues, and problems.
Students seek to distribute leadership, listen actively, take turns in discussions,
acknowledge contributions, and identify missing voices. They regulate the group’s

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interactions together, mutually encouraging one another, creating space for
marginalized voices, and applying constructive strategies to navigate through
misunderstandings, struggles, and conflict.

Determining common purposes

Students develop shared understandings of information, issues, situations, and
problems in pursuit of common purposes and goals. They honor various group
processes and proactively support movement forward, including refocusing on
intended goals as needed. They revise plans according to mutual deliberations and
strive for consensus. As co-members of a group, students see one another as
valuable resources, commit to impact and collective success, assess group results
and processes, and share in the recognition of achievements.

THINKING

The Thinking competency encompasses the knowledge, skills and processes we

associate with intellectual development. It is through their competency as thinkers
that students take subject-specific concepts and content and transform them into a
new understanding. Thinking competence includes specific thinking skills as well
as habits of mind, and metacognitive awareness. These are used to process
information from a variety of sources, including thoughts and feelings that arise
from the subconscious and unconscious mind and from embodied cognition, to
create new understandings.

The Thinking Core Competency has two interrelated sub-competencies:

CREATIVE THINKING

Creative Thinking involves the generation of ideas and concepts that are novel and
innovative in the context in which they are generated, reflection on their value to
the individual or others, and the development of chosen ideas and concepts from
thought to reality.

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People who think creatively are curious and open-minded, have a sense of wonder
and joy in learning, demonstrate a willingness to think divergently, and are
comfortable with complexity. A creative thinker reflects on existing ideas and
concepts; uses imagination, inventiveness, resourcefulness, and flexibility; and is
willing to take risks to go beyond existing knowledge. It involves:

Creating and innovating

Students get creative ideas that are novel and have value. An idea may be new to
the student or their peers, and it may be novel for their age group or the larger
community. It may be new to a particular context or absolutely new. The idea or
product may have value in a variety of ways and contexts – it may be fun, provide
a sense of accomplishment, solve a problem, be a form of self-expression, provoke
reflection, or provide a new perspective that influences the way people think or act.
It can have a positive impact on the individual, classmates, the community, or the
world.

Generating and incubating

Students may generate creative ideas through free play, engagement with other’s
ideas, or consideration of a problem or constraint, and/or because of their interests
and passions. New ideas and inspirations can spontaneously arise from the
unconscious mind, but students can also develop strategies to facilitate the
generation of ideas – learning a lot about something, engaging in a period of
reflection, providing time for incubation, and doing relaxing or automatic activities
to quiet their conscious mind. The capacity for creative thinking expands as
individuals increase their range of ideas and concepts to recombine them into new
ideas. The ideas available as raw material for creative thinking depend on previous
experiences and learning, as well as students’ cultural legacies.

Evaluating and developing

Students reflect on their creative ideas in order to decide which ones to develop.
They consider whether their idea would ultimately support the well-being of self,
community, and the land. They do this with a sense of place and taking into
consideration unintended consequences for other living things and our planet. If
they decide to develop an idea, they work individually and/or collaboratively to
refine it and work to realize it. This may require accessing the knowledge of those
who have gone before, building the necessary skills, sustaining perseverance, using
failure productively over time, and reflecting on process and results. It may also
require the generation of additional creative ideas to come up with solutions to
problems along the way.

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CRITICAL AND REFLECTIVE THINKING

Critical and Reflective Thinking encompasses a set of abilities that students use to
examine their own thinking and that of others. This involves making judgments
based on reasoning, where students consider options, analyze options using
specific criteria, and draw conclusions.

People who think critically and reflectively are analytical and investigative, willing
to question and challenge their own thoughts, ideas, and assumptions and challenge
those of others. They reflect on the information they receive through observation,
experience, and other forms of communication to solve problems, design products,
understand events, and address issues. A critical thinker uses their ideas,
experiences, and reflections to set goals, make judgments, and refine their thinking.
It involves:

Analyzing and critiquing

Students learn to analyze and make judgments about a work, a position, a process,
a performance, or another product or act. They reflect to consider purpose and
perspectives, pinpoint evidence, use explicit or implicit criteria, make defensible
judgments or assessments, and draw conclusions. Students have opportunities for
analysis and critique through engagement in formal tasks, informal tasks, and
ongoing activities.

Questioning and investigating

Students learn to engage in inquiry when they identify and investigate questions,
challenges, key issues, or problematic situations in their studies, lives, and
communities and in the media. They develop and refine questions; create and carry
out plans; gather, interpret, and synthesize information and evidence; and reflect to
draw reasoned conclusions. Critical thinking activities may focus on one part of the
process, such as questioning, and reach a simple conclusion, while others may
involve more complex inquiry requiring extensive thought and reflection.

Designing and developing

Students think critically to develop ideas. Their ideas may lead to the designing of
products or methods or the development of performances and representations in
response to problems, events, issues, and needs. They work with clear purpose and
consider the potential uses or audiences of their work. They explore possibilities,

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develop and reflect on processes, monitor progress, and adjust procedures in light
of criteria and feedback.

Reflecting and assessing

Students apply critical, metacognitive, and reflective thinking in given situations,
and relate this thinking to other experiences, using this process to identify ways to
improve or adapt their approach to learning. They reflect on and assess their
experiences, thinking, learning processes, work, and progress in relation to their
purposes. Students give, receive, and act on feedback and set goals individually
and collaboratively. They determine the extent to which they have met their goals
and can set new ones.

PERSONAL AND SOCIAL

The Personal and Social competency is the set of abilities that relate to students'
identity in the world, both as individuals and as members of their community and
society. Personal and social competency encompasses what students need to thrive
as individuals, to understand and care about themselves and others, and to find and
achieve their purposes in the world.

The Personal and Social Core Competency has three interrelated sub-
competencies:

PERSONAL AWARENESS AND RESPONSIBILITY

Personal Awareness and Responsibility involves understanding the connections

between personal and social behaviour and well-being; it encourages people to
make constructive and ethical decisions and act on them.

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People who are personally aware and responsible demonstrate self-respect,
persevere in difficult situations, and exercise responsibility. They understand that
there are consequences for their decisions and actions. A personally aware and
responsible individual takes steps to ensure their well-being, sets goals and
monitors progress, regulates emotions and manages stress, and recognizes and
advocates for their own rights.

POSITIVE PERSONAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

Positive Personal and Cultural Identity involves the awareness, understanding, and
appreciation of the factors that contribute to a healthy sense of oneself; it includes
knowledge of one’s family background, heritage(s), language(s), beliefs, and
perspectives in a pluralistic society.

People who have a positive personal and cultural identity value their personal and
cultural narratives and understand how these shape their identity. They exhibit a
sense of self-worth, self-awareness, and positive identity to become confident
individuals who take satisfaction in who they are and what they can do. They
contribute to their own well-being and to the well-being of their family,
community, and society.

SOCIAL AWARENESS AND RESPONSIBILITY

Social Awareness and Responsibility involves the awareness, understanding, and

appreciation of connections among people, including between people and the
natural environment. Social Awareness and Responsibility focuses on interacting
with others and the natural world in respectful and caring ways.

People who are socially aware and responsible contribute to the well-being of their
social and physical environments. They support the development of welcoming
and inclusive communities, where people feel safe and have a sense of belonging.

A socially aware and responsible individual contributes positively to their family,

community, and environment; empathizes with others and appreciates their
perspectives; resolves problems peacefully; and develops and sustains healthy
relationships. It includes:

Building relationships
Students build and maintain diverse, positive peer and intergenerational
relationships. They are aware and respectful of others’ needs and feelings and

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share their own in appropriate ways. They adjust their words and actions to care for
their relationships.

Contributing to community and caring for the environment

Students develop awareness of and take responsibility for their social, physical,
and natural environments by working independently and collaboratively for the
benefit of others, communities, and the environment. They are aware of the impact
of their decisions, actions, and footprint. They advocate for and act to bring about
positive change.

Resolving problems
Students identify and develop an appreciation for different perspectives on issues.
They show empathy, disagree respectfully, and create space for others to use their
voices. They generate, use, and evaluate strategies to resolve problems.

Valuing diversity
Students value diversity, defend human rights, advocate for issues, and interact
ethically with others. They are inclusive in their language and behaviour and
recognize that everyone has something to contribute. Their approach to inclusive
relationships exemplifies commitment to developing positive communities.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is a person’s belief about his or her capabilities to perform tasks or

assignments that can change and transform his or her life. It determines how the
person feels, thinks, behaves and motivates themselves. Self-efficacy has the
potential to determine four major processes namely cognitive, motivational,
affective and selection processes.

Citizenship

Citizenship is the state of being vested with the rights, privileges, and duties of a
citizen. It creates a sense of belonging and attachment to one's nation.A sense of
citizenship helps to equip young people to deal with situations of conflict and

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controversy knowledgeably and tolerantly. They are able to understand the
consequences of their actions, and those of the adults around them.
Digital literacy

Digital literacy can be described as having the knowledge, skills and behaviours
which are necessary to effectively and safely use a wide range of digital content
and devices. Such devices include mobile phones, smartphones, tablets, laptops
and desktops among others. All these fall within the category of network enabled
devices. Digital literacy focuses mainly on network enabled devices and should not
be confused with computer literacy skills. However, traditional forms of literacy
and computer literacy are enhancers in the acquisition of digital literacy skills.

Learning to learn

Learning to learn is the ability to pursue and persist in learning, to organise one’s
own learning by the effective management of time and information, both
individually and in groups. This competence includes awareness of one’s learning
process and needs, identifying available opportunities, and the ability to overcome
obstacles in order to learn successfully. This competence means gaining,
processing and assimilating new knowledge and skills as well as seeking and
making use of guidance. Learning to learn helps learners to build on prior learning
and life experiences in order to use and apply knowledge and skills in a variety of
contexts. There are four pillars of learning: Learning to know, learning to do,
learning to be and learning to live to live together.

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