1 SECTION-A

Sets

INTRODUCTION
CeorgeCantor, amathematician, born in Russia and
educated in Germany, was the first to realise
the importance of sets. The concept of aset is useful in
almost every branch of mathematics.
In thischapter, you will learn
"the concept of a set
" representations of a set
" various types of sets
" set relations
" subsets of real numbers-intervals
" Venn diagrams
" operations on sets
"some basic results on cardinality of sets
" practical use of sets in solving problems.

1.1 SETS
In evervday life, we have to deal with collections or aggregates of objects of one kind or the other. For
example, consider the following collections:
(i) the collection of even natural numbers less than 15 i.e. of the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14.
(i) the collection of vowels in the English alphabet ie. of the letters a, e, i,o,u.
(iii) allcolours of rainbow.
(iv) allstates of India.
(v) all rivers of India.
(vi) all prime factors of 330 ie. 2, 3, 5 and 11.
3and -1.
(vii) the roots of theequation r-2r-3= 0i.e.
a given point.
(vii) all straight lines (drawn in a particular plane) passing throughcollection
of the above collections is a well-defined of obËects, By "wel!
We note that each one
an object, it should be possible to
defined collection of objects' we mean that given a collection andcollection or not.
the given
decide (beyond doubt) whether the object belongs to
The objects of the set are called its menbers
Set. Any well-defined collection of objects is called a set.
or elements.
collectionsis a set.
Thus, each one of the above
of a set are synonymous and are undefined.
The terms ´objiects', 'members' or 'elements'
books on mathematics.
Now, consider the collection of allgood by one person
It is nota well-defined collection, since a mathematics book considered good
So, this colection is not a set.
may not be considered good by another.
 defined
not well
voitintsare
itg
kllew yourschool.
Notethatthecriketplavsof
goni
()al otIda.
ites
ii)allbig tlwrs word
ioveiy ofthe
(s)all NWwnedscientists
Nt
( ÔNe oletonsisa set.
theadC B, C etc., and the
S%noeot by capital letters A,
Ihe e are
asuall denoted
letters&, b, c etc.
members of he set
dobyowerTae (read as 'x
o the set.4,
xNA membet of the set A, we write x e A belongs
to A)
we write te A(ead as'x does not belong to A'). If r and y bothandbelong
if x;

a set
LLIRepresentations of
a given set.
There are iwo waysto represent
all the members
1. Roster or tabular form. In this form, we list of the set
fcurlv brackets) and separate these by commas.
For example:
within brabrce
) the set Aof all even natural numbers less than 15 in the roster
A= (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}. forn is
Writ en as
Note that 2 e A, 10 ¬ A while 5 A.
( the set Sof vowels in the English alphabet in the tabular form is
S- 4, e, i o, u}. written as

()the set Mof months of a vear having less than 31 days in the
M= (February, April, June, September, November). roster form is
(ie) the set L of letters in the word 1ODHPUR' in the tabular
form is written as
writ en a
L= |,0, D, H, P, U, R}.
Remarks
1. The order of listing the elements in aset
can be changed. Thus, the
be written as (7,3, 8, 12} or (12, 7, 3, 8} etc. set (3, 7, 8, 12)
2 Ifone or more elements of a may also
set are repeated, the set
Thus, the set la, b, c, b, b, a is the same as remains the same.
a, b, c).
3. Whçe listing the
elements of a set, it is
Thus, the set X of letters in the word sufficient to list its members only once.
X= M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S,. 'MATHEMATICS in the tabular form is written as
4, The roster form
enables us to see all the members of a set at a
of elements in a set is very
clearly indicate the structurelarge, then we represent the set byglance. However, if the number
of the elements of the set writing a few elements which
and then writing the last followed (or preceded) by three dots
element (if it exists).
thus, the set Aof odd natural
as numbers between 50 and 500 in the tabular
form can be written
A= (51, 53, 55, ...,
The set P of even 499},
integers less than 10 in the roster
P= {.,-4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, form can be written as
8,.
2. Set
builder form or rule
member of the set which method. In this form,
we write a
by a colon :' and variable (say x) representing
is any
satisfied by each member of the followed
set and then thereafter we writewithin
the property
enclose the
whole description braces.

(A-2 )
Understanding ISC ()
 (x:x has property pl,
If Ais a
set consisting of elements xhaving property p. we writeA =
bich is read as 'the set of elements x Such that x has the property .
' in place of
The colon stands for the words 'such that'. Sometimes, we uSe the symbo
the colon '.
For example:
than 15 in the builder fornt is Written As
(i) the set A of all even natural numbers less
A =(x:r is an even natural number less than 15|.
writter as
(i) the set S of vowels in the English alphabet in the builder fornm is
S = (x:x is avowel in the English alphabet).
written as
(ii) the set S = (1, 4,9, 16, 25, ...] in the builder forn can be
S= (:x is the square of a naturaB number).

1.1.2 Kinds of sets set or te

any element is called the empty set or the null
1 Empty set. A set which does not contain
n0id set. There is only one such set.
It is denoted by ¢ or {}.
For example:
less than 1.
(i) the collection of natural numbers
number).
(i) (x: 2r + 11 =3 and x is anatural
(i) (x: y2 =9 and x is an even integer}.
number greater than 2.
(iv) (x: x is an even prime
set.
Each one of these is the empty (or nnit) set.
only one element is called a sngleton
2. Singleton set. Aset that contains
For example:
() {0}.
(ii) (x:3x -1 = 8).
India).
(üi) (x: x is the capital of
Each one of these is a singleton set. ut
contains a limited (defintte) nuniber of ditfercnt elenents s ceii a
3. Finite set. A set that
set.
For example:
() S = la, e, i, o, u}.
(iü) A = (2, 4, 6, ..., 100}.
(ii) S = (x: x is the capital of India).
(iv) M= (x:x is a month of ayear}.
factor of 210} i.(2, 3, 5,73
(v) P = (x:xe N and x is a prime
Each one of these is a finite set.

Note
is a finite set.
As the empty set has no elements, ¢
nfnitE sei,
diterent elerints is caled
Infinite set. A set that contains an unlimited nunter ef
4.
finite is called Qn infinite set.
In other words, a set which is not
For example:
numbers ie. [2, 4, 6, ...
(i) the set of even natura!
{2, 3, 5,7, 11, 13, .1
(7) (x:xe N and xis prime} i.e.

Sets
 particuar
hnes (idrawn
in a plane) passing
through
stagh
A th set of ai

theroster
form For example, the set
c te written
abecause
t in of real
wrtet
ÂNNnthis
t
sets n the elements of this set do not follow any pattern.

nurnberscatn
AR

order) of a finite set

L1.3Cardinal mumber (or
finite set Ais called the cardinal
T nker of dterent clements in a
denetnd tu {A)or O(A).
number (or order of
A, on
Fer example:
() let A = fa, e, i, o, uË, then n{A)= 5.
() let Abe the set of letters in the word SCHOOL
ie. A= {S,C, H, 0, L}, then n(A) = 5.
() let A l:xis a prime factor of 60} i.e. A = (2,3, 5), then n(A) =3
jio) let D=(x:xis adigit in our number system}
ie. D= {0, 1, 2, ...,9), then n(D) =10.
Note
The cardinai number of the empty set is zero andthe cardinal number
of a
cardinal number of an infinite set isnever defined. singleton set is one
1.14 Some standard sets of numbers
fi) Natural numbers. The set of natural (or
counting) numbers is
N={1,2,3, ...1.
(i) Whole numbers. The set of whole numbers is denoted by N.
denoted by N. T:
Thus
W= {0, 1, 2, 3, ...1.
(tin) Integers. The set of all integers is denoted by Ior Z. Thus
I={..., -2, -1,0, 1,2, ....
(iv) Rational numbers. Any number which can be
expressed in the form 2 where p, qeld
q 0 is called a rational number. Thus 6
,6, -7 etc. are rational numbers. The st
5'8'
rational numbers is denoted by Q.
() Real numbers. All rational as well as
5 7
irrational numbers are real numbers. Thus -3, ¬,
-V2,-2 +W3,2 etc. are all real nunmbers. The set of real numbers is
(vi) Irrational numbers. Theset of
denoted by B
irrational numbers is denoted by T. Thus,T = (*:*¬ Kt
* e Q .e. T is the set of all real numbers that are not
members of I. rational. So, 2.J3, - 5.,t a
(i1) Positive rational numbers. The set of
positive rational numbers is denoted by
(viy Positive real numbers. The set of positive
real numbers is denoted by R*.

A-4 Understanding ISC

LUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
true or
teacHersin Delhi is aset's
statement 'collection of cconmpetent school
xample 1. State whether the
answer. well-defined. A
false. Justityyour competent school teachers in Delhi is not
the collection of incompetent by
Solution. False, because one perSon might be considered
particularteacher considered competent by
another.
sets inthe roster forn:
Example2. Write tle following
<x<10).
() A= (x|xENand 4
the word 'ARITHMETIC.
(i) H=xxis aletter in
5 <x'<50.
(ii) B= (x xe Nand 201.
Iand r²<
(iv) A = {x:xe
S= (r:x isa solution of the eguation x' -x-6= 0).
(o)
2n-1
.neWand n<4}.
(o) B= fx:x= 9).
is a two digit number such that the sum of its digits is
(vi) A= [x:x
9, 10}.
Solution. () A= (5,6, 7, 8,
M, E, C). and 50, therefure,
(ii) H=(A, R, I, T, H, 5, 6, 7 lie between 5
3, 4,
squares of natural numbers
(ii) We know that the
is A = (3, 4, 5, 6,7). therefore, the set A
the set A in roster form ±2, t3, +4 are less than 20,
squares of integers 0, +1,
(iv) We know that the (-4, -3, -2, -1,0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
inroster form is A =
equation is x-x-6= 0
(v) The given
0
’ (r-3) (x + 2) =
= 0 ’r= 3, -2.
’ i-3=0 or x+2
roster form is S (3, -21.
.: The set Sin the
(vi) As ne W and n<4,n =0, 1,2, 3.
2n-1 putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, we get
Also.x n +2

1
T=-,1.
3
form isA =}234
Therefore, the setA inroster
is 9, sich numbers are
digit number and the sum of whose digits
(vii) As x is atwo
81, 90.
18, 27, 36, 45, 54,63, 72,
form is
Therefore, the set A in the roster
72, 81, 90}.
A =(18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63,
the roster form: (Eremplars
Example 3. Write the follozvingsets in
(i) D= (t | B=t, te R). (Exemphar)
(i) E= x:3,x eR x+3 {Eeplar)
(ii) F= (x-5r+6= 0,
xER).
R}.
Solution. (i) Given D= (f|B=t, te =0
B=t’ ß-f= 0>t(t-1) (t + 1)
t=0,1, -1, f e R.
form is D= {0, 1, -1}.
:.The set D in the roster

A-5
 eR

1
uster form is E = 2
The sefinthe
-51+6 =), xeRI.
ir GIven F {r
x. Sr+ 6=0= (r-2)(r-3) =0

N tv2, /3,xe R.
The set Fin theroster form is F= (v2, -V2, V3,-/3)
Exampie 4. I/Y= (x | xis a positive factor of the number 2P-
-(2P- 1), vhere 2P-11 is
Wrte Yn the nster form. a
- (2P-1), where 2P
Solution. Given i is positive factor of the number 2 prme nu
The positivefactors of the number 2-1 (2 - 1) are: 1is a
L2.2.23, .,. 2P-,(2-1), 2(2 - 1),22(2P - 1), ..,.2P -l(2P - 1) prime nurnber
. The set Y in the roster form is
Y= il,2,22, .., 2 -1,2P- 1,2(2P - 1), 22(2P-1), ..., 2P - l(2-1)).
Example 5. Write the folloving sets in the builder form:
(0) the counting unbers which are multiples of 6 and less than 50.
() the fractions whose numerater is 1 and whose
denominator
(m) the set of all positive integers whose cube is odd.
is a
counting number less
than 6
(i) A= j1 2 3 9

1
)B=1625
Solution. () }x:x is amultiple of 6and 0<x<50}.
(ü) :xis acounting number and x< 10.
(iü) Here, we are to consider only
positive
an even positive integer and the cube ofintegers. As the cube of an even positive integer
an odd positive integer is an odd
therefore, the members of the required set are all positive odd integers. positivein inte
form the required set can be written as {r: x
is an odd
Hence, buliz
ie. (x:x=2k +1 and ke W. positive integer)
{iv) Here, we observe that each
member in the
denominator. Also the numerator begins withgiven set has numerator one less thar
1 and ends with 9.
Hence, the set A in the builder form can be
written as
A=x:x=
;,neN and ns 9.
n+1

(P) B=x:x=neN
1

(A-6 Understanding 1SC Mathennatics-XI (I)

 false. Justify your answer.
statements are tru and which are
xample 6. State which of the following
() 31 e<x:x has exactly too positiefactors).
(i) 77 e (x:* has exactlyfour positive factors). (Exemplar)
(ii) 28 e x:the sum of all positive factors of xis 2x). (Exemplar)
2yl.
(iv) 128 e ly : the sum of all positive factors of yis {Exemplar)
() 7747 e |t |t isa multiple of 371. to the set.
since 31 has exactly two positive factors, 1and 31, 31 belongs
olution. () False; belongs to the set.
True; since 77 has exactly four positive factors, 1, 7, 11 and 77, 77
(i) * 56 2 x 28.
factors of 28 =1 +2 +4+7+ 14 + 28
(i) True; since the sumof positive
factors of 128
(iv) False; since the sum of all positive
128.
=1+2+4+8+ 16 +32 +64+ 128 = 255 +2 x
(divide 7747 by 37 and check).
() False; since 7747 is not a multiple of 37
the cardina!
finite or infinite. In case offinite sets, mention
Example 7. State which of the folloving sets are
number:
() A= (x:re Nand x'=9)
(ii) B= (x:re Wand 2x -1=0]
(ii) C= (r:re Nand x'-3r +2= 0}
(io) D=(r:xe Nandxis primel
(v) E = (x:re Nand xis odd)
(vi) F= (x:xisa month of a year having less than 31 days
(vii) G= (x:xe Iandx> -3).
Solution. () Given x=9’X-3, -3 but xe N,
.. A= (3), which is a finite set. n(A) = 1.
(i) Given 2x -1 =0 ’x= but xe W,2

.. B=¢, which is a finite set. n(B) = 0.

(üi) Given r'-3r +2 =0’ (x- 1) (r- 2) =0>r=12 but re N,
:C=(1, 21, which is afinite set, n(C)=2.
(iv) D=(x:re Nand xis prime) = (2,3,5,7, 11, 13, ...J.
Since prime numbers are infinite in number, D is an infinite set.
() E= (x:xeN and xis odd} = |1,3, 5,7,9, 11, ....
Since odd numbers are infinite in number, E is an infinite set.
(vi) F = (:x is month of a year having less than 31 days)
=(February, April, June, September, November}, which is a finite set.
n(F) = 5.
(vii) G= [x:re Iand x>-3) = (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3,...), which is an infinite set.

Example 8. IfS =(r:xisa positive multijple of 3less than 100} and P=lx:x is a prime number less
than 20}, then write n(S) + n(P). (Exenplar)
Solution. Given S=(x:xis apositive multiple of 3less tharn 100} and
P= (x:xis a prime number less than 20}.
The sets S and Pin the roster form are:
S= (3, 6,9, 12, ..,99) and
P= (2,3,5,7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
n(S) = 33 and n(P) = 8.
n(S) + n(P) = 33 +8 41.

Sets A-7
EXERCISE 1.1
(lto8):
answerlabjectirequestions aset:
short collection ofobjects is
Very given India.
which of the cinema actors of than 51.
1. State popular
coklectionof natural numbers
less
(i A of even
(ú The
collection less than 1.
collection of counting numbers Shakespeare.
(u) The interesting books written by Chand.
ii) Coltection of novels written by Munshi Prem
of school.
(p) The coltection talented students of your
10 most
(z) The collection of
rivers flowing in India.
( )Collection of all
flowing in India.
(ziú) Collection of 5 rivers which lie between -1
and1.
rational numbers
(ix) Collection of all world.
team of eieven best cricketers of the
{x A world.
of most dangerous animals of the
2. If A=
(x1) A collection
(3, 5, 7, 9, 11), then write which of the following statements are true. If astatement

nct true, mention why. (iüi) 8 e A

(i) 3 e A (ii) 5,9 e A
() (3) e A (vi) (5,7) e A.
(i0) 9 A
represent the following sets:
3. Use the roster method to less than 50.
counting numbers which are multiples of 6 and
() The denominatoris a counting number
fractions whose numerator is 1, and whose
() The
than 10.
factor of 84).
(ii) (x:xeN and x is aprime
between -4 and 8.
(ir) The set of odd integers lying 10.
numbers xfor which x+6isless than
() The set of allnatural
x+6 is greater than 10.
{vi) The set of all integers x for which than 10.
which x +6 is less
(ii) The set of all integersx for
60
is a natural number.
(viii) The set of all integers x for which
(ir) (3n +5; n e N and n s6). (ISC 2020
(r) x:xeN and 4x -3< 15).
(xi) (x:IeN,<40)
(xii) (r:e Zand '<16).
(riii) The set of all digits in our number system.
(xiu) The set of all letters in the word TRIGONOMETRY.
(x) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet which precede q.
(xvi) {x:xisa consonant in the English alphabet which precedes k}.
4. Write the following sets in the builder form:
(i) {1,3, 5,7,9, 11, 13} (i) (2,4, 6, 8, ...] (ii) (3, 6,9, 12, 15|
(i0) {2,4, 8, 16, 32, 64] () {5,25, 125,625) (vi) (1, 4, 9, 16, ..,100}
(vii) {1,4,9, 16, 25,..) 23 4
(ui)

5 Which of the following are examples of the null set?

(1) Set of even prime numbers.
(i) Set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2
(ii) Set of all Indian kids 5metres tall
(io) (x:xe N, x<5 and x>8.

UnderstarIding ISC
A-8
Mathematics-XI (1)
 () :x is apoint common to aty two parallel straight linesj.
(0) (*:x is astudent of your school presently studying in both classes XI and XI).
6. Which of the following setsare finite or
infinite?
() The set of davs of a week.
(ii) The set of numbers which are multiples of 7.
(ii) The set of animals living on Earth.
(i0) The set of consonants in the English alphabet.
(v) The set of circles drawn in a plane.
(vi) The set of prime numbers which are less than one crore.
7. Find the cardinal number of the following sets:
() ) (ii) (0} (ii) A=1, 2,2, 1, 3|
(iv) The set of all Indians having 8legs.
(v) The set of all letters in the word PRINCIPAL
(vi) The set of all vowels in the word PRINCIPAL.
8 () Write the cardinal number of the set A, where A=(x:xis a two digit number, sum of
whose digits is 8].
(ii) Write the cardinal number of the set of all integers x for which is a natural
number.
(iii) What is the cardinal number of the set X, where X = x: is a letter in the word
'CHANDIGARH1?
Short answer questions (9 to 10):
9. State which of the following statements are true and which are false. Justify your answer.
() 37 e (x:xhas exactly two positive factors] (Exemplary
(i) 35 e (x:x has exactly four positive factors)
(ii) 496 e (y: the sum of all positive factors of yis 2y}. (Exemyiar)
(iv) 3 (x:-5r3 +2x?- 112x +6=0} (Exemplar)
Hint
(iüi) 496 =24x31, so all the positive factors of 496 are
1,2,4, 8,16, 31, 62, 124,248 and 496.
The sum of all the positive factors of 496
=1+2+4+8 +16 +31 +62 +124 +248 +496 =992 =2 x 496
496 e fy: the sum of all positive factors of yis 2y).
Hence, the given statement is true.
10. Classify the following sets into finite set and infinite set. In case of finite sets, mention the
cardinal number.
() A= (:xel,x< 5}.
(ii) A=(*:xe W, xis divisible by 4and 9}.
(iii) P=x:xis an even prime number>2).
(iv) F= (x:eNand xis afactor of 84).
() B= (x:xis atwo digit number, sum of whose digits is 12}.
(vi) C= {(x:xeW, 3r-7<8).
(vii) (x:x= 5n, n e N and x <20).
(vil) (x:x=5n, n e Iand r < 20}.

(ix) x:*=neW
n+1
and ns10}.
21
(r) x:x= n+3E,n eN and 5< n < 20.
Sets
Answers fix)are sets
(u), (i}and
1. (), (in)
(u) are true
2. (i), (), because 9e A
(t) is nottrue not an element
becAuse /3} is aset and
(z) is not true
because 5, 7] is aset
(i) is not frue 1 1 1 1 1)
36, 42,48} {i1)
30,
() 6, 12, 18, 24,
2
3.
(v) {1, 2, 3)
{in} 2,3, 7} (in) |-3, -1, 1,3, 5, 7}
(vii) ...,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3} (vii) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10. 12, 15,20,30, 60)
() (5,6,7, ...)
(r) (1,2, 3, 4) (ri)
(ix) I8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23)
(rii) (0, 1,2, ..., 9)
(1,2,3, 4, 5,6)
(xfî) (-3,-2, -1,0, 1, 2, 3)
(xiv) (T, R, I, G, 0, N, M, E, Y)
(xv) la, e, i, o) (xv) (b, c, d.f. g, h.j
4. ) x:r is an odd natural number less than 14)
(i) x:= 3n, n¬ N and n s5)
(z1) (x:x is an even natural number} (v) x:X= 5":n e Nandn<a)
(iv) {x:x=2,n e Nand n s6}
(vii) (x:x=1, n e N
(i) (x:X=n,n e N and n< 10}

(vi)x:r*
n +1

5. (i), (úi), (iv), (), (vi)

(in) finite (iv) finite (v) infinite (vi) finite
6. {i) finite (in) infinite
(ii) 3 (iv) 0 () 7 (v) 2
7. (i) 0 (ii) 1
8 (i) 8 () 8 (ii) 8
(i) True (iii) True (iv) True
9. () False
10. () infinite (i) infinite (iii) finite; 0 (iv) finite; 12 (v) finite; 7
(vi) finite; 6 (vii) finite: 3 (vii) infinite (ix) finite, 11 (x) finite; 14

1.2 SET RELATIONS

1.2.1 Equivalent sets
Tuo (finite) sets Aand Bare called equivalent if they have the sane number of elements.
Thus two finite sets Aand Bare equivalent, written as A’ B(read as A is equívalent to B).
n{A) = n(B).
For exanple:
() Let A=(a, b,c, d, el and B=(2, 3, 5, 7,9\, then n(A) =5=n(B). So A¬> B.
(i) Let A=*:x is a colour of rainbow) and B (x |x e W, x<7), then n(A) = 7 n(B,
So A 4> B.

() Let P= (x:x isa letter in the word FLOWER!

and O = (x:xis aletter in the word FOLLOWER'),
then n(P) = 6= n(Q) because each set = (F, L,0, W, E. R}.
So P ¢> Q.

1.2.2 Equal sets

Tuo sets Aand B are said to beequalifthey have
Thus A Bif every member of A1s a exactlythe same elements. We write ittas A =B.
member of Band every member of Bis a
IfA and Bare not equal, We write it as A R member of A.

A-10 Understs
Mathematics-XI (I)
 For example:
() A=(1, 2) and B= (2, 1, 1, 2, 1), then A B.
(1) Let P= (x; xis a vowel in the word EQUALITY"| and
Q=r:*is avowel inthe word QUANTITATIVE|, then
P=Qbecause eachset =(E, U,A, I.
thenA =B.
(ui) Let A=(-3,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3)and B= (x:xeland '< 10},
is atriangie having 5sides, then
(iv) Let P= {x:xe N and y2.2= 0 and O=x:x
P=Qbecause each set =.
Remark
so A Bie. two finite equal sets are always
If A, B are finite sets and A= B, then n{A) = n(B)
let A= (2, 3, 5} and B=(2, 3, 4} then
equivalernt but the converse may not be true. For example,
n(A) =3= n(B), so A’ Bbut A+B.
equivalent sets may not be equal.
Thus, two (fintite) equal sets are alvays equivalent but two

1.2.3 Subset
We write
of Bifevery nmember of Ais also a member of B.
Let A,Bbe any tuo sets, then Ais called a subset
contained in B').
it as Ac B(read as 'A is asubset of B' or 'A is
Thus Ac Bifxe Aimplies xe B. of A. We
also say that Bcontains A or B isa superset
If AcBie. A is contained in B. we may
of A).
write it as BTA (read as 'B contains A' or Bis a superset nota subset of B
A which is not a member of B, thern Ais
If there exists atleast one element in
and we write it as A ¢B.
For example: of B,
Since every member of A is also a member
) let A = (2, 3, 5) and B= {1, 2, 3, 5, 6).
AcB. Note that 1 e Bbut 1 A, so BcA.
d, e<. Note that i e A but i B, so A c B. Also
(ii) let A= (a, e, i, 0, u) and B = a, b, c,
be Bbut be A, so BaA. word
'SCHOOL and O be the set of letters in the
(iii) let P be the set of letters in the word = (S, C, H, 0, L, A, R). Clearly
"'SCHOLAR'. In roster form,P= (S, C, H,0, LI and Q
PcQwhile Q<P.
B=:x is a prime divisor of 56), then
(iv) let A (r:ris a divisor of 56) and
easy to see that BcA while Ac B.
A=(1,2, 4,7, 8, 14, 28, 56} and B= (2, 7. It is
natural number less than 6).
(v) let A= (1,3, 5, 3, 1] and B =x:x is an odd
A= B.
It is easy to see that AcBand BcA. In fact,
set, then Ais called a proper subset of Bifevrry
Proper subset. Let Abe any set and Bbe a non-empty element in Buhih is not a member of A.
member of Ais also a member of Band there exists atleast one
cB, A B.
If Ais a proper subset of B, we write it as A
B, in (üi) P isa proper subset of Q and in (i7)
In the above example, in (i) Ais a proper subset of
Bis aproper subset of A. write it as
is called a proper superset of A. We
If A is a proper subset of B, then B
BTA, B+A.
Remark BcA, then
Ac Band BcA. Conyersely, if AcBand
If two sets Aand Bare equal i.e. A =B, then ’ae Band for every be B >beA.
A
A= B. Thus A= B if and only if for every ae

(A-11
 impopetsubset.
alld n
NYIsetis
the epty set is a s

Sutscts f set
then the subts ofAÀareo, A. =2-)
Let 4 ie, ofA
(A) = l. tumier ofsubsets
Not that A.
then the subsets of Aare ¢. {ll. l2). Note that n(A) =2
{n) LerA 1. ,
are
hen thesubsets ot A
( leA={12
à.(ll.2.3, ..3. (23, A.
rumberof subsets of A=§= 2
Note that iA}=3.
Remark
number of subsets of A=2 and the number of
iAsàet with xiA) = , then the
of A= -1. prope
1.2.4 Power set
The set formed ty all the subsets af aginen set Ais called tise power set of A, it is
For exampie, let A=(L, 2, then P(A) =(o. (1), (2, AJ.
denoted by P(A,
Remark
if A is a set with n(A) =m, then n(P(A) =2m.

1.2.5 Universal set

A set that centains all the elenents under
consideration in a given problen is called universal s
denoted by or U.
It is a kind of parent se'. Every set
under discussion is a subset of universal set.
Note that the choice of universal set is not
unique. Universal set may vary from one
another. Therefore, we shall always specify universal set in a given probk
For example: problem.
()For A= (b, c, g, m, u, universal set may be
(x:xis aletterin English alphabet).
(ii For A= (x:xe
N,3SI< 12),
{1, 2, 3, ..., 20} or N. universal set may be
(i) For A= {Earth, Mars),
urniversal set mayhe
(r:x isa planet of our solar svstem.
1.2.6 Subsets of real numbers
We know some standard sets of
to see that: inumbers. These sets are subsets of the
NcWclcQcR, TcR,NT set of realInumbers. It ise
Also Q+cQcR and R* CR.

(A-12 ) Understat
Mathematics-XI (h
tervals As subsets of R real numbers
some special types ofsubsets of the set of
Totetvals are
Let a and b be two
(distinct) real nurnbers anda <b krm an oven interoet it erte 6
h issaid to
sctof all renl mumbera luin betueen aand
The
b. Precisely,
ríght
(a, b) r:te R,a<<h. intetval ánd the nutbet his calied the
the poarts
the left end point of keft and right end
The number a iscalled the open interval (a, b) does not contain the
noted that
nd point. If may be aatd t
and b. real axis reprent the real rumters
and B on the leit f B
Geometrically, let the points A all poirts to the right of Aand t the
interval (a, b) is the set of
Rspectively, then the open
real axis as follows:
srepresented on the
Al4) BIk)

Bi
X Ala)
Fig. 1.1.
numbers a SHd t i5 sd te K
b andincluding the
numbers lying betueen a and
The set ofall real Precisely,
closed interval. It is denoted by [a, b]. R,asxstj.
la, b< = (x:re follows:
bl is represented on the real axis as
The closed interval la,
Ala) Bib)
X

A(a) B(b)
X

Fig. 1.2.
open
b is saud to forn: at
between a and b, and including the number is denoted bv (a, b.
lying on the right, it
The set ofall real numbers open on the left but closed
interval is
closed interval. This
< x s b}.
Precisely, (a, b] = (x:xe R, a
as follows:
It is represented on the real axis
X
A(a) B(b)

X Afa) B()

Fig. 1.3.
a cBosed
and b, and including the numbera is said to fornm (a, b).
lying between a denoted by
The set of allreal numbers closed on the left but open on the right, it is
is
open interval. This interval
Precisely, la, b) = (x:reR,asr<b}.
real axis as follows:
It is represented on the
X Ala) B(b)

Aa) B()

Fig.1.4.
b).
intervals (a, b), [a, b], (a, b< or la,
the length of any of the
The number (b -a) is called
Sets (A-13
 tnl
The intervals introluced a fornn an

1 st of
sit.na!
s2umers x Mch
that x

(r:e R, x> a).

denotÇu by tu.
Precisely (a,o)
tollows:
axisas
represcnted on the real
It is
As)

X
X A{a)
Fig. 1.5.
The set of all real numbers xSuch that x 2 a form an infinite interval. It is denoted by le,

Preciseiy, R, x2a}.
la, o) = [x:xe
follows:
It is represented on the real axis as
X
Ala)
Or

Ala)

Fig. 1.6.
denoted h
<a form an infnite interval. It is
The set of all real numbers x such that x
Precisely,
(-o, a) = (x:xeR, x<al.
follows:
It is represented onthe real axis as
A{a) X

or

X A(a)

Fig. 1.7.

The set of ll real numbers x such that xs aforn an infinite interval. It is denoted by (-s,
Precisely,
(-o, a< = (x:xe R,xsa<.
itis represented on the real axis as follows:
X
Ala) X
Or

X
A(a)
Fig. 1.8.
The set of all real numbers is an
infinite interval. It is denoted by (-a,o). Precisely,
The real axis itself represents this interval.
(-æ, n) =(:xe R).

X
Fig. 1.9.

(A-14 UnderstaIding. ISC

Mathematics-XI ()
Remark
Jt may be noted
that'' (read as infinity) is Hot anunber
representing
large. largeness without any bound i.e. greaterandthancannot be treated as stuch. It is a
any positive real nunber howeversymbol
Similarly, -0
however small.represents smalness without any bound ic. smaller than any
negative real number

ILLUSTRATIVE EXANMPLES
Example 1. Find all pairs of equal sets (if any):
A= (0], B= :r<5 and x> 15),
C= (x:x-5 =01, D=(x:= 25),
E (x:xis apositive integral root of
the equation -2r- 15 =0.
Solution. The given sets are:
A= {0), B=¢
C= (5), D= (5, -5)
E= (5) (: 2-2x-15= 0> (x-5) (x +3) = 0=r= 5,-3)
Here,we find that the only pair of equal sets is Cand E.
Example 2. Consider the following sets:
, A = (1,3), B= (1, 5, 9}and C=(1,2, 3, 5, 7, 9).
Insert the correct symbol c or g between the following pairs of sets:
() ...B (i) A... B (ii) A.. C (iv) B...C.
Solution. (i) Since is subset of every set, ¢ c B.
(iü)) Since 3 ¬ Aand3 B, therefore, A B.
(ii) Since every member of Ais a member of C, AcC.
(iv) Since every member of Bis member of C, BcC.
Example 3. State whether each of the following statements is true or false for the sets A, Band Cwher:
A= (x:x is a letter of the word'BOWL'T
B= (x: is a letter of the word 'ELBOW)
C= (x: is a letter of the word 'BELLOW)
() Ac B (i) BTC (ii) B= C (iv) B> C
() Ais a proper subset of B (vi) Bis a proper subset of C.
Solution. The given sets in the roster form are
A= (B, O, W, L),
B= (E, L, B, O, W} and
C= (B, E, L, O, W)
(iv)true (v) true (vi) false.
(i) true (i0) true (iii) true
divisible by 2and 3).
Example 4. Let = (1, 2, 3, ..., 50), A=(x:xis
B=(x:x=n', n e N and C= (x:xisa factor of 42), then
form.
() write the sets A, Band Cin roster
(ii) state n(A), n(B) and n(C).
(i1) state whether A + B.
(iv) state whether AC.

Sets (A-15
 ¿=il,2 are subsets of So the Imembers of
Sotution. () Hete that A, Band C
Itis understood hese Ses
taken onlyfrom &.
roster form are
are
A, Band C in
Thesets
30, 36, 42, 48).
={6, 12, 18, 24,
A
49} and
B= (1,4,9, 16, 25, 36,
C+ (1,2,3, 6,7, 14, 21, 42}.
=7 and n{C) =8.
()Note that n{A)=8, n{B)
(ii) No; because n(A) n(B).
Note that AC.
{iv) Yes, tbecause n{A)= n{C).
'GEORGE CANTOR|and B=r:y;is a
Example 5. Let A= (x:xisa letter in the word vowel in
'GEORGE CANTOR, then
(ii) state n (A) and n (B).
() urite tke sets A, Bin the tabular form.
(ii) write the number of proper subsets of A. (ip) urite the power set of B.
Solution. (i) A=(G, E,0, R, C, A, N, T] and B= (E, 0, AJ.
() n (A)=8 and n (B) = 3.
- 1= 255.
(m) The number of proper subsets of A=28- 1 = 256
(iu) P(B) = l6, (E), (O}, {A), E, O, (E, A), (0, A), B].
that
Example 6. Let A= (1, 2, 3), B= (2, 4) and C= {1, 2, 3, 4}. Find all sets Xsuch
() XcA and Xc B (ü) XcC but X¢ A.
Solution. () Subsets offA are ¢, {1l, 12, (3),{1, 21, (1, 3), (2, 3) and {1, 2, 3}; subsets of Bare ,
and (2,4). (2,.:
XCA and X<Bmeans that Xis asubset of bothAand B. Hence, X=¢, (2).
(i) Subsets of Care , {11, (2), (3), 4), (1, 21. (l, 3), (1, 4). 2, 31, (2, 4|, (3, 4], 1.2,
|1, 2, 4), (1,3, 4), (2, 3, 4} and (1, 2,3, 4}.
XcCbut X¢ A means that Xis a subset of Cbut Xis not a subset of A.
Hence, X= (4|, (1, 4), (2, 41, (3, 4}, (1,2, 4), (1,3, 4), (2, 3, 4), (1, 2, 3, 4).
Example 7. Write down the power set of Awhere:
() A =¢ (ii) A= (0} (üü) A= (0, (0, 1}).
Also find the cardinal number of P(A) in each case.
Solution. (i) Here, A= ¢.
We know that the only subset of h is , therefore,
P(A)= ().
Cardinal number of P(A) =1.
(ii) Here, A= {0}.
The subsets of Aare and A,
therefore,
P(A) =(è. {0).
Cardinal number of P(A) =2.
(iii) Here, A={0, {0, 1}} ={0, B}
The subsets of Aare ¢, (0), where (0, 1).
B=
(B) and A,
P(A) ={0, (0), (|0,1}, 0, (0, therefore,
1)}.
Cardinal number of P(A) = 4.
A-16
Understanding ISC Mathematics-XI ()
Example 8. Ttuo finite sets Aand Bhave mand kelements
power set of Ato cardinal nunber of pozeer set of Bis respectrely. If the ratio of cardinal nunmter e!
of mand k. 64:1and n(A)+n{B) =12, then fnd the values
Solution. Given n(A)=mand n(B) =k
n(P(A))=2M and n(P(B) = 2k.
As ratio of n(P(A)) to n(P(B)) =64:1,
64
’ 2m -k=64
1

2 -k= 26 ’n -k=6
Also n(A) +n(B) = 12 >m+k=12
...fi)
Solving () and (ii) simultaneously, we get m=9and k=3.
Hence, m =9 and k=3.

Example 9. Teo finite sets hae mand kelements. Ifthe total number of subsets of frst set is 56 morc tiau!
the total number of subsets of second set, then find the values of mand k. (Exemplar)
Solution. Let the twosets be Aand B, then n(A) = mand n(B) =k, m>k.
Now n(P(A)) = 2" and n(P(B)= 2*.
According to given, 2M 2k= 56
’ 2 (2m -k- 1) =23 x 7
2k= 2 and 2M -k-1=7
k=3 and 2m -3-8
k=3 and 2m-3 -23’k=3and m-3 =3
k=3 and m=6.
Hence, m =6 and k=3.
Example 10. If A, Band Care sets, prove that
(i) Ac B, BcC’AcC
(ii) Ac B, BcC, CcA ’A=C
(ii) Ac A=.
Solution. (i) Given A c Band B c C. To prove AcC consider any arbitrary element
XE A. Then
XEAreB ( AcB)
XEC (: BcC)
Hence, AcC.
(ii) Ac B, BcC AcC (see part ())
Also C cA (given)
Thus, AcCand CcAA=C.
(iii) Let Aco,we shall prove that A = .
cA. Thus, we get ocA and
We know that empty set is always a subset of every set ie.
Aco(given)

Conversely, let A= Acoand c A.

In particular, Ac o.
Therefore, Ac¢ A =.

Sets
(A-17
 EXERCISE 1.2
to 6}:
answerlobjective questions (1 Bor not:
Veryshort foliowing, state whether A isless than
21
Nand - I<2/
1. In the E
34, B = r:x B= x:xE Wand 3x
() A=fx:r+ 2 ,3, 4, 6, 9, 12)
ir:xe N and3x l< 2). of 36), B= (1, 2,3
( )A = primefactor
and is a x-3x +2= 0}
(ii) A x:xe N y2<4 B= {rre Rand
I ànd x+5x+6=(0)
(0) A t :xE solution of
(r:is a
(v) A= (2, 3} and B LOYAL and
; i s a letter in the word
(I7) A
the word ALLOY}
B=y:y is a letter in
word WOLF} and
(") A :x is a letterin the FOLLOW
inthe word multiple of 10:
B= ly:yisa letter (x:xe Nand xis a
= (2, 4, 5); state whether the following statements
2. If A= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), 40,
B=(2, andBC=
3, 4}and
50,..l
(in) A = |10, 20, 30,
true or false. (ii) BcA (iv) BC
(i) A
cB (ii) AcC
(vii) B=C (viii) cB
(r) CA (vi) CcB
(x) B C (x) A’ C.
(ix) A + B
c,, =' to fill in the blanks:
2. yse appropriate symbol'[, e, (ii) (2) ...... (2, 3, 4)
(i) 4...... (1, 2, 3, 4) (i) -5.....(2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
(o) la, b, c ......a, b, b, a,c (vi) la, i, u) ..... fa, a, i)
{iv) ta, b, c}...... (b, a, c}
(oi) MUMBAI ... (x:x is a capital city of countries in Asia).
4. Examine whether the foliowing statements are true or talse
(i) la, b) b, c, a} (i) (1, 2, 3}c |1, 3, 5) (iii) (al c la, b, c
(iv) ta) e la, b, c} (2) (a, elc (r:xis avowel in the English alphabet!
(vi) (x: is an even natural number less than 8) c (x:xis anatural number which
divides 36).
5. State whether each of the following statements is true or false:
(i) 2c {1, 2, 3) (i) (2) e (1, 2, 3) (iüi) ¢ e (1, 2, 3}
(iv) 0e (o) (1,2} c(1, (2, 3}| (vi) c{o}.
6. Let A = (1, 2, (3, 4), 5). Which of the
following statements are not true and why?
() (3, 4}cA (ii) (3, 4)eA
(iv) (1,2, 5) c A (iin) ((3, 4}| cA
(o) |1, 2, 5) e A
(vii) 1 e A (vi) |1, 2, 3} c A
(vii) 1cA
(r) ocA (ix) eA
(xi) (0} cA.
Short answer questions (7 to 16): (NCERE
7. IfE = (1, 2, 3, ..., 10}
8. Write down all and A={x|x is a prime
the subsets of the factor of 66). List the set A.
(ii) la, b} following
(i) (a) sets:
9. Write the
10 Write the power set of A, where A=-1,0, 21. (iv) (6, 1}
11 IfEz number of proper subsets of A,
1,2,3,.,.
12. If =(all digitss 40}
where A=(-3, -1,0, 1,4).
13. Write the in our andA=(r:xis
number
a factor of 42), then write
(1) (x:xe R,
system}
following intervals:
sets as and A=
(x:xis multiple
a
n(A).
-3<xS5) (i) of 33), then write n (A).
(iv) {x:xe R,0sx<3)
(u) (x:xe
R,
(vii) {x:xe R,x2-2).
(x:xe -5<x<-1|
R, x<5) (zi) (x:x e R,
A-18
(vi) (x:xe R,x2<xs7
anding ISC <-3)
(1)
 14. Write the
following intervals in set builder form:
() -2,0]
(i) (2,7) (üi) (-5,-2] (it) [-9,4)
(u) (3, o)
(vi) (-x, -1| (vi) (-, 4).
15. If = l,2, 3, .., 12), A=(x|
form. 2r+3s 18) and B=(x x2s 40); write Aand Bin the roster
16. Let {0, 1,2,3, ...,50), A= x:x= 6n, n e
W)
B=(x:x=7n, ne W) and C= x:xis afactor of 72), then
() write the sets A, Band Cin roster
form
(ii) state n(A), n(B) and n(C).
Long answer questions (17 to 20):
17. Given A = (x:xis aletter in the word
ACCUMULATOR)
() Express A in roster form.
(ii) Find the cardinal number of the set of vowels in A.
(in) Write down the power set of the set of vowels in A.
18. List all the proper subsets of {0, 1,2,3).
19. If the set A has five elements, how many subsets will Ahave ? IfA has Six elements, how
many proper subsets will A have?
20. Two finite sets have mand k elements. If the number of subsets of the first set is 112 more
than the number of subsets of the second set, then find the values of mand k. (Exemplar)

Answers
(ii) A= B (iv) A B (v) A B (vi) A= B
1. () A= B (i) A B
(vii) A=B (vii) A=B
(iv) False (v) True (ei) False
2. (1) False (ii) False (ii) True
(x) True (xi) False
(vii) False (viii) True (ix) False
(iv) = (v) = (vi)
3. () e (ii) c
(vii) e (o) True (vi) True
(i) True (iv) False
4. (i) False (ii) False (v) False fuij True
(ii) False (iii) False (iv) False
5. (i) False
7. A= (2, 3)
6. (),(), (vi), (oi), (ix) and (xi) (iv) o, (éi, (11, (6, 1!
8. (i) , la) (i) o, lat, (b), (4, b)
(0, 2), (-1, 0, 2}}
9. (6. (-1], (0}, (2}, (-1, 0), (-1,2), 12. 4
11. 7 (ir) [0.3)
10. 31 (i) (2, 7]
13. () (-3,5] (i) (-5,-1)
(vi) (-a, -3) (vii) [-2, «) -5sIs-2)
() (-o, 5l (iii) (x: xeR
(ii) [x:xeR, 2<x <7)
14. (i) (x:xe R, -2 <Is0) R,x> 3)
(vi) (x:xe R,xZ-1)
-9sx<4) (v) (x:xe
(iv) (x:xe R,
(vii) (x:xeR,r<4)
6]
5, 6, 7} and B= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 49}
15. A =(1, 2, 3, 4,
30, 36, 42, 48], B = {0,7, 14, 21,28, 35,42,
16. (i) A = {0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36)
and C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
(i) 9; 8; 11 (ii) 3
L, I,0,R}
() A= (A, C, U, M, {A, U, O)| 3}
17.
(A), {U), (O, (A, UJ, (A, O}, {U, OJ, 31, (0, 1, 2}, (0, 1, 3), (0,2, 3), (1, 2,
(ii) (o, (1, 3),. (2,
(2). (3), (0, 11, (0, 2], 10, 31, (1, 2},
18. ¢, (0}, |1), 20. m =7,k= 4
19. 32; 63
Sets A-19
 inside tie

dhagtan Siei be
inse the diagian l4346,12]can repreented
Aolactorsid1}ir
theset
adhinng Vemdiagrant
by the
Here, (12,3,., 12)
Given wo sets, we canON
OPERATIONS SETS
onbine themto form another set (which may be equal to y
14
two givensets) Ofcounse, whatever we do withtwosets can be extended to anv nunh.

1.4.1 Unionof twO sets B(readas Aiunion B'), is the set

i 'wnion of teo
wittenas AU
scts Aand B.
aheh belon to Aor Bor
toth Thus
consisting ef ai t
AUB:teAorIeB)
Note that e Aort e Balso includesthe possibility of r belonging to both, Aand B
Ibelongs toboth Aand B, it shouldbe takenasthe member ofthe union set oondy once, be
members ofa set does not
alter it.
know that the npetion of the
For example: o
) Let A=1.2345 and B= {1,3, 5, 7, 9), then A B= |1, 2, 3, 4
i) Let A= ja. ,c. i,t iand B c, 4, t, c,
then AVB= , , c, d, , =A.
We note that if BcA, then AUB=A.
If A. Bare sets whose members are represented by
points within cincles, then their union is represented by
points withinthe shaded area shown in fig. 1.12.
A JB
1.4.2 Intersection of two sets
The intersection of taO sets Aand B, written as AB (read as 'A
all the elemnents whch belong to both Aand B. Thus intersection B'), isthe set .
AnB=xIE Aandxe B).
Note that A Bis the set consisting of all the
For example: common elements of A and B.
(i) Let A=(1,2,3.4,5} and B=
()Let A=la, b, c, d, e, and B={1,3, 5,7,9), then AB= [1, 3,5}.
(c, a, i,e), then
Ne note that if B
cA, then A BB. ANB= la, c, e, 1} = b.
A, Bare the sets
within cinies, then theiT whose members are
represented by points
eshaded
area show ininfig,tersection is
represented by
Two sets Àand Bate 1.13. points within
caled disioint it A Bz ; ANB
otherwise, they
 For example:
Let A={1,3,5] and B (2,4,6,8, 101, then
eA and Bare disjoint. ANB=.Therefore, the
Let A, B be the sets whose
members are represented by ponts
Rhin circdes and if A, Bare disjoint then they can be represented ty
enn diagram shown in fig. 1.14.
Fis 1.14.
Note that there are no elements which are
common to Aand B.
3 Difference of two sets
tA, Bbe two sets,then A- Bis the set consisting of all the clements which
B. Thus belong to Abut do not belong
A- B= (x:re Aand x B}.
Similarly, B-A= x:re Bandrg A).
For example:
(i) Let A= (1, 2,3, 4, 5) and B= (1,3,5,7,9}, then
A-B= (2, 4) and B-A =(7,9).
Note that A-B B-A.
(i) Let A =(b, c, d,e, o) and B= la, e, i, o}, then
A-B= (b, c, d}andB-A = (a, i}.
Note thatA -BB- A.
(ii) Let A=(1, 2, 3, ..,10} and B=(3,5, 7, 8), then
A- B= |1, 2, 4,6,9, 10) and B-A= ¢.
We note that if BcA, then B-A=.
If A, Bare sets whose members are represented by points within circles, then A-Band B- A
are represented by points within the shaded areas shown in fig. 1.15 and fig. 1.l6 respectiveBy
B

A - B (shaded area) B -- A (shaded area)

Fig. 1.15. Fig. 1.16.

Bemark
Note that the sets A- B, A B and B-A are mutually disjoint i.e. -A
the intersection of any two of these sets is the empty set as shown
in hg. 1.17.
A^B
fig 1.!7:
L4.4 Symmetric difference of two sets
AB, is the set consisting of all ciements wkich
e symmetric difference of tw0 sets Aand B, written as A
belong to Aor Bbut do not belong to AB. Thus,
AAB= (x:xe Aor xe Bbut xg A B}
= (AUB) -(AnB).
For example:
then
(i) Let A= (1,2, 3, 4, 5) and B=(1,3,5, 7,9},
ANB=(1,3, 5,
AUB= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7,9} and
AAB= (AUB) - (ANB)= (2, 4,7,9}.

Sets A-21 )
 andA
cdejKl
h
AUB:(a,
A3B=(AB)-i4/ represenied by points
elementsaEe represented by
whose differenceis
Baresets symnetric. 1.18
and their
IfA then shown inhig Bor B- A. Thus,
cinces,area A-
within shadet pointsof
within the fofail
set
pounts thatAABis
AAB=4-B}V(B-A)
Nole -A= (7. 9
B
A-B-(24}and
example(), (2,4,7,9).
abov = I)
the
In A4B=(A-B) U{B-A)
b,j} and B-A- (k
A-B=4,
exampBe(u,
b,j/,k,).
tntheabove(A- B)U(B- A)=a,
AAB-

Remark tWOsets,
then
areany
(A-B) U{B- A).
IfAandB -(ANB)=
AAB(AVB) (A-B) V(B- A),
UB)-(A0B)=
Thus, (A

Complement ofa set setthenthecomplement ofA. denoted by A' or A

1.4.5 any
the unirersalset and Abe do not beongtoA. Thus
Let &be elenents of &whuch
cONSIstingof allthe A.. within
A'=:re and x represented bypoints
of theset Aare bypoints
within
If the membersmembers of A'arerepresented
thecircle,then theshown in fig. I.19.
theshadedarea
Notethat A'--A. the complement of Ain Bis the set consistin
B,then
anysubset ofaset
Ingeneral,if Ais do not belong to A.
which
the elements of B
For example: 9), then
|1,2, 3,..,10} and A=1,2,3, 5,7,
() Let &= all the
A'=14,6, 8, 10}.
English alphabet and A be the set of
the letters in the consonants in the English alpta
() Let be the set of all set of all the
then A' is the
inthe English alphabet,
Remark subset of .
is a subset of the universal set then¤' is also a
If A
3, .., 10} and A=|1,2,3, 5,7, 91, then
Inthe above example(), ¿= {1,2,
A'=4,6,8, 10}.
(AY ={1,2,3, 5,7,9} =A. follos
the universal set it
Thus, from the definition of the complement of a subset A of
AY=A.

l46 Some basic results about cardinal number A

Aapite
B sets, then in counting the elements of A B, the
knA0B are counted twice-onceincounting the elements
nd time in counting the elements of B. Hence
NA AA) +n(B) - n{A^ B).
Fi 1
A0Br¢. then n(AU B) =n(A) + n(B).
 Also, from the Venn diagram, it is clear that
(i) nA- B) = n(AU B) - n(B) =nA)
-nANB)
(ii) n (B - A) =n(AUB)-A) = n(B)
-nA^B)
(iii) n(AU B) =nA- B) + nB - A) + n (A^B)
(iv) munber of elements which belong to exactly one of Aor B
= nA-B) + n(B- A)
= (nA) -n(A^B)) + (n(B)-n(ANB)
= n(A) + n(B) - 2nAN B))
(v) n(A)= n() -nlA), provided ¿(the universal set) is finite.
Further, ifA, BandC are anyfinite sets, then
nAUBVC)= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) -n\AB) -n(Bn)-(An)+n (4nBOCO.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Let A= |x:xis apositive prine less than 10] and B =(r:xeN and 0<x -2s6), then find
(i) AUB (ii) AnB (üi) 4-B (iv) B-A.
Also verify that
(a) n (AUB) =n(A)+n(B) - n(AnB)
(b) n (A- B) = n(AUB)-n (B)
(c) n (B - A) = n (B) - n (A^ B).
Solution. Given A = (:x is a positive prime less than 10} = (2, 3,5, 7) and
xe N and 2 <xs 8)
B = (x:xeN and 0 <x-2s6} = (x:
= (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).
Therefore,
() AUB= |2, 3, 4, 5,6,7, 8)
(i) ANB=(3, 5,7)
(ii)A- B= (2}
(iv) B- A= (4,6, 8}. n{B-Á) = 3.
=7, n(ANB) = 3, n (A - B) = 1and
Further, n (A) = 4, n (B) = 6, n (AU B)
Therefore,
+6-3 =7-n(AUB)
(a) n (A) + n (B) n(A^ B) =4
(A-B) and
(b) n (A UB)- n(B) =7-6= 1=n
(B - A).
(c) n (B) -n (A^ B) =6-3=3 = n
(c) are true.
Hence, all the three results (a), (b) and
letters in the
letters in tlhe word 'NEW DELHI and Y= the set of all the
Example 2. Let X = the set of all
word CHANDIGARH. Find
(üi) X^Y (ii) X- Y.
(i) XUY
Also verify that
(Y)-n (X^) and
(a) n (Xn=n (X) + n
(XUn-n(Y=n (X)- n(X^).
(b) n(X- ) =n
in the roster form are
Solution. The given sets Xand Y G, R)
and Y= {C, H, A, N, D, I,
X= {N, E, W, D, L, H, I}
H, i, C, A,G, R}
() XUY= N, E, N, D, L,
( )XOY= N, D, H, I)
(ii) X- Y= |E, W, L!

Sets A-23
 8,n {A
Further, (X}* 7,n (Y) =
Therefore, (XUY)
ad n (X - Y) =3. (XAn=7+ 8-4 =l1 h
(Y)-n
ta) n(X}+ n {X- Y)and
(XUY)-n(Y)=l1 -§=3 t
(b) n (X^)=7-4-3=n(X-Y).
n(X)-n
(a) and (b) are true.
lence, both the restults then verify thot
and N= (1, 3, 5),
5, 6}
Example 3. IfL.= {1, 2. 3, 4). M= (3, 4.
I-(MUN) = (l- M)nL-N). 13,4.5. 6j and N {1, 3, 5),
1, 2.3.4). M=
Solution. Given L.
then MUN= 3,4, 5, 6, 1}.
- (3, 4,5,6, 1} =(2}.
. L-(MUN) =(1,2,3,4J
5,6) = (1, 2} and
Now L- M= (1, 2,3,4| - (3,4,
L-N={1, 2, 3, 4} - (1, 3, 5)=(2, 4}.
(L- M)n(L-N)=(1,2) n (2, 4) =(2).
Hence, L- (MUN)=(L- M)^(L-N).
Example 4. Show thatANB=AnCneed not imply B= C.
Solution. Let A= 1, 2),B= (1,3) and C= (1, 4), then
AnB=(] andAC= (11.
Thus, AB- ANC but B C.
Example 5. For all sets A, Band C, is (A^B)UC= A^(BUC)? Justify your answer
Solution. No, for example, consider the sets:
(Exe
A={1,21, B= (2, 3) and C= (3, 4).
Then (An B)UC =(|1,2}n (2,3) U(3, 4|
-(2} U(3, 4)=(2,3, 4}
and A (BUC) =(1, 2} ^ (2, 3} U(3, 4})
={1, 2}^ (2, 3, 4} =(2).
Thus, (AB)UC AN(BUC).
Example 6. Taking the set of natural numbers as the universal set, write the
sets: complements of the folcrt
() A= (x:x is a prine number)
(i) B(x:xis anatural number
divisible by 3 and 5
(ii) C= (x: 2x +5 =9)
(iv) D= (x: 2x +1> 101.
Solution. Here ¿ N. It is understood that A, B, C, D
(i) Given A = (r:x is a are all subsets of N
prime number (universal set).
A' = :reN
and xis not a prime
= (x:re N,
x=1 orx is
number
a
(r:ris a natural numbercomposite number).
{ui) GivenB
=
{x:xeN and x is divisible by 3 and 5
(i)
B=
x:xe Nand x is divisible
not
by 15)
Given 2x + 5=9 r=2 divisible by 15).
C= C= (2)
(:xeN andx*2).
A-24)
Understandin JSC
 (iv) Given 2x +1> 10 ->x> 9;but xe N
D = (5,6,7, 8, ..)
D' = (x:xe Nbut x& D) ={1,2, 3,4).
xample 7. Let be the set of all digits in our number systenm, A= (r : is an odd integerl,
B= (x:x is an even integer) andC= (r:xs 5), then forn1 the following sets:
(i) (AUBY (ii) A-C (ii) An(BUC) (iv) A- (BnC) (v) 4NC
Solution. Here (0, 1,2,3, 4, 5,6, 7,8,9).,It is understood that A, Band Care all subsets of &(the
universal set),
.. A={1, 3,5,7, 9), B= (0,2,4, 6, 8)and C= (0, 1,2,3, 4, 5)
(i) AUB= (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} =5,.
:: (AUB)' = ¢.
(ii) A-C= (7,9).
(üi) BUC= (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8),
.. AN(BUC) = (1, 3, 5).
(iv) BOC= {0, 2, 4),
.. A-(BnC)= (1,3, 5, 7,9).
() C' = (6, 7, 8,9),
.. AN'= (7,9}.
erifu the
x:xis prime} and B= (x:x is afactor of 24},
Example 8. IfE = (x:xe Nand xs 10), A =
following results: (iii) (A B) = A'UB.
() A- B = ANB (i) (AU B)' = A'^B'
Solution. Here = (1, 2, 3, .., 10},
A= (2,3, 5,7} and B=(1,2,3, 4, 6, 8].
(i) A-B= (5,7), B' =5,7,9, 1O)
ANB= (5,7}.
Hence,A-B =AB.
8), .: (AU B)' = {9, 10}.
(i) AUB = (1, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,
and B' = (5,7, 9, 10),
Also A'= {1, 4,6, 8,9, 10}
A'^B'= (9, 10).
Hence,(AU B) = A'NB. 10}.
(AnB' = (1,4, 5,6, 7, 8,9,
(iii) AnB {2,3), ..
and B' =(5, 7,9, 10}.
Also A' = (1, 4, 6, 8,9, 10]
A'UB= {1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Hence, (AN B' = A'UB.

following resultsare true:

set &then the
Remark subsets of the universal
general, if A and B are any two
In B)' =A'UB.
(ii) (AN
A'^B'
() (AUB)' = Laws.
called De Morgan's
These results are
following:
[0, 3] and B= (2, 6], thenfind the (i) B- A.
the real axis, ifA = (u) A--B
Example 9. On (iti) AUB (ip) An B
(i) A' (ii) B'
R,0sxs3}
[0,3] = x:xe
Solution. Given A (r:xe R, 2<xs6}. (A25
and B= (2, 6] = Sets