DRONE NOTES

Parts of a Quadcopter and its Function:

1. Quadcopter Frame - It includes arms to hold motors and a chassis to hold the flight
controller, battery and other stuff on board. It is made up of Plastic/Carbon fiber/PLA.
2. Motors - 4 motors are must for Quadcopter to lift it up. There are various types of motors
available in the market for Quadcopters. The most common use of motors for drones and
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is to spin the propellers of multirotor drones to enable
them to fly. Selection of a motor for a particular drone propulsion system will depend on
many factors, particularly the weight of the UAV.

A drone motor needs to generate enough thrust to counteract the weight of the drone and
enable it to achieve liftoff. Brushed motors are used in the smallest drones, whereas larger
drones and UAVs will use brushless motors, as they can carry the extra weight of the
additional electronics. Brushless drone motors also require an electronic speed controller
(ESC) to operate.

3. ESC (Electronic Speed Controller) - Since the motors usually used in quadcopters need 3
phase-type of supply, we cannot provide it direct supply. Hence we need ESCs which
convert the signals from Controller and send it to motors to control its speed.
4. Propellers - One of the most important parts of your drone is the propellers. These spinning
blades are the wings to your craft, the very part that creates the airflow that lifts your
machine into the air.
5. Flight Controller - Its function is to direct the RPM of each motor in response to input. A
command from the pilot for the Quad-copter to move forward is fed into the flight
controller, which determines how to manipulate the motors accordingly.
6. RC Transmitter & Receiver - Radio Transmitter is an electronic device that controls the
quadcopter manually.

Drone Radio Transmitter is an electronic device that uses radio signals to transmit
commands wirelessly via a set radio frequency over to the Radio Receiver, which is
connected to the drone being remotely controlled. In other words, it’s the device that
translates the pilot's commands into the movement of the multirotor.

A Radio Receiver is the device capable of receiving commands from the Radio Transmitter,
interpreting the signal via the flight controller where those commands are converted into
specific actions controlling the aircraft.

Drone Maneuvers:
 1. Roll. Moves your drone left or right in the air, literally “rolling” your drone.

2. Pitch. Tilts your drone forward or backward.

3. Yaw. Rotates your drone clockwise or counterclockwise, allowing you to make circles or
patterns in the air.

4. Throttle. Controls the amount of power sent to your drone, which makes the drone go
faster or slower.

7. Battery - Your quadcopter battery is the power source that drives all the systems on your
drone and allows it to fly.
8. Miscellaneous - Various types of jumper cables, bullet connectors are needed.

Electronic Speed Controller

An ESC is an electronic circuit which is used to change the speed and direction of brushless motor. Basically,
an ESC converts DC battery power into 3-phase AC for driving brushless motors. It is the interface between
the Motors and Flight Controller.

While the selection of ESC, the current rating must be higher than the ampere drawn by all motors and other
components. Normally an ESC has 5 inputs but these days an ESC comes with 4 input terminals, where 2
inputs terminals are for Ground and PWM signals coming from the Flight controller and other 2 are for
battery input supply, these 2 inputs carry the high current to the ESC to supply the motor.

ESCs also come with a battery eliminator circuit (BEC), which delivers the electric power to other circuitry
without the need for multiple batteries. Electronic Speed Controllers offer high power, high frequency, high-
resolution 3-phase AC power to the motors to make it fly.

Connecting Motors to ESC

 As we know, in quadcopter, 2 motors rotate in CW direction and 2 motors rotate in CCW direction.
Refer the image below to connect ESC to Motor.
https://robu.in/connecting-motors-and-calibrating-escs/

The propeller acts as wings of the flight. It pulls the air downwards and makes your drone fly. Almost, in every
size, there are different types of propellers are available. Propellers largely affect the quadcopters flying speed,
it's load and the speed at which they can manoeuver. According to these attributes, you can decide the length
and pitch of the propellers. The pitch is the shape and slant of the propeller.

Longer size propellers provide stronger lift at lower RPM but it takes time to speed up and slowdown. Shorter size
propellers quickly change the speed of quadcopter and produce better maneuvering capabilities. As compare to
longer propellers, it requires more energy/current to spin. This causes excess strain on the motors, which may
lead to a shorter life span for the motors.

The flight controller is the brain of the Quadcopter. This is a small computer board with various sensors which
understand the movement of the craft. It has sensors like Gyroscope, Accelerometer, Barometer and
Magnetometer. According to the signal comes from the transmitter, it controls the motors and craft. Flight
controllers configured with computer software. It uses computer software like Cleanflight, Betaflight, Mission
planner etc.

Important Concepts:

1. Thrust to Weight Ratio

In all types of multirotor, it is important to make sure that the motors used in your drone can product
around 50% more thrust than the actual weight of the drone. If the thrust of all motors is less, the drone
will not respond well to your control and its take-off. You drone motors have to remain stable and well
functional even in times of slightly windy condition. With the high thrust to weight ratio, a drone will have
greater agility and acceleration but it will be harder to control as well.

For example, if the total weight of your drone is 1 kg, the total thrust generated by the motors at 100%
throttle should be 2Kg or 500g per motor (for quadcopter). It is always good to have more thrust available
than needed…
For a racing drone, the thrust to weight ratio is much higher than the normal multi rotor. For racing drones,
the recommendable thrust to weight ratio is 5:1.

If you are planning to fly the drone slow and stable aerial photography, you should have to maintain the
thrust to weight ratio of 3:1 or 4:1.

2. KV Ratings
The KV rating is another essential parameter of the motor. KV rating means the rpm of the motor produces
per volt.

For example, if you choose the motor of 1000 KV and use 12V lipo battery for power, the total RPM
becomes, 1000*12=12000

After mounting the propeller on the motor, the RPM decreases due to the air resistance. The higher KV
motors spin the propeller faster and can draw more current. That’s why we tend to see larger propellers
used with low KV motors while smaller and lighter propellers are better for high KV motors.

If we paired the larger propeller with high KV motor, it will require more torque to spin faster. While
producing the required torque, it will draw more current and generate too much heat. This overheating
can damage your motor also.

3. Motor Size
Generally, the brushless motors categorized by a four-digit number. For example, motor named like 2205,
the first 2 digits represents the diameter of the stator (in mm). The last 2 digits represent stator height (in
mm). Essentially, the wider and taller the motor can produce more torque.

Taller stator = more power at higher RPM

Wider stator = more torque at lower RPM
As the taller stator has a large area surface, it can cut through a more magnetic field and helps heat
dissipation. While wider stator motors have a larger volume of iron and copper in the stator which makes
the motor more torque and efficient.

What kind of motor size we should use depends on the actual frame size. The dependency is like that the
frame size limits propeller size and propeller measurement limits the motor size and KV. The below table
gives you a few ideas regarding the motor size. Here, frame size is referring to wheelbase means motor
to motor distance.
 Quadcopter motor size table
4. What is N and P in the Motor?
Basically, N and P are poles and Magnets. If you check for brushless motor, it has specification such has
12N14P. The number before N refers to the number of electromagnets in the stator and the number
before P refers to the number of permanent magnets in the bell.

5. Voltage and Current Draw

The voltage of the battery has a large impact on the motor. The drone motor spins faster with a higher
voltage and draw the more current. You need to ensure how much thrust the motor produces and how
much current they will draw. According to this current draw of the motor and propeller combination, you
can choose the ESC.

6. Motor Movements
If you install all the drone motors in the same direction then it hards to fly the object, as it would not be
responsive to the direction you want it to go. So, for smoother flight characteristics, you need to buy a
pair of motors that move clockwise and counterclockwise direction.
 multirotor motor movements

For example, If you are planning to build quadcopter then you have to install 2 motors in a clockwise
direction and other 2 are counterclockwise directions.

Steps to calibrate KK 2.1.5 Multi rotor Flight Control Board

STEP-1

Mount the FC on the frame with the LCD facing front and the buttons facing back. You can use the supplied
antistatic foam container as a form of protective case for the Flight Controller on the craft.

STEP-2 Connect the receiver outputs to the corresponding left-hand side of the controller board. The pins
are defined as:

Ensure the negative (black or brown) is orientated so that it is on the pin that is nearest to the edge of the
Flight Controller Board, so looking at the board the color sequence will be Black, Red and Orange. The
channels are connected as follows from the front of the board towards the push buttons

STEP-3 Connect the ESC’s to the right side of the Flight Controller Board. M1 is towards the front of the
board and M8 is nearest to the push buttons. The negative (black or brown) lead towards the edge of the
FC. The negative (black or brown) lead is connected to the edge of the Flight Controller.

STEP-4 Set up a new model on your transmitter and use a normal airplane profile and bind the Receiver
to the Transmitter.

STEP-5 Turn on the power and press the ‘Menu’ button, then using the ‘Up’ and ‘Down’ buttons highlight
‘Receiver Test sub-menu and press Enter. Now move each channel on your transmitter and check that the
displayed direction corresponds with the stick movements on the Flight Controller, if any are reversed,
then go to your Transmitter and reverse that channel. Check that the AUX channel is showing "ON" when
you activate the AUX Switch on your transmitter, if not, reverse the AUX channel on your transmitter. Use
the trim or sub-trim controls on your transmitter to adjust the channel values shown on the LCD to zero.
STEP-6 Scroll down to and enter the "Load Motor Layout" sub-menu and choose the configuration you
want. If the configuration you want is not listed, use the "Mixer Editor" sub-menu to make one. See later
for more on that.

STEP-7 Enter the "Show Motor Layout" sub-menu and confirm the following. Is the configuration correct?
Are the motors and servos connected the correct output? Correct rotation direction? Does the motor
speed up when dropping the arm it is mounted on?

STEP-8 Enter the “Receiver test" and check for nominal values on each channel, move your Transmitter
sticks around to ensure they are all working, including AUX1. Enter the "PI Editor” sub-menu and check
for correct PI gain values and use this menu option to adjust the PI gain settings. Use the PREV and NEXT
buttons to highlight the parameter you want to change, then press the CHANGE button. To adjust both
Roll and Pitch at the same time, see the "Mode Settings "sub-menu.

At this stage the propellers can be fitted to test the Flight Control board. Hold the craft (!) and then Arm
it by give right rudder and zero throttle for a few seconds. It will beep and the RED LED will turn on.
However, do-not arm it until you have put the multicopter on the ground and stepped away 5 meters.
After landing, place it in SAFE Mode by holding the rudder to left with zero throttle. It will beep and the
RED LED will turn off, always do this before you approach the multicopter.

STEP-9 Enter the "Mode Settings" and check and adjust: "Self-Level": Determines how the self-levelling
function will be controlled, either by STICK or an AUX Channel. "STICK MODE": Self-levelling is turned on
by holding the aileron to the right when arming or disarming. Turn it off with left aileron. "AUX":
Selflevelling is turned on/off by the AUX Channel. "Auto Disarm": If set to YES then Flight Control board
will automatically disarm itself after 10-mins of inactivity. "CPPM Enabled": Determine if the Flight Control
Board is to use CPPM data input.

STEP-10 Enter the "Stick Scaling" option, where you can adjust the response from the stick to your liking.
Higher number gives higher response and lower numbers the converse. This is similar to the endpoint or
volume adjustment on your transmitter, where you can adjust your transmitter to adjust the stick
response and use the stick scaling if you want more or less response from stick inputs.

Electric Motor-Based propulsion system used in UAVs

The electric propulsion system is the central part of UAVs, which generates thrust to control and hover
the UAVs in the air. The propulsion system includes an electric motor, electronic speed controller, power
sources, and an energy management system for efficient operation.
Compared with fossil fuels propulsion systems, electric propulsion system has great potential for more
applications:

(1) Environmentally friendly: Electric propulsion UAVs use electrical energy as a power source, thus
reducing fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. At the same time, this contributes to solving the
increasingly tight energy problem and significantly reduces carbon emissions.

(2) Design versatility: Electric propulsion UAVs use electric motors to generate thrust and thus have a
distributed layout. It allows for more aerodynamic layouts for better flight performance, which in turn can
meet specific needs.

(3) Wide range of energy sources: Fuel cells, solar energy, and lithium batteries can all be used as energy
sources for electric propulsion drones.

(4) Simple structure: The UAV electric propulsion system has a simple structure and is much easier to
repair and maintain.

However, the electric propulsion system still has some disadvantages due to some technological
limitations.
(1) Low energy density of energy storage devices: the current lithium battery energy density is insufficient,
resulting in the weight of the battery carried being too large to meet the needs of the use of electric
propulsion UAV.

(2) High cost: The key components of electric propulsion systems, such as lithium batteries, are costly. As
the electric propulsion technology is not yet mature, the high development cost restricts its further
application.

(3) Insufficient environmental adaptability: electric propulsion UAVs are challenging to make work
satisfactorily in lousy weather. In the complex electromagnetic environment, the reliability of the electric
propulsion system will be reduced to a certain extent.
 The electric propulsion system of UAVs generally consists of a power source, an electric motor,
and a corresponding control system. The corresponding energy management system is often used for
UAVs with higher range and flight time requirements to achieve higher energy utilization efficiency. The
battery transmits electrical energy through the aircraft grid system to the motor in the electric propulsion
system, which rotates the propeller or culvert fan to generate power. For electric propulsion UAVs, the
power source is a critical component that often needs to have a high energy density, low weight, and low
noise, and needs to support the range and endurance of the UAV. The primary power sources for UAVs
are lithium batteries, fuel cells, solar photovoltaic, super capacitors, etc.

Batteries used in UAVs with specifications:

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones come in all sizes, ranging from hand-launched
micro-UAVs to large-scale versions that utilize jet propulsion, internal combustion engines, or
electric motors. When it comes to in micro-UAVs and smaller format UAVs, the most common
method power are Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery configurations that power the electric motors.
Common requirements for UAV batteries include high energy/weight ratio, high discharge rates
(five-minute to two-hour missions), resilience to shock and vibration, and fuel gauging to indicate
remaining mission time.

Batteries are the life force of your drone and understanding how they work will help fly drone
properly. Drone batteries come in many different energy storage chemistries such as hydrogen
fuel cells, lithium ion, lithium polymer and nickel metal hydride.

Drones primarily use Li-Poly (Lithium polymer) for various platforms and Lithium Ion for our
smaller drones. Lithium Polymer batteries have become very popular in the drone world because
they are lightweight, inexpensive, readily available in a variety of sizes, capacities, voltages, and
have high current rates. Lithium Ion is useful because they have high energy densities that are
great for smaller endurance drones and fixed wing designs.
Li Po Batteries are rated in milliampere hour (mAh) is 1000th of an ampere hour ( Ah ). Both measures
are commonly used to describe the energy charge that a battery will hold and how long a device will run
before the battery needs recharging.

PAYLOADS USED IN UAVs:

Payloads are one of the sub-systems in Unmanned Aerial System (UAS), which are mounted in the
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) and can be controlled from the Ground Control Station (GCS) or
through a Remote Controller (RC).
Types of Payloads
Payloads are classified into four types based on the way they’re mounted to the drone and based on
their operation throughout the flight/mission:

1. Dispensable Payloads
2. Non-Dispensable Payloads
3. Active Payloads
4. Passive Payloads

Dispensable Payloads
All the deliverable payloads to the consumer end are considered dispensable payloads. The dispensable
payloads can able to release from the aerial vehicle during the flight based on the received signal from
the radio controller (RC) or ground control station (GCS). In some cases, it’ll automatically be released
based on the previously entered destination location.

Non-Dispensable Payloads
The Non-Dispensable payloads physically remain on the UAV throughout the mission, but their part
plays a vital role in mission completion. Some of well know Non-Dispensable payloads are camera,
LiDAR, companion computers, etc., The most widely used payload types in numerous applications, such
as Mapping, Surveillance, Wildlife Monitoring are Non-Dispensable payloads.

Active Payloads
The payloads which are entirely or partially active throughout the mission are called Active Payloads.
The purpose of the active payload includes mapping, data collection, surveillance, and so on. Camera,
LiDAR, Thermal Imager, etc., are considered active payloads.

Passive Payloads
The payloads which are inactive during the mission are called Passive Payloads. Mostly, passive payloads
are deliverable at some predefined destination.
Controlled and uncontrolled airspace?

To enter controlled airspace, an aircraft must first gain a clearance from an air traffic controller.
Uncontrolled airspace has no supervision by air traffic control so no clearance is required to operate in
uncontrolled airspace.

UAV ground control station

UAV ground control station (GCS) is a land- or sea-based control center that provides the facilities for
human control of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs or "drones"). It may also refer to a system for
controlling rockets within or above the atmosphere, but this is typically described as a Mission Control
Centre.

NO DRONE ZONE

Red zone is the 'no-drone zone' within which drones can be operated only after a permission from the
Central Government. The airspace map may be modified by authorized entities from time to time. Anyone
planning to operate a drone should mandatorily check the latest airspace map for any changes in zone
boundaries.

VTOL HTOL
Vertical Take-off and Landing (VTOL) Horizontal Take-off and Landing (HTOL)
VTOL drones typically use a rotor (or drones require a runway to take-off
multiple rotors) configuration to provide and land in a similar way to a
vertical take-off and landing capability, as conventional aero plane, and often
well as horizontal propulsion through the utilize a fixed-wing configuration.
air in a similar way to a conventional
helicopter.
Eg. Fixed wing UAvs
Eg. Multi-copters, Single copter