DRONE ANATOMY

Infographic representing main quad part's you will need to build fpv drone. We'll
go through every single part and explain it's main functions.

BASIC TOOLS YOU NEED

When starting out you can get by with just a few basic tools. This list covers the
bare minimum you need.

Tools

A set of hex keys or drivers (sizes dependent on your frame choice)

An M5 (8mm) nut spinner or ratchet
A soldering iron and solder
Wire Cutters/Strippers
Extra bits and bobs
Cable ties
Heat shrink
Standoffs
Electrical Tape
Double Sided Tape
Thread Locker (Loctite)

DRONE PARTS - CHOOSING THE RIGHT COMPONENTS

So now you have a good idea what kind of drone you would like to build the
next step is to choose suitable components. Each build is going to vary person
to person but almost all builds will follow the same basic parts. For each
component I'll explained what it does, the choices you'll have to make and the
bare minimum you should look for spec wise. 

Frame

Drone Frame

This is your starting point! This is the main body of

your build where you mount all your parts and get
everything together. Frames are normally made from
carbon fiber and are assembled with various
mounting hardware such as standoffs or aluminum
sections. They can come in all kinds of shapes and
sizes, we covered quadcopter frames in detailed
guide.

Choices you'll have to make:

Light weight racer or freestyler? - Racing Drones are typically minimal frames
that are light and nimble. Freestyle Drones however fly better with a little weight
as it allows them to carry momentum through various stunts. A Freestyle drone
typically requires more protection as they are often flown higher and over harder
surfaces.

Top mounted or underslung battery? - This will affect the center of gravity but
could leave the battery more vulnerable. The closer the centre you can make it
the smoother your drone will fly.

Is there an spot to mount a HD camera? - If you want to carry one of course!

Race drones normally opt not to due to the extra weight. For many frames 3D
printed options are available.

Do you want swappable arms or a one piece design? Swappable arms can
reduce downtime but also increase weight.

Can I fit all of my components in that space? Do you see space to mount all
your components, this could limit you options later down the line.

For 5"+ frame sizes you should be looking for at least 4mm thick arms, for 3" -
4" you can go down to 3mm and for 2" just 2.5mm. Any thinner than this will
break too easy.

For 5"+ frame sizes you should be looking for at least 4mm thick arms, for 3" -
4" you can go down to 3mm and for 2" just 2.5mm. Any thinner than this will
break too easy.

You may of seen frames sized by motor to motor distance eg 220mm. The
following table shows you a rough conversion of what you should look for size
wise.

There's a lot to consider here! If you get stuck or are unsure have a look at
pilots whose flying style you like and find out what they are flying. Many top
pilots have build videos that explain the key points of their frames and why they
choose to fly them.

Another great resource to use to help you decide on parts is Rotor Builds. The
site shows off user created Drones and includes details such has parts lists and
build guides! It's a great place to find inspiration.
MOTORS
This guide will help you understand the dynamics behind brushless drone motor
used on quadcopters and how they influence flight characteristics. We'll dive
into types of motors, design variations, weight, total power and other factors
affecting a quad motor performance. So let’s get started.

For beginners there are 2 types of motors used in drones: brushed and
brushless motors. They vary in the way they work. The brushless is way more
powerful for their weight than brushed motors, and they last way longer. For
bigger quads: no question, brushless is king.

But for the micro and nano drones, it's fantastic to have these cheap motors to
crash with confidence.

The internal workings of a brushed and a brushless motor is the same; both are
based on electromagnetism.

When the motor windings become energized (both the motors have coils), a
temporary magnetic field is created that repels (and/or attracts) against the
permanent magnets present inside the motor.

This magnetic force is creating the repulsive force in the coil that is used to
spin/rotate the shaft.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRUSHED AND BRUSHLESS MOTORS

Efficiency wise, brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient whereas a

brushed DC motor is 75-80%. Windings are present on the rotor for a brushed
motor as compared to in a stator for a brushless motor

This difference in efficiency means that more of the total power used by the
motor is being turned into rotational force and less power is being lost as heat.
Brushless motor lasts longer because there are no brushes to wear out, while
the brushed motor wears out quickly. That's one of the reasons brushed motors
came out cheaper then brushless motors.

This guide is mostly oriented on brushless motors used in racing/freestyle fpv

drone configurations.

THE BASICS OF BRUSHLESS MOTOR

There are 2 major parts for a brushless motor

called stator and a rotor. A picture is shown below
for reference.

The stator is the stationary part of the

motor(windings) and the rotor is the rotatory part
of the motor(bell with magnets). Also there are a
lot of other minor things such as bearings, coil,
magnets, shafts etc.

A motor size is based on the stator size (diameter and height).. For example if a
motor is sized as 2207, it means that the stator is 22mm in width and has 07mm
in stator height.

Also there is something called as a KV of a motor. What it means is that the

speed at which the motor rotate for every volt applied to the motor, theoretically.

Thrust to Weight Ratio

Brushless motors come in all shapes and sizes. The general rule of thumb is to
aim for 2:1 thrust to weight ratio. You aren’t going to be able to do hard core
racing with it. The higher the better obviously. The thrust to weight to ratio
depends mostly on the size of the quads themselves.

There are pre built quads such as from Diatone Crusader GT which has a thrust
to weight ratio of 8:1. There are people who have achieved 13:1. But there are
certain limitations for the motors, because they can only spin so fast and
spinning them any faster makes them inefficient.

Even for a photography rig you should aim at least for 3 or 4:1 in case you
decide to upgrade your setup in the future or add an HD camera or a bigger
battery for longer flight times or something, then you’ll have some reserve
power left to compensate.

For a drone racing beginner 4 or 5:1 thrust would be the sweet spot. If you’re on
a tight budget then build a beast of a quad and limit the throttle limit on
Betaflight or the transmitter.

Quad Motor Sizes - Taller and Wider stators

A motor is indicated by a set of 4 numbers like 2207 or 2306 or whatever it may
be. It denotes the diameter and the height of the rotor in millimetre (mm). The
bigger the motor gets the higher the thrust it generates.

Taller stator = higher top speed and terrible low speed handling
Wider stator = lower top speed and better handling at lower speeds
The main cause is the increased magnetic field from the stators. The taller
stators have larger magnets as compared to smaller and wider stators.

2207 vs 2306 motors

A good comparison would be the typical 2207 vs 2306 motors. It is a hugely
debated topic as to which is better and one can’t be recommended over the
other as both have their advantages and disadvantages which will be covered in
another article.

Brushless Motor Size Chart

The motor selection is determined on how large you want to build your quad.
Hence the name Frame size = Motor size.

By determining the frame size we can define how large of a motor we should
use.

Frame size also limits the prop size and each prop requires a different motor to
spin it and generate the thrust efficiently.

Also the KV of a motor plays an important role in the selection of the motor. As
mentioned earlier higher KV draws more current.

The table below shows the nominal frames and quadcopter motor numbers:
PERFORMANCE FACTORS

KV - Velocity Constant

Theoreticly KV represents the speed at which the motor rotates for every volt
applied to the motor. For example if a motor is 2300kv with a 3S quadcopter
battery motor applied to its ends then the motor will spin at 2600x12.60 =32,760
rpm (Revolutions per minute - number of turns in one minute), without
propellers. The rpm decreases gradually because of air resistance.

Theoreticly KV represents the speed at which the motor rotates for every volt
applied to the motor.

Higher the KV means lower resistance and higher current draw and lower
efficiencies. Lower KV means higher resistance and lower current draw and
considerably better efficiencies.

If you’re starting out somewhere around 2300-2400 KV would be desirable.

For example, if a motor is rated at 2300kv with a 3s battery voltage applied to it,
then the motor will spin at 2300x12.60 =28,980 rpm without the propellers, and
it is the maximum rpm it can attain at no load.

The rpm sharply decreases when a propeller is mounted because of air

resistance offered to the motor while spinning the propeller.

Torque
Moving on the next factor that comes into picture is the torque produced by the
motor. Torque is the spinning force or the rotatory force that spins the propeller.
It doesn’t matter much if you’re starting out.

Motor torque is affected by factors such as:

1. Stator size- bigger the stator higher the torque

2. Materials such as quality of magnets and copper windings in the rotor
3. Motor construction factors such as air gaps between stator and rotor.
Torque produced by the motor significantly affects the performance of the quad.
It also determines how the quad is going to feel for the inputs. Higher the torque
produced by the motor, the more responsive the quad will perform.

Torque also governs how fast a quad change its direction mid-flight which will
greatly help to do tighter turns in a race. Relatively if a motor produces less
torque and is fitted with heavier props, the motor can’t spin the propeller and
resulting in reduced efficiencies and also thrust. The current draw in an over
propped motor will be significantly high.

The one major disadvantage of high torque motors are even though they feel
more snappy and responsive to the controls they have bad oscillation. Since
motors with high torque are able to change their rpm more rapidly they actually
amplify the error (oscillation).

Oscillation is hard to get rid of in Beta-flight even with PID tuning, especially on
the yaw axis of the quad.

Efficiency

The efficiency of a motor is calculated by dividing the thrust produced by the

motor at 100% throttle by the power produced by the motor.

This is measured by grams per watt (g/w). The higher this ratio, the more
efficient the motor is essentially. We are not going to be flying 100% throttle the
whole time; therefore it is important to consider the efficiency of the motor
through the whole throttle range from 0% all the way up to 100% throttle.

Some motors may be efficient in the lower end of the throttle curve and some
motors may be more efficient in the higher end of the throttle curve. Therefore it
is important to choose the right motor depending on the style of your flying.

Current Draw

Current drawn by the motor is important because it helps us to determine the

quadcopter esc size required for that particular motor.

For example, a 1104 motor draws 10A max at 100% throttle whereas some
2306 motors draw 40A max at 100% throttles. An esc must be selected
accordingly for 20% more rating than the current drawn at 100% by the motor.

Ie; if a motor draws 30A max at 100% throttle, an esc rated for 36A constant
current would be ideal. There is also known as burst rating of an esc. It’s the
maximum amps of current the esc can handle for a short period of time without
damaging itself.

Temperature

Temperature or heat in general is a killer of motors over time. If the motors are
exposed to prolonged heating, the magnets in the rotor lose their magnetic field
strength over time. They demagnetize over time when exposed to constant heat
and consequently resulting in a reduced lifespan of the motor.

The main reasons for a motor to heat are over propping and using higher
throttles for long periods of time. If you’re a pro level drone racer, you will be
running at higher throttles, but if you are just starting out and the motor heats
then the motor is over propped.

But motor manufacturers compensate for this issue by designing cooling fins to
help the motor to suck in air into the motor and cool itself equating to longer life
spans, provided you don’t crash and destroy the motor beforehand.

OTHER FACTORS TO CONSIDER

N and P numbers

A typical 22xx or 23xx motor will have 12 poles and 14 magnets. This number
will be denoted something like 12P14N. As
depicted in the diagram, the poles are present on
the stator and the permanent magnets are found on
the rotor of a motor.

Single & Multi stranded wires

Single stranded wires as the name suggests is made of a single wire of copper
whereas multi stranded wires are made of 3 smaller wires to replace the single
thicker wire. Single stranded wires are thicker and handle heat produced much
better when used on high voltage builds.

Multi stranded wires break or melt easily at higher operating temperatures.

Typically multi stranded wires are more efficient because they pack the wires
much tighter and closer together, therefore giving stronger magnetic fields and
resulting in more powerful motors.

Magnets

The magnets in a motor play an important role in deciding how powerful a motor
is going to be. Cheap motors will have weaker magnets and produce less thrust
as compared to an expensive motor which will have more powerful magnets.
Some higher-end motors even have curved magnets which are contoured to the
shape of the rotor.

Motor mounting patterns

The mounting patterns of a motor also matter because it should be compatible

with all the frames you choose to put the motor in. Most 5” quads these days
use motor sizes from 2205 to 2407.
All the motors either have (16x16) mm or (16x19) mm mounting patterns. All the
modern frames support all those mounting patterns and this shouldn’t be much
of a concern.

The above image shows a brushless motor in a quad. The screw holes will be
present on the stator of the motor. The above-shown motor or the stator has a
16x19 mm mounting pattern and uses 4 m3 screws for securing the motor to
the frame.

FEATURES TO LOOK FOR IN MOTORS

Motor Shaft

Newer motors nowadays use hollow shafts as opposed to a solid shaft in an

attempt to reduce the weight of the motor. This has its positives and negatives.

Hollow shafts obviously reduce the weight of the motor but they’re less durable
during crashes.

You can’t replace shafts without replacing the whole rotor of the motor. For
budget builders, hollow shafts are a bad thing but for those looking to save
every gram hollow shafts are the way to go.

Magnets used in brushless motors are graded based on the magnetic strength
such as N52, N54 etc…, the higher the stronger the magnetic field produced by
the magnets.

Motor windings

Another factor to consider is the quality of the windings of the motor. If the
motor has high quality copper windings they’re going to offer less resistance for
the flow of currents and thus offering better efficiencies and longer flight times.

Motor Weight

The weight of a motor is governed by the size and materials of the motor. The
bigger the motor the heavier it is. Keeping in mind the motors used on a 5” quad
usually weigh with wires around 30-40 grams. There are some very light motors
such as the Emax RSII which weigh around 25 grams for a 2306 motor with a
couple of grams for the wires.

There are some very heavy motors such as the cobra 2204 motors which weigh
around 34 grams. As they say, every gram counts, especially with the motors.
Why? Because the moment arm increases the heavier the motor gets. Simply
put it takes a significantly large amount of force to turn a quad with increase in
every gram.
But that doesn’t mean lighter is better. Lighter motors are not as durable as the
heavier ones because they would be made of lighter materials to save weight.
Hence it all boils down to what are you going to use the motor for.

Air gap

Another thing for a better performing motor is the air gap between the stator and
the rotor. The closer the rotor is to the stator (magnets to the windings) the
more efficient it is in converting the current. The smaller the air gap the higher
the thrust that motor produces as the stator slices through magnetic fields
better.

Motor wires

The next thing that affects the performance of a motor is the wire gauge of the
motor. The motors either use 20 Awg or 18Awg (American wire gauge). The
Emax RS series claim that changing from a 22 gauge to a 20 gauge wire
increased the power output by 5%. But this is no big deal when buying a motor
and getting started in the hobby.

Retainer clips

The next thing we are going to talk about is the retainer clips or retaining
methods of the stator and rotor. There are mainly 3 types we use in our hobby.

E clip
C clip
Screw retainers

Each has their own advantages and disadvantages.

For example: E clips are difficult to remove without breaking the clip itself.
Screw retainers are easily removable and hence giving easy access to the
stator and rotor.

But screw retainers are prone to unscrewing and loosening over time under the
constant vibration of the motor and also run the risk of over tightening the shaft
and making it harder for the motor to spin. One clip can’t be recommended over
the other. It all the depends on what the motor is going to be used for and its
applications.

CW CCW motors

There are 2 types of motors- clockwise (CW) and counter clockwise (CCW)
rotation motors. They vary only by the direction by which they rotate with the
rest of the design parameters of the motor being the same. The below diagram
shows a motor orientation for a quad, hex and octa drone. We can conclude
that opposite side motors spin in the same direction. It is the same in hex and
octa drones.
Naked bottom OR Closed bottom motors

The latest trend in quad motors are naked bottom motors. They save a lot of
weight (2g in general), it may not seem much but that’s a lot in terms of drone
racing. It may be the difference between winning a race or losing one.

Those are the pros of the naked bottom motors, there are also a few cons for
these type of motors.

Firstly during a crash small stones and debris may get inside the bell and
damaging the magnets and coils. Even pro racers crash often so it’s a good
choice for beginner’s to buy a closed bottom motors when starting out in the
hobby because they’re prone to crash more. The below photographs depict a
naked and closed bottom motors.
Quadcopter Brushless Motors
These are the powerhouses that give your quad the
thrust to reach the insane speeds modern drones
are reaching. There's alot of brushless motor
choices out there for mini quad, it’s hard to decide.
When choosing motors, there are specs that comes
with the motor provided by the manufacturer. You
should be able to find detailed information about the
weight, thrust, power, rpm etc.

When building the drone take a closer look at these specs in a motor:

Motor Size

The first point is the size, a motor size is typically noted in a XXYY format with
the first two digits referring to the stator diameter in mm and the second two
being the height of the magnets. Basically the larger these numbers are, the
higher torque the motor is able to produce, think of it like engine size with the
drawback of larger sizes being the weight. In terms of performance higher
torque allows the motor to hit it's target speed faster increasing the feel and
response of the drone. This could be useful in the case of a heavier quad or
when running heavy props.

KV

Another factor to consider is kv, this stands for the motors velocity constant
which means how many RPM per volt your motor can give for example a
2300kv motor at full throttle on 10V would be spinning at 23000rpm. Selecting
the kv value is like selecting a gear in a manual transmission. Going low gives
you more torque but less top speed and going higher will increase your top
speed at the price of torque. Generally speaking going higher requires either a
big powerful motor or an incredibly light setup. A 3" setup for example will have
a much higher kv rating when compared to a 5" design.

The following table lists some possible options for you depending on your prop
size:
When looking for a motor you should be able to find a specification table that
gives you details on thrust with different props and amp draw which we will
need to know later. Generally with a mini quad you should be aiming for a 10-1
thrust to weight ratio. The following table is an example from an Emax rs2205
Red Bottom motor which in early 2016 was a top performing 5" motor. These
days it has average performance compared with the competition but would be
great for a first build.

WHAT TYPE OF DRONE SHOULD I BUILD?

You may already have started searching for parts only to discover that they can
be found in all sorts of shapes and sizes. The best way to categorize them is
actually by prop size as follows:

2” Class Build

Typically very small and suitable for indoor use. They are great for practicing at
home or in bad weather! These little rockets are becoming increasingly popular
and some can hit up to 100mph!
QUADCOPTER PROPS MAIN
CHARACTERISTICS & BEST PICKS
Most hobby grade aircraft use them, but did you know the size, pitch, design
and weight can vastly impact the way your aircraft flys? Power, grip, efficiency,
speed, maneuverability, durability, etc.. are all descriptions we give to different
quadcopter props to describe how they help us in the air. Let’s talk about how
we can tell the difference between props and pick the best one to suit your
needs.

First let’s get familiar with some of the big names in the industry and their
flagship models, and what they are known for.

Dal – Cyclone series – Dal is a long time favorite of many free stylers and
racers. The most famous are the very responsive and powerful Cyclone 5045
and 5046. The higher pitched 5046 is known for speed and durability and its
close relative the 5045 is known as the slightly more efficient version with a little
more speed vs control.

HQ – V1S Series – One of the most popular props today for freestylers and
racers a like. The most popular sizes have been the HQ 5x4.3x3 v1s

T-Motor – Makers of the outstanding motors ventured into the prop game. They
made a very light 5149 prop that was all the rage last summer.

Azure Power – Perhaps the most unique prop design of the bunch, the
boomerang style of the Azure Power is very unique and those who fly them are
constantly extolling the virtues of these unique props.
Gemfan – Flash Series – A very powerful prop, my personal favorite for 2.5” or
3” props are the Gemfan flash series. They are also the maker of the popular
5152 series. A super powerful and smooth prop, that sometimes suffered from
durability issues, but Gemfan went back and made a newer version of this prop
with increased durability.

Lumenier – A staple in FPV made by GetFPV, Lumenier makes the Butter

Cutter series of props.

Emax – Makers of the Avan series. They now have props in the whoop class
size, all the way up to 5”. Noted for their extreme power and smoothness, but
have historically been known to draw a lot of amps.

READING THE PROP NUMBERS

You may notice when looking at props that you commonly see a series of
numbers associated with each one. Now different companies may structure the
name of their props different leading to some difficulty interpreting but let’s
break down how to read these numbers.

Manufacturers use 2 types of format:

L x P x B or LLPP x B

L- length, P – pitch, B – number of blades

We will use HQ V1s series as as an example. One popular model that I use is
the HQ 5 x 4.5.x3 v1s. Here we see 3 numbers. The first 5 indicates the size of
the prop, in this case 5 means 5”. The second number 4.5 refers to the pitch of
the prop. And the last number 3 refers to the number of blades on the prop. V1s
is the props designation or model.

DRONE PROPELLER CHARACTERISTICS

Propeller Size

Props range from Tiny

Whoop class 31mm
variety, to 6”+ long
rage size, to even
bigger for commercial
or Prosumer
applications like DJI
Inspire or Phantom.
Prop Pitch

Think of prop pitch like using a paddle in a

canoe. If you push straight back with your
paddle parallel in the water to you, you will
have the max force and each push will go
slower. If you push at a high angle, you can
cut through the water faster, but it will push
you ahead with less force.

A lower pitch will always move faster, but

push you ahead with less thrust.

A higher pitch will mean more thrust per

revolution, for greater speed but less fine
control.

Higher pitch will also be providing higher thrust, but in combination with more
amp draw. That extra work will demand more from your battery.

Number of blades

The number of blades affect both flight and efficiency. Fewer blades = more
speed, and less amp draw or more efficiency. More blades = more control, but
lower efficiency and lower speed.

The compromise often is to run a 3 blade prop for most 3-7” quadcopters. But
for high speed runs you will often see 2 blades, and for indoor crafts where you
want the most control possible vs speed you will often see 4 blades.

MATERIAL

Props today are most often made of polycarbonate. Different combinations of

materials, colors and ingredients can make for a stiffer or more flexible prop. A
more rigid prop can allow very fast speeds, but can also break more easily on
impact.

HOW DO YOU PAIR A PROP WITH A PARTICULAR MOTOR AND QUAD?

You will also want to match a prop to a motor. A smaller motor like a 2205, will
not be able to push a high pitch prop like an HQ 5x4.8 v1s without draining a lot
of battery. It would do much better with the lower pitch 5x4.3 v1s.

A heavier motor like a 2207, will have more power, and ability to push that
larger prop to allow you the maximum straight line performance. But as
mentioned earlier, this will demand a lot from your batteries.

When testing a new prop, always make sure to land, check motor temperatures,
and keep a close eye on your voltage readout on your On Screen Display to
ensure you do not over discharge your battery.

INSTALLING PROPS

Installing props on your quadcopter? What tools do you need? Any 8mm
wrench or socket wrench will do. But I always recommend a dedicated prop tool
such as the Piroflip branded one.

Also, pro tip, keep more than 1 prop tool with you. I generally have 2. The
reason is, sometimes we end up keeping one in your pocket and forgetting to
put it back. Nothing like being out at a nice place to fly, and having to go home
because you could not get your broken prop off.

So don’t let this ground you, and make sure you have the right tools. For
smaller T prop sizes, you will want a 1.5mm hex driver.

PROPELLER DIRECTION

There are 2 propeller direction options. The traditional betaflight setup which is
props all turning in. And the Reverse which is props turning out.

The both should feel the same in the air, but props turning out can help to push
you away from objects, where as traditional props in will pull you in. The
downside, is that props out will throw any cut grass, dirt or grime you land into
directly into your center stack.
So be warned. It is a great option for some, especially if you fly near a lot of
trees, but I personally do the traditional way. There are many ways to remember
your prop orientation but I use this method. (for traditional mounting).

If I look at a prop straight on, the blade should point down on the left side, this
goes to the top left. If I look at it the same way and the blade points down on the
right side, it should go to the top right. Your rear props are the same across the
diagonal.

PROP SIZE RECOMMENDATIONS

Indoors

31mm or 40mm are the whoop class sizes. These will typically run with Whoop
style ducts and be safe to bounce around inside your house with. There are 2-4
blade varieties and new offerings by HQ, Team Black Sheep and Gemfan.

Small Playground

My favorite for this is the 2.5” size. When on 4S with a target weight of 80-
100grams dry weight you have enough speed to have fun but still a fairly light
craft. This is best for an empty playground to play around.

If populated whoop class is best, because of the 25-35gram weight and the
ducted guards that protect if an impact is made. My favorite in this size is the
Gemfan 2.5” 2540 Flash series prop. Many also prefer the very attractive HQ.

Large playground

Or small field, parking lot – 3” – There are 2 main types of 3” props, the
traditional size prop nut where the Gemfan 3052 Flash prop is king. Or the T
style Mounting prop, where the HQ 3” T style prop is an excellent choice.

Gemfan recently released a Wind dancer version that come with a set of
adapters that allow you to run both regular size props or T style mounting props
to accommodate a wide range of motors.

Racing

For racing, the 5” prop is the standard. You can play with the pitch and pairing
of your motor to find the right mix for you.

Freestyle

Like racing the 5” is the standard, but often different pitches can be popular for
additional response preferred over top end speed.

Long Range
This is where you get to 6” and 7” props. These will pull more power, but long
range experts have found that pairing with a large battery and the proper mid
KV can allow you to achieve impressively long flight times.

For 6", HQ 6x4 and Dal 6x4 are some preferred options. Note that in 6” ( Dal fly
smooth but do not have the same durability as the 5” options).

For 7" HQ 7x3.5 fly well at high throttle ranges, but for a good all around option
the Dal 7x.56 are regarded as the best.

Long range community has let me know that one thing to look for when you go
7” or larger, is that you want thicker blades.

Wings

For wings, while many do run Quadcopter props, APC makes a range of
purpose built props specifically for wings. These involve a lot of variation based
on your needs, size of wing, weight, specs and purpose. So before you dive in,
consult your local Wing Commander for more advice.

WHEN SHOULD YOU CHANGE YOUR PROPS?

If you crash and a prop is bent, often times you can bend it back and it will fly
fine. Some prop models will bend back to original shape and stay there and will
fly fine. Some may keep a crease where the bend was.

Creases, cuts, nicks, or chunks missing will all cause poor flight performance.
The newest betaflight software with dynamic filters can filter much of this out,
but keep in mind you may be putting additional stress on your electronics in
these scenarios.

If you are absolutely low on props you can keep flying but always check your
motor temperatures when landing to make sure that bad prop is not warm.

The last thing you want to do is risk burning a pricey motor or electronic speed
controller over a fairly inexpensive prop. Rule of thumb? When in doubt?
Change it out. Keep in mind, that newer props fly better, smoother and many
times faster. And when you are learning you do not want your muscle memory
to build up on bad props, so keep those in mind and change them at your
discretion.

If I am doing light free style, a set of props can last a long while. But if I am
racing, I may change props 2-5 times in a single day to make sure I am getting
maximum performance, and when doing hard throttle, on a bend or banged up
prop is when you are the most in danger of putting electronics at risk.

How many sets should you keep in your personal stache? Nothing can keep
you grounded faster than not having a few $2-3 sets of props. So when the
sales hit, stock up, buy big and take advantage of the prop discounts at the
large retailers like www.piroflip.com and www.rdq.com.
PDB - The Power Distribution Board
Your PDB takes your battery voltage and provides
various points for you to connect up all of your other
electronics. Typically a PDB will feature regulator to
power your low voltage components such as the
flight controller and camera. From other things take
closer look at Voltage Requirements, Connector
Locations and Maximum current draw.

Things to Consider:

Voltage Requirements - Components such as your

flight controller most often require 5V to run off, some
cameras may require 12V. If you power them directly from your battery they will
most likely burst into flames! For this reason the PDB you choose should
contain voltage regulators or BECS (battery eliminator circuits) to provide you
with the power output you need!

Connector Locations - Your typical PDB provides connections for your battery,
connections for four ESCs and then various low voltage pads (often 5V and
12V). When planning your build try to visualize where you want to put
everything and if the pads are actually where you want them. Some battery
connectors for example stick out to the side allowing you to directly connect an
XT-60 connector. Others however simply have two pads requiring you to run a
battery wire.

Maximum Current Draw - This is only really necessary if you have an incredibly
powerful set up drawing more current than most. The PDB will often be rated to
a certain current (typically over 100A). The same should be done on any
regulators but again will only really be necessary with elaborate more power
hungry set ups such as those running the RunCam Split.
ESC's
These small components known as electronic
speed controllers are what produces the three
phase AC current needed to drive your
motors. The flight controller sends a signal to
the ESC to let it know how fast it wants it to
spin the motor at a given point in time. You will
need one esc for each motor, you can either
get four separate ESCs to mount them on the
arms or get an all in one board that sits inside
your frame if you have the room.

Things to Consider:

The amp Draw of your Setup! Remember those motor tables you were looking
at? You'll notice that there is an amp draw column. You will need your ESCs
burst current to exceed this value or they could burst into flames up mid flight!

ESCs are reasonably intelligent and can run on different software. At the time of
writing you should only really consider ESCs running BlHeli_S or KISS ESCs.
The old BlHeli or Simon K software is now outdated.

The ESC can talk to the flight controller through various protocols (think of them
as languages). The current standard protocol is Dshot, if an ESC does not
support Dshot 600 or greater it is not worth considering these days.

ESC stands for Electronic speed controller, connecting the FC and the motor.
Basically they are controlling the speed of the motors.

ESC is just like a gear box in a car, the gear box tells the wheels at which speed
it must rotate, in the same way an ESC controls the speed at which the motor
must rotate for the throttle applied. This throttle signal is provided by the flight
controller to the ESC spinning the motor.

What is an ESC

Most modern ESC’s are so advanced and filled with features they put the older
generation ESC’s to shame. Without wasting our time let’s get look into the
world of an ESC.

QUADCOPTER ESC MOTOR WIRING

A Brushless ESC has 3

wires coming out from it
which directly plugs or gets
soldered onto the 3 wires
coming from the motor.
As the diagram illustrates, connecting any 3 wires will make the motor to spin.
But the direction in which the motor rotates depends on the order in which the
wires are connected. Matching the 3 wires from the top to bottom will make the
motor to spin clockwise and swapping any 2 wires will make the motor to spin in
anti-clockwise direction.

ESC FIRMWARE

BLheli, SimonK and KISS

There are 3 major firmwares that most of the ESC’s run- BLheli, SimonK and
KISS. KISS is a closed source ESC which means that the KISS firmware is
exclusive to KISS ESC’s whereas BLheli and Simonk are open source. Since
Simonk is an outdated firmware and has become so obsolete that it is not really
used anymore. But some airplane ESC’s still use this firmware. So the popular
choice nowadays is BLheli firmware, as it is feature rich and user friendly
interface.

BLHeli_S vs BLHeli_32

BLHeli_S is the second generation of BLHeli firmware developed for ESC’s.

They are 8 bit processors, have a simpler interface as compared to previous
generations.

BLHeli_S delivers a smoother response curve thanks to the hardware pwm. It

also has small step resolution varying between 512 and 2048 steps. It has a
signal response delay of 1-2ms.

BLHeli_32 is the third generation and the latest of firmware written for ESC’s
with 32 bit MCU (micro controller unit) and has gone closed source since their
release in late 2016.

These 32 bit ESC’s have more processing power and have increased
processing power than their older 8 bit counter parts. With this increased
processing power, faster input signals and much lower latencies can be
achieved.

32 bit ESC’s are more future proof than their 8 bit previous generations as
developments for even faster protocols are being tested and under
development. These ESC’s now include a current sensor where you can
monitor your current consumption of the individual ESC’s during flight.

There is a downside for all these extra features, since it is closed source the
ESC manufacturers have pay a license fee for the developers at BLHeli and
what this means an increase in cost of the ESC’s themselves.

ESC PROTOCOLS

Protocols are like the OS (Operating systems) in the world of ESC’s. They
determine how fast the ESC and FC (flight controller) can communicate with
each other which plays a major role in the handling and performance of a
quadcopter.

Some of the older PWM protocols had a delay of upto 2ms as compared to the
average blink of a human eye of 100ms. While some latest Dshot and Multishot
protocols have greatly reduced the latency to just about 5-25µs.

List of ESC protocols from slowest to fastest is shown below with their average
or approximate latency.

As seen above it is evident that Dshot 1200 has the lowest latency. Even
though they are barely noticeable by humans it is noticeable in terms of
machines. Some of the advantages if the system is capable of running it of
Dshot1200 are more accurate data at higher resolution, data error rejection,
higher speed and lower latency.

Dshot600 is still the most popular choice and widely available. If asked can one
feel a difference between an ESC with Dshot600 and Dshot1200 while flying,
the answer is NO. Technically yes, Dshot1200 is better but if you want to run
32K/32K looptime if you have no other choice but to pick Dshot1200.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER

Individual and 4in1 ESC

As the title suggests there are 2 types of ESC’s for quadcopters- single or
individual ESC’s and 4 in 1 ESC’s.

4in1 ESC’s are basically 4 individual ESC’s soldered together stacked below a
FC to save some complexity in wiring and a little bit of weight too.

With advancement in technology 4in1 ESC’s are getting more and more
reliable. But the downside of using a 4in1 ESC is that if you burn out one ESC,
the whole board becomes useless.

But that is not the case when using an individual ESC. If you burn one out, you
just replace that ESC. Cost wise using individual ESC is much cost effective in
the longer run.

Replacing a 4in1 ESC at $50 is not cost effective than replacing a single $15
ESC. So it all boils down to personal preference. If you are reading this guide
you are most definitely a beginner then the weight gained from using a lighter
ESC cannot be justified.

We would recommend you get individual ESC’s to start with as you will be
crashing more and replacement ESC’s cost much cheaper and is economical
too.

Weight and Size

The weight and size of an ESC is dependent on the current rating of an ESC.
Most ESC’s on the market today have more or less similar dimensions and
weight ranging between 4-6g each. Its challenging to make ESC’s any lighter
without having to lose performance and effective cooling.

Though lighter is better for racing it is not wise to bargain on one of the
important components of a quad. Smaller ESC’s heat up quickly and cannot be
effectively cooled without constant airflow over the ESC. Even though the
smaller ESC’s carry heat sinks, they are not enough in most cases.

Voltage and Current Ratings

The current rating of the ESC should be decided after selecting a suitable motor
size. The maximum current draw of the motor at 100% throttle helps us to a
select a suitable current rating. If a 2207 sized motor draws 40A at full throttle,
these are at ground conditions.

The current draw is approximately 20-25% lower than at ground conditions

because of effective cooling of moving air of both the ESC and the motor. So if
a motor draws 40A at the ground, it will draw 32A in the air at full throttle. Also
you will not be at full throttle the whole time of your flying, this is why ESC’s
have something called as a burst rating.

What this burst rating means is that, it is the maximum amount of current the
ESC can handle for a small amount of time without damaging the ESC itself.
For example if an ESC is rated at 35A, it will have something like a 50A burst
current rating. But this burst current rating mostly depends on the quality of the
components used on the ESC and is different for different ESC’s.

The voltage rating of an ESC is the maximum amount of voltage the ESC can
handle. Some low cost ESC’s are rated upto 4S, but most ESC’s today can
handle voltages upto 6S. But this mostly depends on what battery voltage you
are going to run on your quad. If you are going to run a 4S battery and on a tight
budget, you can pick up an ESC rated for 4S and save a few dollars.

You may be wondering an ESC rated for 20A costs $10 and one rated for 30A
costs $13, so why not get the 30A ESC. Of course it’s only $12 more for all 4
ESC’s. But the limiting factor here is the size and weight and it is totally
unnecessary in my opinion. If a motor draws 18A at full throttle, then there is no
way it is going to draw more instead reduces as mentioned earlier. Hence it
makes sense to buy the 20A over a 30A ESC.

External capacitors

A typical 5 inch quad draws over 100A at full throttle, this huge current draw
strains the battery and causes something known as a voltage spike. Voltage
spikes do not affect smaller quads because the batteries are not strained much
and can handle the lower current draw.

Voltage spike is a phenomenon where the voltage of the battery increases

exponentially due to the huge current draw. This spike can be reduced by using
a capacitor in a quad. The capacitor is soldered on the battery leads of the quad
and it filters out most of the voltage spikes.

The most commonly used capacitors are known as low ESR capacitors. These
capacitors lower the voltage spikes drastically. You can really feel the difference
with and without a capacitor. Though ESC manufacturers try to integrate
capacitors in the ESC’s, they usually don’t do a great job in reducing these
spikes. Hence using a capacitor on a build is a good practice.

Typical examples for these type of capacitors

http://www.pirofliprc.com/PANASONIC-1000UF-35V-LOW-ESR-
CAPACITOR_p_4537.html

https://m.banggood.in/10pcs-35V-1000uF-Electrolytic-Capacitor-Low-ESR-13-x-
20mm-p-1022620.html?rmmds=search

With or without BEC (opto ESC’s)

BEC stands for battery elimination circuit. The function of a BEC is to provide
constant current at a specific voltage. Airplane ESC usually have BEC as they
provide power for the planes needs like powering the electronics.

But in the world of quads we really don’t need ESC’s with BEC as the power
necessities like powering a VTx or powering a camera is taken care of a
dedicated PDB (power distribution board) or PDB integrated into the FC’s. The
ESC’s lacking a BEC tend to be much less noisy, lighter and smaller in size.

ESC AND THRUST

The thrust produced on a motor is dependent on the ESC itself, as an ESC is

responsible for spinning a motor. Two different ESC’s can produce different
amounts of thrust with the same setup (ie.., same motor and propeller). This is
mainly because of the quality of the components used on the ESC.

The difference in the thrust produced can vary as much as 20% between a
good ESC and a cheap knock off. The thrust can also depend on factors such
as build quality, quality of solder joints etc…. Another factor that could affect an
ESC is it’s size.

Smaller ESC’s have smaller heat sinks which do not cool as efficiently as their
larger counter parts and hence resulting in poorer efficiencies. A hot ESC
performs poorly than a well cooled ESC.
The quality of a solder joint also plays a role in the thrust produced as a bad
solder joint may limit the amount of current flowing through it. But the latest
ESC’s from reputed manufacturers perform very similarly with very little
difference in thrust produced.
Flight Controller
The flight controller is the brain of your
drone taking into account the angle of
your drone and your control input it
calculates how fast the motors should
spin and sends the signals to the
ESCs. Flight controllers are normally
built for certain software such as
Betaflight, KISS or Raceflight so your
software choice may affect your decision.

The cheapest and most popular option is currently Betaflight, KISS on the over
hand is said to be smoother but is more expensive and finally Raceflight is a
newer more cutting edge development.

Things to consider

Processor - at the heart of all flight controllers is a micro processor that works
hard to keep you in the air, we are only really using F3 or F4 chips so I would
recommend choosing a flight controller with one of these. The F7 chip is slowly
coming in however we are not really making use of it yet. The older F1 chips
present in the CC3D and NAZE 32 boards are now outdated and will not be
supported by future software updates.

All in One or Separate - Many modern flight controllers are incorporating the
PDB into the flight controller itself! This is great for tighter builds as you only
need one board in the stack and wiring is simplified. The only negatives are that
they are normally more densely populated giving you less room to solder wires
and often require connections on both sides. The Betaflight F3 is a great
example of an all in one flight controller.

OSD (On Screen Display) - Flight controllers with an OSD chip onboard are
capable of displaying all kinds of useful information on your video feed such as
battery voltage, current draw and even an artificial horizon. I would highly
recommend an OSD however they can also be run separately to the flight
controller or onboard the PDB itself.

UART Ports - External devices are often connected to the flight controller
through UART ports. These devices include receivers, stand alone OSDs,
telemetry systems and controllable video transmitters. For a first build you may
not have to worry about these but for more feature rich drones you will need to
make sure you have enough UART ports for what you want to achieve. I would
always recommend you look at the pinout for your chosen board to make sure
that it has connections for everything you need.

Picking the right flight controller that suits your needs is a daunting task. There
are dozens of flight controllers out in the market to choose from, where each is
better in their own way. With advancement in technology flight controllers have
evolved greatly over the years with faster more powerful and better micro-
controllers being used for better optimization of resources and features.

Technology has come a long way since the more popular and widely used KK2
boards. The early KK2 boards and their successors were bulky at 50x50mm as
compared to the most modern F7 flight controller that are half the size and have
more processing power.

Though there are a lot of parameters to consider before buying a flight

controller, this guide tries to help you in selecting the best flight controller for
your particular needs and simplify the buying process.

WHAT IS A FLIGHT CONTROLLER?

Flight controllers (FC in short) are circuit boards that have particular sensors
such as gyroscopes (helps to determine the angular orientation) and
accelerometers (helps to measure the vibrations of motors) and several other
insignificant but useful sensors such as barometer (altitude of the quad can be
found), compass (provides orientation in relation to earth’s magnetic field) etc..,

But the functions of the flight controller’s do not end there. One of the major
functions of a flight controller includes receiving and processing the input
signals from the receiver and executing appropriate commands given by the
users. Simply put, flight controllers might be compared to the human brain. The
human brain tells us how to walk, in the same way flight controllers are the
brains on a quad that tell the quads how to fly.

FLIGHT CONTROLLER PROCESSORS

F1, F3, F4 and F7 are the most commonly used processors in mini quads. F3
was the successor of F1, F4 was the successor for F3 and F7 was the
replacement for F4. All these 4 processors are based on STM32 architecture
which uses 32 bit processing rather than the 8 bit on KK2.x boards.

Processor Operating Frequency

F1 72 (MHz)
F3 72 (MHz)
F4 168 (MHz)
F7 216 (MHz)

As you can see with advancement in processors, the processing speed got
higher. Higher the processing speed faster can it execute the commands. The
fastest F7 processor can execute 216 million cycles per second (A cycle is the
basic operation such as fetching or accessing memory or writing data).

F1 Processor

F1 processor is the oldest processor and has the lowest processing capability of
all the above processors. It is actually an outdated processor with Betaflight
ending support to F1 FC’s in 2017.
F3 Processor

F3 was essentially a F1 FC with increased number of UART’s (It is discussed in

detail below) and increased flash memory (memory used to store the FC’s
firmware codes). Some smaller FC’s use this
processor even now because of their compact size
and exceptional processing power.

With developments in Betaflight optimizations taking

place constantly, F3 processors are having a hard
time keeping up.

F4 Processor

F4 was a giant leap in mini quad processors with

more than double the processing power that of an F3.
But there are limitations with F4 processors with no
support for smartaudio natively which is not a big deal
for most people. Still F4 FC’s are the most popular
choice for their functionality and affordability.

F7 Processor

F7 processor is the big daddy of mini quad FC’s. F7

FC’s became available mid of 2018 and these are the
most recent processors. F7 FC’s are packed with
upto 8 UART’s which can be used for telemetry,
GPS, camera control etc.., F7 FC’s come with dual
Gyros (MPU6000 which is noise resistant and
ICM20602 which can run 32K gyro sampling).
Obviously F7 is more future proof and more and more
Betalight developments are going to be geared
towards optimizing the processing power on an F7
processor.
FIRMWARE

Betaflight, Cleanflight, Raceflight, KISS are some of the major flight control
firmware’s widely used in flying a mini quad. Each firmware is optimized for a
particular function.

Betaflight

Betaflight is the most popular option with its easy GUI (graphical user interface)
and under constant development by its developers. Betaflight is flexible and a
powerful flight controller firmware perfect for a beginner which requires little to
no coding experience. Another major advantage that Betaflight has is that it
supports a large number of flight controllers.

Raceflight

raceflight firmware

Another flight control firware is Raceflight, focused entirely for acro and racing
drones. Raceflight stands out by deleting non essential codes (like GPS). By
deleting these codes Raceflight freed up processing power which can be used
to do other useful functions like running faster looptimes for example.

If you’re only into racing, Raceflight is the firmware to choose. But beware when
selecting, flight controllers such as the Revolt F4 are capable of running
Raceflight.

KISS

kiss firmware

KISS (keep it simple stupid) is a closed source firmware developed by FlyDuino.

KISS products are powerful and up to date with the current trends on the
market. Similar to Raceflight, KISS is also closed source and runs on
proprietary boards from KISS. If you like Apple products despite its higher price
point then KISS is the Apple of the mini quad world.

HARDWARE

Hardware is probably one of the most important aspects to consider when

selecting an FC. Hardware of a flight controller decides how well a quad
performs because quality components assure accuracy, efficiency and
performance.

IMU- Gyroscope & Accelerometer

IMU stands for inertial measurement unit. IMU consists of Gyroscopes (gyro in
short) and accelerometers. A single IMU chip contains Gyro’s and
Accelerometers. Since most pilots fly acro mode, accelerometers are turned off.

Gyroscope is a sensor placed in FC’s which helps to determine the angular

orientation or tilt of the quad.

There are 2 major Gyros used in the world of quadcopters. They are the
MPU6000 and ICM20602. F4 FC’s use MPU6000 gyros, while F7 FC’s use
ICM20602 and some FC’s have dual gyro setups featuring both the ICM20602
and MPU6000 which can be switched according to the user preferences.

The MPU6000 gyro was launched in 2010 by InvenSense. This is an older gyro
which is reliable and more noise resistant than ICM20602 with gyro sampling
capability at 8KHz. ICM20602 is a much latest gyro by InvenSense which is
much more sensitive and has the capability to sample gyro at 32KHz.

The sensitivity of the ICM20602 might be a good thing and an equally bad thing.
Technically the ICM series gyro must perform better because of their sensitivity
but not necessarily. The mechanical vibrations from the motors require the FC
to soft mount the gyro and the electrical noise from motors and ESC’s require
the addition of capacitors to counter electrical noise. But when properly setup
the ICM20602 can do better than the ICM6000 in every way.

UARTs Availability

UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter. UART is the

hardware interface that allows the users to connect multiple devices such as
camera OSD control, VTX channel control, serial radio receiver etc.
UART has 2 ports to transmit and receive data. A FC may have TX4 and RX4,
where TX4 stands for UART 4 transmitter and RX4 stands for UART 4 receiver.
The image depicts the TX3 (UART 3 transmitter port) and RX3 (UART 3
receiver port).

Prior to 2014 FC’s used to have up to 20 UARTs on a FC where people need

not worry about running out of UART ports. As manufacturers wanted to
miniaturize FC’s which they did was at the expense of lesser number of UART’s
with 8 being the most number of UART’s found on a modern day F7 FC.

If you plan to run telemetry or smart-port or even GPS for a long range rig and a
whole lot of other peripherals that may require UART’s, you are going to have a
hard time finding UART ports. You have to prioritize your peripherals and
choose accordingly.

As a beginner you probably won’t be running GPS or any other advanced

features like telemetry on your first quad. You are just beginning your FPV
journey UART must not be that much of a concern.

PID, PID Tuning and PID Analyzers

PID stands for Proportional, Integral and Derivative. PID is a means of
correcting an error from the various sensors placed on a FC such as
gyroscopes. PID tuning is a very difficult process and is a whole another subject
that requires separate guide.

Simply put the input from the users must be interpreted by the FC and executed
appropriately. Since we are not on the quad flying it we need assistance from
the FC to get the quad to orient as required. The process of orientation is
executed by 3 parameters know as PID. These 3 factors govern the handling
and the behavior of a quad.

For further reading and in depth knowledge about PID

The “P” parameter governs the orientation. A quad moves by changing its
orientation in the air which is done by adjusting the power of the motors.
Increasing the “P” value also increases the responsiveness of your quad.

“I” parameter governs for any possible errors caused by external factors on the
quad such as sudden gust of winds. Increasing “I” determines how fast a quad
is going to respond to your inputs.

“D” parameter dampens the effects of “P” parameter in case of errors or

overshooting of inputs. “D” can also eliminate oscillations and amplify it.

How should I tune my Copter ?

Introduction
NOTE: These Tuning instructions were written for βF 2.x and earlier. For later
versions read the additional information and discussions below.
In general, to achieve a good tune, we want to use AS MUCH P as possible
without introducing oscillations. In a sense P is proportional to the amount of
control you have over an axis. Less P is less positive control. More P is more
positive control. The problem is that if P gets too high, it will start to overshoot
the intended end state. This causes it to constantly overcorrect -- hence,
oscillations. High quality ESCs and faster PID loop times help with this as well
by allowing the flight controller to make corrections more quickly and effectively.

I and D are only there to pick up the leftover bits of error that P can't handle:
I looks back at accumulated error (drift) that P was unable to correct for at the
time, and then adjusts for it. That's why adding I might correct when the Pitch of
your copter changes unintentionally after throttle changes. (BUT you need to try
adding P FIRST. If your P is too low, then I has too much of a job to do because
P has never quite done enough...)

D looks forward to see if the axis is reaching its intended value too quickly. If
you give the copter a command to stop a roll very quickly, a high P value (just
like we want) might tend to overshoot just a little bit and then "bounce back". IF
you see a lot of this, you might want to increase D just a bit. Adding D term can
also help with the small oscillations that come right after a quick change in
direction or low throttle drop (prop-wash). Very important to not use too much D.
USE ONLY AS MUCH AS NECESSARY BECAUSE TOO MUCH D CAUSES
NOISE. NOISE THAT REACHES THE MOTORS MAY CAUSE THEM TO
HEAT UP AND POSSIBLY BURN.

Steps
Make sure your motors are balanced and that your quad is as free from
vibrations as practical. Trying to tune PIDs without having a clean gyro signal is
like trying to build a house without having a proper foundation. This video
explains an easy way to check for vibrations coming from your motors. Adjust
your lowpass filter settings as necessary to get a clean gyro signal.

It's essential that these step be done in Acro mode even if you are usually a
Level/Horizon flyer. Angle/Horizon modes have their own values that interfere
with tuning. Example PID values shown below correspond to the Rewrite PID
controller (PID controller #1). Set the TPA value to 0 while performing this initial
tune. TPA can be added at a later date if needed.

Start with slightly lower than default P gains as provided by the installed
BetaFlight firmware. P of 4.0 on Pitch and Roll are good starting points. Also
lower the I and D gains on pitch and roll in order to tune P with minimal
interference from I and D. I of 20 and D of 5 are good starting points. For yaw, it
is prudent to decrease default P by HALF and reduce I just a bit, to eliminate
that axis as a source of oscillations. Yaw will be tuned last.

Over a series of flights, increase P gain on Roll axis until you see oscillations
when you approach full throttle and you get very rapid visible and audible
shakes. Then set P term to roughly 70% of the value that caused the
oscillations.

Repeat step 4 for Pitch axis.

Test to see if the quad holds the desired roll angle and does not drift by rolling
the copter to a specific angle, and then punch and drop throttle several times.
The angle you gave it relative to the horizon should not change significantly. If
the angle appears to drift, increase I gain. If you don't see drift, don't change I.
You can change the "feel" of your copter by raising or lowering I after you
achieve a good tune. (I does not really affect final P and D values.
Repeat step 6 for Pitch axis.

Increase D gain on each axis ONLY to the extent that it helps reduce
bounceback after flips/rolls or prop-wash oscillations after an abrupt descent. If
neither is a problem, then LEAVE D LOW. At this point the Copter should be
around 80-90% tuned.

Note: Too high of D term can cause motors to get hot. Do a short flight, 10-30
seconds, land and check motors. If you can hold your finger on the motors then
they are not too hot.

Yaw often requires the least tuning, but it may still introduce significant
oscillation if you ignore it. Start with the Yaw P that you chopped in half in step
one and verify that you do not get significant vibrations when you do a long
punch-out or fast forward flight. Start pushing up Yaw P by .5 increments until
you start to see roughness through your fpv camera when in fast forward flight
or punches. Then decrease a bit. Fine tune by looking at Yaw P term in
blackbox. It MAY be oscillating a bit, but pull up the Yaw gyro trace to see if
those P oscillations actually make it to the Gyro. If the yaw gyro looks relatively
smooth, you're ok.

Note: Because yaw inherently has less positive control (a.k.a. authority), than
pitch and roll, a wider range of values are acceptable. Relatively higher P and I
values and relatively low D values are the norm because of the inherent lack of
authority compared to pitch and roll. A blackbox log is usually necessary to fine-
tune. Most excess P oscillation comes from either roll or pitch, but if any
roughness at full throttle remains, look at a blackbox log to see if yaw P starts to
oscillate on full throttle. If so, decrease yaw P.

Finally, refine the relationship between P and I by looking for a tendency to

resist or "fall into" strong turns. Very low I values will result in an axis that drifts
over time. Low I values on an axis will allow that axis to change attitude more
freely but may still hold attitude. Higher I values on an axis will hold attitude very
well, but may tend to resist movement and can add a feeling of inertia. Very
high I values can create an overly "robotic" feeling and even oscillations. Can
also refine P by analyzing Blackbox Logs. This may get you closer to a perfect
tune.

Once tuning is complete in Acro mode then move onto adjusted the
Level/Horizon parameters to suit your flying style if you plan to fly in angle or
horizon mode. (If you must.)

Remember not to get too carried away trying to get the BlackBox traces to be
as clean as possible. If the copter flies really well and suits your needs then just
get out there and fly !

Other Notes
When you look for high P term oscillation in a BB log, they do not generally look
like wide sweeping arcs or jagged peaks and valleys. High P term oscillations
manifest first at the very top of the throttle range and look like tight sine waves.
When these show up on BB logs, they may not always be detectable by sight or
sound. By the time you can see/hear them, they are super-apparent on a BB
log. That's why the recommendation for initial tuning by sight and sound is to
reach the point of visible/auditory oscillation and then drop back to 70% of that
value.

The undesirable flight characteristic called bounce-back oscillation occurs when

you abruptly return the pitch/roll stick to center, and the copter rotation does not
make a "clean" stop. It could be the result of:

D that is too low

P that is too high

or even P that is too low (a low P gain can cause slow, sloppy oscillations
because it's not providing enough authority to get to the intended end-state).

I term is usually not active enough to cause trouble, and can usually get it
roughly tuned in pretty quickly. But the D term can vary significantly depending
on many different factors, and its amplification effect means that if D term is
bad, it can be very bad, and in odd and unpredictable ways, depending on how
noise is presenting itself and how the P term is acting.

For more information see these resources:

Joshua Bardwell's Practical PID Tuning (Betaflight / Cleanflight)

Death Rolls

The most common reason for a copter to not stop rolling (flipping) is too low of
minimum throttle setting. This is basically the ESC not being able to get a motor
running after commanding a motor to minimum throttle. In a BB log this shows
up as a motor being Commanded to Full throttle but copter keeps rolling. First
thing to try is increase the min_throttle setting (Idle % if running DSHOT
protocol).

The second reason is either a Bad motor or Bad ESC or even a loose prop nut.
If using BB logging then you will see a motor being Commanded to full throttle
but that arm will drop (if the Accelerometer is enabled) indicating that motor is
Not producing thrust. This is a Swap and try to see if it is the motor or the ESC.
Third may be an ESC/Motor combination that just doesn't work. Not all ESC run
all of the newer high power motors well. If replacing an ESC with another of the
same doesn't fix the issue then try a different ESC (Brand/model).

Yaw Twitches and Mid-Throttle Oscillations

Another fairly common issue. Read carefully the Wiki FAQ #57 for discussion of
the issue and possible solutions.
Additional Notes for BetaFlight version 3 (3.0 & 3.1):

The Default PIDs work very well on most copters and only require slight
tweaking of the PIDs.

Roll and Pitch 'P' terms can be pretty high without oscillation so increasing until
oscillates then reducing may not work. You can raise P gain pretty much
through the roof and as long as you have nearly any D gain at all, you won't get
ringing oscillation on sharp stick moves. P is tuned mostly by feel, and for me
anyway, by the amount of propwash oscillation you get. Also, looking for
oscillation or bounce at the end of flips and rolls. These are pretty much the only
clear indicators of what P is doing other than feel.

There are Dterm Setpoints, weight & threshold sliders in the config GUI. These
can help refine the tune. Discussion about how to adjust these is in the 3.0.x &
3.1.x Wiki pages. If increasing D term does not help bounce back then try adjust
the Setpoint sliders.

Yaw tuning may require adjustment of lower yaw_accel_limit and yaw_p_limit

setting especially with high power, high kv motors.

Some high power systems do not fly with Default. Those require 'tuning from
scratch' much like the procedures above. Check the video linked to in the DJI
Snail System tuning at the bottom of this page.

I have between 14 and 17 for D with P in the upper 50s. I can't get prop wash
no matter what I try with pt1 and one or both notches disabled. Is there really
any benefit to trying higher D if the quad is flying so well?

Answer from ctzsnooze:

D exists primarily to allow more P.

Nowadays there two relatively minor additional functions for D, but that's the
original historical purpose, and still the main reason it exists.

Basically D is a 'dampener'. It pushes against any fast uncommanded changes,

resisting more strongly the faster the rate of change.

If you get an un-commanded fast wobble from high P, then D can attenuate that
wobble, allowing use of higher P without wobble than would be possible with no
D. Classical tuning involved turning D down to near-zero, gradually increasing P
until you just get wobble after sharp inputs, then bringing D up to see if you can
control that wobble a bit, then see if you can add a bit more P.

Historically, P wobble happened within the control frequency range, because

motors weren't so strong. It was essential to try to get P as high as possible and
adding the right amount of D was essential to getting as much P as possible.
Nowadays, with more powerful motors, P alone is much more quickly able to
track control inputs, because P alone can make very fast changes to the
attitude of the quad. Often P can do this below its natural oscillation frequency.
If the natural P oscillation frequency is high enough, the gyro filters start
suppressing P feedback anyway, so D becomes less important.

Hence, with powerful motors, if you don't need to push P to the point of
oscillation to get good handling, the importance of adding D becomes much
less.

There is one 'modern' benefit of D that started since D became calculated from
error. In betaflight this benefit only exists D weighting is above zero (ie 1 or
higher in practice).

When D weighting is zero, D opposes stick inputs just as it opposes

uncommanded inputs like wobbles. If you have a lot of D, the quad will become
less responsive to stick inputs.

But if D weighting is above zero, a quick stick input generates a brief D spike
that helps initiated the movement in the quad and avoids the tendency for D to
oppose stick input. Somewhere around a weghting of 0.4-0.6 the effect is
neutral, by a weighting of 1 or higher, more D makes for a twitchier quad in
response to quick stick inputs, rather than opposing them. Some people like
that responsiveness, others don't. A lot of D weighting and not enough P can
result in a twitchy quad that is a bit floaty at the same time. But if you really like
the D weighting 'feel', then more D and more D weighting gives you more of that
kind of thing.

If you set the D relaxation to zero, when you return sticks to normal, D will
dampen the rate of return of the quad to centre as if there was zero D
weighting. This allows a quad with significant D and significant D weighing to
have crisp turn initiation and smooth recovery at the end of rolls and flips. To be
noticeable a lot of D is needed. Freestylers quite like this, but for racing I don't
think its so good, because turn in and return behave differently. But again this
effect needs D to work.

The biggest drawback of D, by far, is amplifying high frequency noise and

heating up the motors with that noise. D is highly frequency sensitive. For a
fixed amplitude of noise, the D signal carrying that noise back to the motors will
double every time the noise frequency doubles. P doesn't do this and is much
less likely to be a significant contributor to hot motors. (Blackbox logs can
clearly identify which of the two is the problem, but usually it's D).

Clearly there are benefits to D and drawbacks.

My personal (racing focused) view is that we should only apply enough D to

control P wobble after a classical tuning approach; no more. This will provide
the most crisp handling for the quad. Using this approach you may need to filter
gyros so hard because D won't be heating the motors so much; you can then
put filtering more on D without much drawback, keeping the gyro/P control loop
fast so it can be super effective on propwash etc.

It seems to me that more powerful the setup, the less the need for D. Typically
they handle awesomely with not much P; the P resonant frequency can be high
enough that the gyro filters are effective in controlling oscillation, lots of D
simply isn't needed unless you want a smoothed out freestyle feel.

On the other hand, medium to low power quads need more P to feel good, for
sure, and for them adding D so we can push P as high as possible is very
useful; the D weighting effect then becomes quite useful.

Bottom line is that if you have a powerful quad that flies great with not much D,
that's fantastic. You probably need some D to control P oscillation. But if it
works fine and has no apparent P oscillation with hardly any D - ie it feels great
and the motors stay cool - that's awesome. Especially for racing.

More on D, which might not be entirely right, but it makes a ton of sense...

D's main purpose is to control P oscillations. D doesn't really have any role at all
above the natural P oscillation frequency. In fact, above the natural P oscillation
point, D is basically unhelpful.

If you were to do a classical tuning approach, ie where you turn P and D right
down (say P to 10 and D to 2), then hover, then gradually increase P in steps
until the quad oscillates on quick pitch/roll flicks, and then increase to the point
where it just starts to oscillate continually (all in the absence of D), you will then
be able to determine the natural P oscillation frequency.

A blackbox log would identify that frequency with precision, but just looking at it
would probably be sufficient to get a decent idea. Often P oscillation is very low,
as low as 5 to 10 Hz on low power quads, up to say 30-40Hz on powerful
quads.

Once you know the frequency at which P oscillates, that tells you where the
primary D lowpass setpoint needs to be. Probably somewhere like 50%-100%
above the natural P oscillation point would be fine (and avoid phase shift
issues). This could mean a D lowpass as low as 3 - 40 - 50Hz on many setups,
even lower on some. It would depend on how powerful the motors are and how
fast the resulting P oscillation was.

So long as the D lowpass is set above the P oscillation point - a decent way
above, to avoid phase shift issues - D would still be able to properly dampen P
oscillations and roll-stop wobbles etc, but low enough to have less of an effect
on noise amplification at higher frequencies.

This approach suggests that there might be a logical way to determine the
optimal D lowpass filter set-point value after all. I'll give it a go on the weekend.
I suggest doing a classical tuning exercise on a problematic quad? Sounds to
me like you have too much P and are trying to add D in increasing amounts to
control it. Classical PID theory suggests that you can't get a stable, well
damped system if P is simply too high. Trying to control excessive P with more
and more D doesn't work out well. As a rule of thumb, D allows pushing P 20-
30% above the oscillation point. I think personally it's safer to get D to the point
it helps control the oscillation, and then set P at 80% of the oscillation value.
The quad may not be totally crisp like this - you could push P higher, perhaps -
but it will be really stable and smooth and nicely damped. If the motors are
powerful it will also be crisp and precise. You don't need a blackbox to do this;
blackbox really is needed only to precisely set filters or resolve power train
issues.

Filters:

See the Gyro & Filters Wiki Page for details and discussions on
adjusting/Tuning the Filters.

Tuning the DJI Snail system

This system needs very different PIDs and Defaults do not work causing
extreme oscillations. The following video and thread covers tuning this power
system (also a good video on general Tuning).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8L2v10RS6io

Thread on the DJI Snail system with lots of Tuning discussion.

https://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?2749559-DJI-Snail-mini-
quad-propulsion-system-22-50-ESC-AND-MOTOR

PID Analyzers

One of the latest news buzzing around the world of quadcopters is PID
analyzers. Most beginners cannot successfully tune a drone such that there is
no vibration and most beginners can be seen on the internet asking the pros for
help regarding the problems and a suitable solution. This is where PID
analyzers come into picture.

If you have black box feature enabled you just feed this data into the PID
analyzer which will give users the required settings or the recommended
settings for smooth flying. If the FC is capable of black box data logging, PID
analyzers are worth a try.
ADDITIONAL SENSORS

GPS Integration

GPS stands for global positioning systems. GPS is a satellite based navigation
system that provides geolocation for a GPS receiver anywhere in the world.
Why use GPS in quads?

Smaller quads are relatively cheap to build and losing them won’t hurt your
pocket that much. But as you move bigger in size like 650mm or even a
1000mm cinematography quad frame, the parts alone for the build will cost a
couple thousand dollars. Hence GPS are added to avoid mishaps and GPS can
be referred to as insurance.

Not only is it useful to identify lost quads, some quads with autonomous
features such as Aerial mapping requires GPS. GPS is mostly used for quads
that fly beyond VLOS (visual line of sight) and totally unnecessary for close
proximity flying as you can just walk over the area you flew and normally find
the quad hiding in a bush.

Current Sensors

As the name suggests, a current sensor is used to measure the amount of

current your quad draws at various throttle ranges.

Why is it necessary? Because you can monitor your current and be sure that
you are not damaging your battery by drawing large amounts of current. Not
only measure and monitor current, a current sensor can also give the battery
consumption (mAh) used from the battery.

Normally current sensors are placed on PDB’s or on the ESC’s, if not they can
be mounted separately or even buy current sensor integrated FC’s.

Barometer
Barometer is a type of sensor that measures the altitude by sensing the
atmospheric pressure. As we all know atmospheric pressure decreases as we
go up higher in altitude, if you didn’t know prior to this you know it now.

Barometers are used for autonomous navigation where the quad is required to
hold a certain altitude throughout its flight path. The F7 flight controllers are so
powerful that manufacturers decided to add sensors to utilize the extra
processing power.

We normally don’t need Barometer sensor on our quads as we don’t do

autonomous flying, but if you do long range quads the Barometer sensor might
be helpful.

ADDITIONAL FEATURES

On Screen Display (OSD)

OSD stands for on screen display. The function of an OSD chip is to overlay
information from the various sensors and display parameters such as battery
voltage, current consumption, GPS location, altitude etc. These information gets
transmitted with the video feed from your FPV camera.

Betaflight OSD has features that a FC can be programmed to display, like an

artificial horizon (the straight line in the middle), display airspeed (if an airspeed
sensor is present), GPS coordinates (if GPS sensor is present), current
consumption and mAh consumed (if a current sensor is present) and so on.
Below is a list of OSD elements that you want to be displayed on your goggles.
Power Distribution Board

FC manufacturers wanted something unique to sell more of their products and

PDB integrated FC’s are the result of this venture. Though integrated PDB’s on
FC’s eliminate the need for an external PDB, it also reduces the height of the
stack by up to 15mm. FC integrated PDB’s are ideal for frames with tight
spaces but they come with their own set of challenges and disadvantages.

External PDB
Even though these types of FC’s reduce the height of the stack, they are prone
to electrical noise interfering with the gyro. As the current flow is very close to
the flight control processors and gyros, voltage spikes and electrical and
magnetic interference may cause some issues. That being said manufacturers
claim that they are well isolated from electrical noise.

Battery Elimination Circuit (BEC)

Apart from supplying power to the motors there are loads of other components
on a quad that require power such as camera, vTx, receivers etc… A good flight
controller will have a good amount of BEC’s from 3.3V from SBUS receivers, 5V
BEC’s for PPM receivers and 12V BEC’s for camera, vTx and LED’s.

If you are going to use individual ESC’s and PDB for powering your motors then
the PDB will have BEC’s for every component that requires power. But If you
plan to go the 4in1 ESC route, then pay attention to the BEC’s present on the
FC’s.

Black Box

Black Box is something similar to that found on airplanes where all the data
from the quad is stored. This Black box data is stored in the SD card which we
plug in the slot.

Black Box is something similar to that found on airplanes where all the data
from the quad is stored. This Black box data is stored in the SD card which we
plug in the slot.

ESC Integration

Manufacturers took a step even further into integrating things by integrating FC

and ESC on a single motherboard. The Asgard FC’s were the first FC’s to
integrate ESC’s into the FC’s for ease of use and simplicity. These type of FC’s
require not much of soldering as the ESC and FC are internally connected
saving the hassles of wiring for a beginner. The Asgard board weighs a total of
14g which is a good amount of weight reduction plus the weight gained by not
using wires.

But all these features come with a penalty. There is only so much you can cram
into a 36x36mm board, ESC integrated type of FC’s usually tend to have
smaller MOSFETs (MOSFETs are responsible for the current carrying capacity
of an ESC, larger the FETs larger the current carrying capacity). They will be
fine for micro builds of 3” and under but can’t handle the current draws of larger
2207 or 2306 motors without damaging the FC.

Receiver Compatibility

If you already own a transmitter, then receiver compatibility is one feature that
you should definitely check before buying. RC transmitters use different
protocols to communicate with the air borne receiver where different radio
manufacturers use different protocols. Some of the major RC protocols are
PWM, PPM, IBUS, SBUS, DSMX, DSM2, XBUS, CRSF (Crossfire) to name a
few.

Although most modern FC’s have all the above mentioned receiver compatibility
there are some FC’s that do not support a few protocols (it is probably how they
are built). So it is worth taking a look into the FC receiver support list and make
sure it supports the protocol used by your particular radio.

Further reading: RC radio protocols

Soft mounting FC’s and Gyro’s

As the motors come to life when flying, they tend to produce vibrations which
travel through the frame and affect the accuracy of the gyro placed on the FC.
No matter what the motor quality is and how precisely the motors are
manufactured, they produce vibrations. Hence to counter act this tendency, the
gyro has to be isolated and the 2 methods to isolate the gyro is by either soft
mounting the FC or soft mounting the gyro present on the FC itself.

Soft mounting is a must for FC boards that use ICM20602 gyro or they just
become unflyable due the sensitiveness of the ICM20602 gyro. Soft mounting
definitely help to soften the mechanical noise generated by the motors and
wouldn’t hurt to use some sort of soft mounting.

Mounting Patterns

The most common mounting pattern used in a quadcopter is 16×16 (for 2” and
under quads), 20×20 (for 2” to 4” quads) and 30.5×30.5 (for 4” and larger
quads). This is the distance between each hole in a FC. Each and every frame
has a mounting pattern mentioned for buying suitable FC boards.

Some frames have support for 20×20 and 30.5×30.5 holes. Hence pick a
suitable sized FC board that fits your frame.
DRONE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER –
RADIO CONTROL SYSTEM GUIDE
A radio control system is made up of two elements, the transmitter you hold in
your hands and the receiver you put inside your drone. Dramatically simplifying
things here, your drone transmitter will read your stick inputs and send them
through the air to your receiver in near real time. Once the receiver has this
information it passes it on to your drones flight controller which makes the drone
move accordingly. A radio will have four separate channels for each direction on
the sticks along with some extra ones for any auxiliary switches it may have.

FREQUENCY AND CHANNELS

Thankfully frequency and channel wise radio controls are a lot smarter than
their FPV counter parts and are much easier to manage. Video transmitters and
receivers for example both require setting to the correct channel along with
diligent channel management every time you fly. A Radio Controller however
simply needs to bind or pair with a receiver when it's first setup.

From then on it will always link and hop over various frequencies in the 2.4Ghz
band to ensure a solid link with theoretically hundreds of pilots operating at the
same time.

RANGE TECHNOLOGY

The limit of range is normally where the receiver can no longer clearly hear
what the transmitter telling it and typically falls in the 1km range in normal
conditions. Imagine trying to talk to someone across a field The range of your
radio link will be dependent on a few factors:

The output power of your transmitter - Many run just below the legal maximum
to be compliant with international standards.

The sensitivity of the Receiver - A more sensitive receiver is like having better
hearing, the signal will travel further however it may pickup more noise in
certain conditions.

The quality of your antennas at both ends - Antennas could be an entire article
on their own but basically a larger antenna will send and receive a better signal.
Often optimizing your antenna placement will make a huge difference to the
performance to the system.

Although typical radio systems use the 2.4Ghz band, specialist long range
systems such as the TBS Crossfire can run on much lower frequencies which
are able to travel much further at the same power.
FPV CAMERA FOR DRONE|KEY FACTORS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FPV stands for First Person Viewing. Why do we need a camera? Good
question right!!! An FPV camera must provide a live analog video feed to the
pilot such that the pilot can maneuver his drone. The video feed from this FPV
camera is going to help the pilot to fly. HD cameras are another breed of
cameras used on mini quads. Now the next question that comes to your mind is
why there are 2 different types of cameras?

Both the FPV and HD camera are 2 types of cameras serving 2 different
puposes.

FPV cameras provide very low latency video feed with exceptional image
quality.

HD cameras record ultra sharp videos which are a treat to look at.

The latency from the HD camera is too high to be transmitted (approximately

150ms) and hence cannot be used for live video transmission, whereas FPV
camera’s can’t record HD videos (or can they!! More on this below).

Traditionally FPV pilots have been using relatively expensive, large and bulky
HD camera’s like the Runcam 3 or GoPro Hero 7. But gone are the stone age,
where tiny miniaturized FPV camera’s like the Runcam Split 2 which has a
36x36 PCB recording 1080p video, costing 1/4th the cost of a GoPro and 5
times lighter in weight.

FPV camera’s come in all shapes and sizes. To simplify the buying process,
below listed are some of the factors to consider which helps a person to
evaluate a FPV camera and pick up the right one.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING FPV CAMERA

Imaging Sensor- CCD or CMOS

CCD (charge-coupled device) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide

semiconductor) sensors are the 2 types of image sensors used in FPV cameras
where they mostly vary by how the image is captured by the sensor placed in
the FPV camera. FPV cameras convert light signals into electrical signals so
that they can be transmitted by the analog video transmitters.

Both CCD and CMOS image sensors start by capturing the image and
converting the image into digital signals. The next step is to read the value
(electrons or charge accumulated by the camera). This is where the similarities
between the two end. The major difference is how the electrical signal is
processed and outputted.
In a CCD image sensor, the electrical signal is transported across the chip and
are read at one of the corners of the array. The electrical charge from line of
pixels is transferred to the next, until all the pixel lines have completed
outputting.

Unlike the CCD, CMOS sensors read the electrical signals at each individual
pixel (A pixel is a tiny dot or square that is part of a digital image). CMOS
sensors have individual transistors for individual pixels compared to a few
transistors in a CCD sensor.

Another major disadvantage of the CMOS sensors is how they capture the
image. CCD sensors use global shutter (captures the image instantaneously)
and CMOS sensors use rolling shutter (rolling shutter- capture the image line by
line). As CMOS sensor’s output the image line by line, any vibrations may
cause the image to distort. This distortion is known as JELLO effect.

If you didn’t understand any of the technical stuff above, know this: CCD image
sensor’s creates high quality images and are less susceptible to electrical noise.
CMOS tend to have lower light sensitivity while consuming significantly lower
power than a CCD image sensor. CMOS also have a lower image quality, but
with constant improvements CMOS sensors are trying to catch up with CCD
sensors.

Form Factor

There are 4 major camera sizes- Standard, Mini, Micro and Nano size. These
cameras are categorized based on the mounting holes that help to mount the
camera to the frame. Each drone frame is different and support particular
camera sizes. Hence it is important to take note the camera size before buying
the camera and rather have an incompatible camera that is too large or too
small to be used on the frame you intend to use.
 Mini sized cameras have 21mm mounting holes that usually
fit medium sized frames. Mini sized cameras have become
popular these days as they are converted into FPV/HD
cameras.

Micro sized cameras are used with ultra-light racing drone

frames where saving every gram of weight becomes
essential. But don’t be fooled by the size as it can perform as
well as the standard sized camera. The mounting holes are
19mm apart.

Nano cameras have no particular mounting options in. They

don’t normally come with hard cases such as the standard
sized cameras. They are mostly used on 2” or under, sized
quads.

Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio refers to the image size that is being displayed on a monitor or
screen. A 16x9 image format will have a wider and shorter image than a 4x3.
The 4x3 image format may appear to be taller. There are FPV pilots who prefer
both the 16x9 and 4x3. But it is widely accepted that a 4x3 image format helps
in flying better because of the taller image.
But aspect ratio may also depend on the camera and the camera lens. Some
FPV cameras support both 16x9 and 4x3 image format. Most CMOS cameras
support 16x9 natively, for a CMOS camera to display 4x3 image format, the
sides may appear to be chopped from the 16x9 to form a 4x3 image.

Latency

FPV cameras require time to capture and process the image. This time taken by
the camera to convert an image into electrical signals is known as latency.
Lower the latency the better.

Latency may not just be attributed to the camera itself. Video transmitters and
the LCD screens in the FPV goggles may also add to the latency.

If you are flying slow and closer to you latency does not pose a major concern
for the buyer. But when flying a race quad at 100mph with a 100ms delay from
the FPV camera, the drone is 4m ahead giving you no time to react and correct
on your inputs.

That’s the theory, most modern FPV cameras have as little as 10ms delay time.
With constant improvements cameras such as the Foxeer Predator V3 have as
little as 4ms latency.

Input Voltage

Input voltage refers to the range of voltages that can be safely supplied for the
safe operation of the camera. A well built FPV camera will support a wide range
of voltages with most modern cameras having voltage supports of up to 35v.
The camera’s have an in built linear BEC that steps down the voltage to 3.3v
(the internal working voltage of the electronics inside the cam is 3.3v).

Input voltage refers to the range of voltages that can be safely supplied for the
safe operation of the camera. A well built FPV camera will support a wide range
of voltages with most modern cameras having voltage supports of up to 35v.
The camera’s have an in built linear BEC that steps down the voltage to 3.3v
(the internal working voltage of the electronics inside the cam is 3.3v).

It is not recommended to supply a large voltage for the camera as it has a lower
operating voltage internally. Higher the input voltage harder the BEC works to
step down that voltage. Supplying a lower voltage also keeps the camera cooler
comparatively.

So it is recommended to supply a lower input voltage. Most modern FC’s have

filtered voltage supplies dedicated for FPV camera, so it is worth taking a look
at the FC you are going to be using. Voltages within 12v is considered nominal.

Field of View
Field of view (FOV) refers to the observable area captured by the camera. The
camera’s lens size determines the FOV. Smaller the camera lens, larger the
FOV.

Larger FOV allows you to see more but that may not necessarily be a good
thing. With larger FOV it becomes difficult to observe the minute details such as
branches of trees. With our limited vTx’s it becomes much worse. A FOV
between 130-150° is considered ideal with a considerable amount of view and
exceptional details. The below diagram illustrates a narrow and wide FOV
camera.

Video Encoding Format- NTSC or PAL

Video encoding is the process of converting video signals (in our case electrons
from the FPV cam) into a format that can be read by monitors (FPV monitors or
goggles). This is usually taken care by the FPV camera. The most commonly
used video formats are NTSC (National Television System Committee or PAL
(Phase Alternating Line).

The main difference between NTSC and PAL is, NTSC has a 720x480
resolution at 30fps and PAL has a 720x576 resolution at 25fps.

NTSC with its higher frame rates allows for a smooth video playback. PAL with
its slightly better resolution allows for sharper texts from OSD. But it’s based on
your personal preference. Pick a video format that works for you. Since most
FPV camera’s support both formats, it’ll be easier for one switch back and forth
and pick one that works.

TVL

TVL stands for TV Lines. TVL is the measure of resolution of analog cameras. A
1000TVL camera can capture 500 Black and 500 White alternating lines in one
frame.
Wide Dynamic Ranging (WDR)

Wide dynamic ranging is the fancy word referring to the camera’s ability to
capture the bright and dark parts of an image. Dynamic range is the difference
between the darkest and the brightest parts of an image.

WDR comes into picture when you fly outdoors where the sun casts shadows
and becomes less of a factor when flying on cloudy days. An Overexposed
image is where the brighter parts of the image is blownout and an
underexposed image is where the darker parts of the image appears even
darker.

A good WDR enabled camera tends to have the perfect balance between
overexposure and underexposure. Most modern FPV cameras have WDR
enabled by default, but the WDR ability of the camera is not generally published
by the manufacturer.

OTHER FACTORS TO CONSIDER

Low light performance

Camera’s work by capturing the light reflecting off a body. At evenings and even
at night, with the sun not providing light, it becomes very difficult to see for the
camera. Low light performance, as the name suggests, it is the ability of a
camera to capture images at very low lighting conditions.

Low light performance is not something to be mistaken for WDR. Some FPV
camera’s claim 0.00001 Lux (A unit to measure the illumination of light)
compared to the living room lights of an average home at 50 Lux. So people
flying at night should consider this as a deciding factor.

On Screen Display (OSD)

OSD is the ability of the camera to overlay flight information. The OSD on the
camera can provide us with only basic information such as the approximate
battery voltage. If you’re flying quads this factor is not that Important because
Drone Flight Controllers have dedicated OSD chips to take care of this.

But if the camera is going to be used on an RC airplane which has no dedicated

FC or OSD chips, the OSD information provided by the camera becomes
essential.

HD Cameras for FPV

HD cameras like the GoPro hero 7 shown here are meant to capture HD videos
throughout the flying of the quad. HD cameras allow you to record videos at
720p (1280x720) or even at 1080p (1920x1080) resolution, compared to the
360p (480x320) resolution of the non HD FPV camera.

So why do people use HD camera’s rather than using DVR (Digitial video
recording) on their goggle’s? The answer is simple, Pilots simply don’t like to
use the video (which has a lower resolution and filled with static or noise)
provided by the DVR. This HD video feed can be used for aerial photography,
inspections or upload the videos to Youtube and show off the pilot’s skills.

Traditionally large bulky and expensive HD camera’s were used, where a

decent HD camera would cost upwards of $150. But with advancement in
technology, HD camera’s have been miniaturized into a tiny 36x36 PCB.

In the above image shown is the Runcam split 2, one of the first HD/FPV
cameras. Not only does this improvement eliminate the need for standalone
FPV camera’s by providing video out for the analog vTx’s thereby reducing
weight and also record videos at 1080p/60fps.

The video gets recorded on a SD card and accessories include a wifi module for
wireless communication with the board.Though we do not recommend this 2in1
FPV camera’s for a beginner, but would would be a fine upgrade for
intermediate to advanced pilots and subsequent builds for a beginner.

Camera settings
Default or factory settings normally work fine, but
FPV community experts tweak with this settings
and sometimes have better results than factory
settings. Every FPV camera is different and
hence it is recommended to surf the web and
check if there are changes worth doing to the
settings that may or may not work for your
particular use.
Video Transmitter (VTX)
The video transmitter takes the signal from your camera and sends it out
through your antenna.

Things to consider:

Power Output - Different VTX's pump out your video at different power levels.
These often range from 25mW to 800mW with some offering a means of
switching power output.

Channel Options - Most modern VTX's can run the majority of channel bands
including Raceband. As long as the VTX channel list is compatible with your
receiver you should be fine!

VTX-Video

Signal Quality - This one really comes down to who you'll

be flying with, you'll notice that some VTXs offer the same
power and channel options yet cost up to four times as
much! The reason for this is that the cheaper VTXs spit out
noise over a much wider range than the selected channel
which can lead to interference in other pilots video feeds.

If you intend to fly on your own a cheap VTX will work great
for you however if you intend to fly in larger groups or at
race events you really need a clean transmitter like the
TBS Unify Pro or the IRC Tramp.

Switching Options - If you do intend to fly with other people or at race events
then you'll often have to change channel to ensure everyone can get clean
video. Traditionally VTXs have a small push button you can use to cycle
through video channels, bands and power levels, the channel is then shown via
a LEDs on the VTX itself.

The more race friendly transmitters actually connect up to your flight controller
and allow channel changing via an OSD or a Taranis Transmitter. Although it
sounds like a little feature it makes a huge difference when flying in groups of
over three pilots and is one I cannot go without anymore

Be sure to check what is legal in your country! Some VTX have limits of 25 or
200mW

Video Antennas

The best way to improve your video range or clarity isn't necessarily increasing
the VTX output power but is actually getting a good pair of antennas. Those
black dipole antennas you get with cheap goggles or VTXs referred to as
'rubber duckies' really don't perform well and are often binned and replaced with
a high end antenna. An FPV setup requires two antennas, one to send out the
video and another to receive it.

TBS Triumph

Things to consider

Antenna type - Different antenna designs have different performance, without

going into too much detail dipoles perform poorly where as circular polarized
antennas perform well. More innovative recent antennas such as TBS Triumph
or Pagoda push video range even further. A patch antenna can be used to
increase range but only in one direction and should only be used as a receiving
antenna.

Connector Type - Antennas come with two connector types SMA and RP-SMA
both can talk to each other fine but you need to make sure they match your VTX
or goggles connectors. Failing that adaptors are available.

Polarization - The antenna itself can come in tow flavors RHCP and LHCP both
work the same but they must match in order to get a signal. By having different
polarizations it is possible to get more pilots in the air at once.

Robustness - Obviously the antenna on the drone will be subject to a lot more
abuse than the one on your goggles! For this reason I recommend using your
best/most delicate antenna as a receiver and using a durable protected antenna
on the drone.