NUMBER SYSTEMS 1

CHAPTER 1

NUMBER SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction
In your earlier classes, you have learnt about the number line and how to represent
various types of numbers on it (see Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 : The number line

Just imagine you start from zero and go on walking along this number line in the
positive direction. As far as your eyes can see, there are numbers, numbers and
numbers!

Fig. 1.2
Now suppose you start walking along the number line, and collecting some of the
numbers. Get a bag ready to store them!

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2 MATHEMATICS

You might begin with picking up only natural

numbers like 1, 2, 3, and so on. You know that this list 58 1 N
goes on for ever. (Why is this true?) So, now your 16
0 5
71 31 652
bag contains infinitely many natural numbers! Recall 10 9 4 2
601 7 40
that we denote this collection by the symbol N. 4

Now turn and walk all the way back, pick up

zero and put it into the bag. You now have the
collection of whole numbers which is denoted by
the symbol W.
0
16 3 W
57440 2
9
601582

Now, stretching in front of you are many, many negative integers. Put all the
negative integers into your bag. What is your new collection? Recall that it is the
collection of all integers, and it is denoted by the symbol Z.
0
-4
-7

Z comes from the

57

-66-21 Why Z ?
-3 German word
16 1 58
7 “zahlen”, which means
0 53
31 2 Z 0 “to count”.
42 2 166 3
6017 40 -75 2 -40
4
22 1 9

Are there some numbers still left on the line? Of course! There are numbers like
1, 3 , −2005
or even . If you put all such numbers also into the bag, it will now be the
2 4 2006
17
–
981
20 006
05
2

–12
13
9
5 19 6 Q
3 7 14 –6 –6620 –
7 7
1 7 2 19
20 006

9
58
58

16 2
05
2

12 -65 99 14
9 99 1 – 9
3 3 81 13–672 60
89 0 1
4 6625 16 1 –1 12
27 – –5 4 9
–860

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 3

collection of rational numbers. The collection of rational numbers is denoted by Q.

‘Rational’ comes from the word ‘ratio’, and Q comes from the word ‘quotient’.
You may recall the definition of rational numbers:
p
A number ‘r’ is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. (Why do we insist that q ≠ 0?)
p
Notice that all the numbers now in the bag can be written in the form , where p
q

−25
and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, –25 can be written as ; here p = –25
1
and q = 1. Therefore, the rational numbers also include the natural numbers, whole
numbers and integers.
You also know that the rational numbers do not have a unique representation in
p 1 2 10 25
the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, = = =
q 2 4 20 50

47
= , and so on. These are equivalent rational numbers (or fractions). However,
94
p p
when we say that is a rational number, or when we represent on the number
q q
line, we assume that q ≠ 0 and that p and q have no common factors other than 1
(that is, p and q are co-prime). So, on the number line, among the infinitely many
1 1
fractions equivalent to , we will choose to represent all of them.
2 2
Now, let us solve some examples about the different types of numbers, which you
have studied in earlier classes.

Example 1 : Are the following statements true or false? Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every whole number is a natural number.
(ii) Every integer is a rational number.
(iii) Every rational number is an integer.
Solution : (i) False, because zero is a whole number but not a natural number.
m
(ii) True, because every integer m can be expressed in the form , and so it is a
1
rational number.

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4 MATHEMATICS

3
(iii) False, because is not an integer.
5
Example 2 : Find five rational numbers between 1 and 2.
We can approach this problem in at least two ways.
Solution 1 : Recall that to find a rational number between r and s, you can add r and
r+s 3
s and divide the sum by 2, that is lies between r and s. So, is a number
2 2
between 1 and 2. You can proceed in this manner to find four more rational numbers
5 , 11 , 13 7
between 1 and 2. These four numbers are and .
4 8 8 4
Solution 2 : The other option is to find all the five rational numbers in one step. Since
we want five numbers, we write 1 and 2 as rational numbers with denominator 5 + 1,
6 12 7 8 9 10 11
i.e., 1 = and 2 = . Then you can check that , , , and are all rational
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 4, 3 5 11
numbers between 1 and 2. So, the five numbers are , , and .
6 3 2 3 6
Remark : Notice that in Example 2, you were asked to find five rational numbers
between 1 and 2. But, you must have realised that in fact there are infinitely many
rational numbers between 1 and 2. In general, there are infinitely many rational
numbers between any two given rational numbers.
Let us take a look at the number line again. Have you picked up all the numbers?
Not, yet. The fact is that there are infinitely many more numbers left on the number
line! There are gaps in between the places of the numbers you picked up, and not just
one or two but infinitely many. The amazing thing is that there are infinitely many
numbers lying between any two of these gaps too!
So we are left with the following questions:
1. What are the numbers, that are left on the number
line, called?
2. How do we recognise them? That is, how do we
distinguish them from the rationals (rational
numbers)?
These questions will be answered in the next section.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 5

EXERCISE 1.1

p
1. Is zero a rational number? Can you write it in the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0?
2. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 4.
3 4
3. Find five rational numbers between and .
5 5
4. State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every natural number is a whole number.
(ii) Every integer is a whole number.
(iii) Every rational number is a whole number.

1.2 Irrational Numbers

We saw, in the previous section, that there may be numbers on the number line that
are not rationals. In this section, we are going to investigate these numbers. So far, all
p
the numbers you have come across, are of the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0. So, you may ask: are there numbers which are not of this form? There are
indeed such numbers.
The Pythagoreans in Greece, followers of the famous
mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, were the first
to discover the numbers which were not rationals, around
400 BC. These numbers are called irrational numbers
(irrationals), because they cannot be written in the form of
a ratio of integers. There are many myths surrounding the
discovery of irrational numbers by the Pythagorean,
Hippacus of Croton. In all the myths, Hippacus has an
unfortunate end, either for discovering that 2 is irrational
or for disclosing the secret about 2 to people outside the Pythagoras
secret Pythagorean sect! (569 BCE – 479 BCE)
Fig. 1.3

Let us formally define these numbers.

p
A number ‘s’ is called irrational, if it cannot be written in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.

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6 MATHEMATICS

You already know that there are infinitely many rationals. It turns out that there
are infinitely many irrational numbers too. Some examples are:

2, 3, 15,, π, 0.10110111011110...
Remark : Recall that when we use the symbol , we assume that it is the
positive square root of the number. So 4 = 2, though both 2 and –2 are square
roots of 4.
Some of the irrational numbers listed above are familiar to you. For example, you
have already come across many of the square roots listed above and the number π.
The Pythagoreans proved that 2 is irrational. Later in approximately 425 BC,
Theodorus of Cyrene showed that 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
and 17 are also irrationals. Proofs of irrationality of 2 , 3 , 5 , etc., shall be
discussed in Class X. As to π, it was known to various cultures for thousands of
years, it was proved to be irrational by Lambert and Legendre only in the late 1700s.
In the next section, we will discuss why 0.10110111011110... and π are irrational.
Let us return to the questions raised at the end of
the previous section. Remember the bag of rational 17 9 R
numbers. If we now put all irrational numbers into 981
3 1471
20 006
05
2

the bag, will there be any number left on the number –12 36 0
58

16
-65 13 2 999
line? The answer is no! It turns out that the collection –66 89 3 0
of all rational numbers and irrational numbers together 19 26 27 4 –6625
-45 –6 8 60 –5
make up what we call the collection of real numbers, 7–

which is denoted by R. Therefore, a real number is either rational or irrational. So, we

can say that every real number is represented by a unique point on the number
line. Also, every point on the number line represents a unique real number.
This is why we call the number line, the real number line.

In the 1870s two German mathematicians,

Cantor and Dedekind, showed that :
Corresponding to every real number, there is a
point on the real number line, and corresponding
to every point on the number line, there exists a
unique real number.

R. Dedekind (1831-1916) G. Cantor (1845-1918)

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 7

Let us see how we can locate some of the irrational numbers on the number line.

Example 3 : Locate 2 on the number line.

Solution : It is easy to see how the Greeks might have discovered
2 . Consider a square OABC, with each side 1 unit in length (see
Fig. 1.6). Then you can see by the Pythagoras theorem that
OB = 12 + 12 = 2 . How do we represent 2 on the number line? Fig. 1.6

This is easy. Transfer Fig. 1.6 onto the number line making sure that the vertex O
coincides with zero (see Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

We have just seen that OB = 2 . Using a compass with centre O and radius OB,
draw an arc intersecting the number line at the point P. Then P corresponds to 2 on
the number line.

Example 4 : Locate 3 on the number line.

Solution : Let us return to Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.8
Construct BD of unit length perpendicular to OB (as in Fig. 1.8). Then using the

( 2)
2
Pythagoras theorem, we see that OD = + 12 = 3 . Using a compass, with
centre O and radius OD, draw an arc which intersects the number line at the point Q.
Then Q corresponds to 3.

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8 MATHEMATICS

In the same way, you can locate n for any positive integer n, after n − 1 has been
located.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) Every irrational number is a real number.

(ii) Every point on the number line is of the form m , where m is a natural number.
(iii) Every real number is an irrational number.
2. Are the square roots of all positive integers irrational? If not, give an example of the
square root of a number that is a rational number.

3. Show how 5 can be represented on the number line.

4. Classroom activity (Constructing the ‘square root
spiral’) : Take a large sheet of paper and construct
the ‘square root spiral’ in the following fashion. Start
with a point O and draw a line segment OP1 of unit
length. Draw a line segment P1P2 perpendicular to
OP1 of unit length (see Fig. 1.9). Now draw a line
segment P2P3 perpendicular to OP2. Then draw a line
segment P3P4 perpendicular to OP3. Continuing in Fig. 1.9 : Constructing
this manner, you can get the line segment Pn–1Pn by square root spiral
drawing a line segment of unit length perpendicular to OPn–1. In this manner, you will
have created the points P2, P3,...., Pn,... ., and joined them to create a beautiful spiral
depicting 2, 3, 4, ...

1.3 Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions

In this section, we are going to study rational and irrational numbers from a different
point of view. We will look at the decimal expansions of real numbers and see if we
can use the expansions to distinguish between rationals and irrationals. We will also
explain how to visualise the representation of real numbers on the number line using
their decimal expansions. Since rationals are more familiar to us, let us start with
10 7 1
them. Let us take three examples : , , .
3 8 7
Pay special attention to the remainders and see if you can find any pattern.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 9

10 7 1
Example 5 : Find the decimal expansions of , and .
3 8 7
Solution :
3.333... 0.875 0.142857...
3 10 8 7.0 7 1.0
9 64 7
10 60 30
9 56 28
10 40 20
9 40 14
10 0 60
9 56
1 40
35
50
49
1

Remainders : 1, 1, 1, 1, 1... Remainders : 6, 4, 0 Remainders : 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,

Divisor : 3 Divisor : 8 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,...
Divisor : 7

What have you noticed? You should have noticed at least three things:
(i) The remainders either become 0 after a certain stage, or start repeating themselves.
(ii) The number of entries in the repeating string of remainders is less than the divisor
10 1
(in one number repeats itself and the divisor is 3, in there are six entries
3 7
326451 in the repeating string of remainders and 7 is the divisor).
(iii) If the remainders repeat, then we get a repeating block of digits in the quotient
10 1
(for , 3 repeats in the quotient and for , we get the repeating block 142857
3 7
in the quotient).

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10 MATHEMATICS

Although we have noticed this pattern using only the examples above, it is true for all
p
rationals of the form (q ≠ 0). On division of p by q, two main things happen – either
q
the remainder becomes zero or never becomes zero and we get a repeating string of
remainders. Let us look at each case separately.

Case (i) : The remainder becomes zero

7
In the example of , we found that the remainder becomes zero after some steps and
8
7 1 639
the decimal expansion of = 0.875. Other examples are = 0.5, = 2.556. In all
8 2 250
these cases, the decimal expansion terminates or ends after a finite number of steps.
We call the decimal expansion of such numbers terminating.
Case (ii) : The remainder never becomes zero

10 1
In the examples of and , we notice that the remainders repeat after a certain
3 7
stage forcing the decimal expansion to go on for ever. In other words, we have a
repeating block of digits in the quotient. We say that this expansion is non-terminating
10 1
recurring. For example, = 3.3333... and = 0.142857142857142857...
3 7
10
The usual way of showing that 3 repeats in the quotient of is to write it as 3.3 .
3
1 1
Similarly, since the block of digits 142857 repeats in the quotient of , we write as
7 7
0.142857 , where the bar above the digits indicates the block of digits that repeats.
Also 3.57272... can be written as 3.572 . So, all these examples give us non-terminating
recurring (repeating) decimal expansions.
Thus, we see that the decimal expansion of rational numbers have only two choices:
either they are terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Now suppose, on the other hand, on your walk on the number line, you come across a
number like 3.142678 whose decimal expansion is terminating or a number like
1.272727... that is, 1.27 , whose decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring, can
you conclude that it is a rational number? The answer is yes!

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 11

We will not prove it but illustrate this fact with a few examples. The terminating cases
are easy.

Example 6 : Show that 3.142678 is a rational number. In other words, express 3.142678
p
in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q

3142678 ,
Solution : We have 3.142678 = and hence is a rational number.
1000000
Now, let us consider the case when the decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring.

p
Example 7 : Show that 0.3333... = 0.3 can be expressed in the form , where p and
q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.

Solution : Since we do not know what 0.3 is , let us call it ‘x’ and so
x = 0.3333...
Now here is where the trick comes in. Look at
10 x = 10 × (0.333...) = 3.333...
Now, 3.3333... = 3 + x, since x = 0.3333...
Therefore, 10 x = 3 + x
Solving for x, we get

1
9x = 3, i.e., x =
3

p
Example 8 : Show that 1.272727... = 1.27 can be expressed in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Solution : Let x = 1.272727... Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to
get
100 x = 127.2727...
So, 100 x = 126 + 1.272727... = 126 + x
Therefore, 100 x – x = 126, i.e., 99 x = 126

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12 MATHEMATICS

126 14
i.e., x= =
99 11

14
You can check the reverse that = 1.27 .
11

p
Example 9 : Show that 0.2353535... = 0.235 can be expressed in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Solution : Let x = 0.235 . Over here, note that 2 does not repeat, but the block 35
repeats. Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to get
100 x = 23.53535...
So, 100 x = 23.3 + 0.23535... = 23.3 + x
Therefore, 99 x = 23.3

233 233
i.e., 99 x = , which gives x =
10 990

233
You can also check the reverse that = 0.235 .
990
So, every number with a non-terminating recurring decimal expansion can be expressed
p
in the form (q ≠ 0), where p and q are integers. Let us summarise our results in the
q
following form :
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-
terminating recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is
terminating or non-terminating recurring is rational.
So, now we know what the decimal expansion of a rational number can be. What
about the decimal expansion of irrational numbers? Because of the property above,
we can conclude that their decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.
So, the property for irrational numbers, similar to the property stated above for rational
numbers, is
The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring
is irrational.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 13

Recall s = 0.10110111011110... from the previous section. Notice that it is non-

terminating and non-recurring. Therefore, from the property above, it is irrational.
Moreover, notice that you can generate infinitely many irrationals similar to s.
What about the famous irrationals 2 and π? Here are their decimal expansions up
to a certain stage.
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096...
π = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950...

22 22
(Note that, we often take as an approximate value for π, but π ≠ .)
7 7
Over the years, mathematicians have developed various techniques to produce more
and more digits in the decimal expansions of irrational numbers. For example, you
might have learnt to find digits in the decimal expansion of 2 by the division method.
Interestingly, in the Sulbasutras (rules of chord), a mathematical treatise of the Vedic
period (800 BC - 500 BC), you find an approximation of 2 as follows:
1  1 1  1 1 1
2 = 1+ +  ×  −  × ×  = 1.4142156
3  4 3   34 4 3 
Notice that it is the same as the one given above for the first five decimal places. The
history of the hunt for digits in the decimal expansion of π is very interesting.

The Greek genius Archimedes was the first to compute

digits in the decimal expansion of π. He showed 3.140845
< π < 3.142857. Aryabhatta (476 – 550 C.E.), the great
Indian mathematician and astronomer, found the value
of π correct to four decimal places (3.1416). Using high
speed computers and advanced algorithms, π has been
computed to over 1.24 trillion decimal places!
Archimedes (287 BCE – 212 BCE)
Fig. 1.10
Now, let us see how to obtain irrational numbers.
1 2
Example 10 : Find an irrational number between and .
7 7
1 2
Solution : We saw that = 0142857
. . So, you can easily calculate = 0.285714 .
7 7
1 2
To find an irrational number between and , we find a number which is
7 7

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14 MATHEMATICS

non-terminating non-recurring lying between them. Of course, you can find infinitely
many such numbers.
An example of such a number is 0.150150015000150000...

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Write the following in decimal form and say what kind of decimal expansion each
has :
36 1 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 4
100 11 8
3 2 329
(iv) (v) (vi)
13 11 400
1 2 3
2. You know that = 0142857
. . Can you predict what the decimal expansions of , ,
7 7 7
4 5 6
, , are, without actually doing the long division? If so, how?
7 7 7
1
[Hint : Study the remainders while finding the value of carefully.]
7
p
3. Express the following in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q
(i) 0.6 (ii) 0.47 (iii) 0.001
p
4. Express 0.99999 .... in the form . Are you surprised by your answer? With your
q
teacher and classmates discuss why the answer makes sense.
5. What can the maximum number of digits be in the repeating block of digits in the
1
decimal expansion of ? Perform the division to check your answer.
17
p
6. Look at several examples of rational numbers in the form(q ≠ 0), where p and q are
q
integers with no common factors other than 1 and having terminating decimal
representations (expansions). Can you guess what property q must satisfy?
7. Write three numbers whose decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.

5 9
8. Find three different irrational numbers between the rational numbers and .
7 11
9. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational :
(i) 23 (ii) 225 (iii) 0.3796
(iv) 7.478478... (v) 1.101001000100001...

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 15

1.4 Operations on Real Numbers

You have learnt, in earlier classes, that rational numbers satisfy the commutative,
associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. Moreover, if we add,
subtract, multiply or divide (except by zero) two rational numbers, we still get a rational
number (that is, rational numbers are ‘closed’ with respect to addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division). It turns out that irrational numbers also satisfy the
commutative, associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. However,
the sum, difference, quotients and products of irrational numbers are not always
17
irrational. For example, ( 6 ) + ( − 6 ) , ( 2 ) − ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) ⋅( 3 ) and
17
are

rationals.
Let us look at what happens when we add and multiply a rational number with an
irrational number. For example, 3 is irrational. What about 2 + 3 and 2 3 ? Since
3 has a non-terminating non-recurring decimal expansion, the same is true for
2 + 3 and 2 3 . Therefore, both 2 + 3 and 2 3 are also irrational numbers.
7 ,
Example 11 : Check whether 7 5 , 2 + 21 , π − 2 are irrational numbers or
5
not.
Solution : 5 = 2.236... , 2 = 1.4142..., π = 3.1415...
7 7 5 7 5
Then 7 5 = 15.652..., = = = 3.1304...
5 5 5 5

2 + 21 = 22.4142..., π – 2 = 1.1415...
All these are non-terminating non-recurring decimals. So, all these are irrational numbers.
Now, let us see what generally happens if we add, subtract, multiply, divide, take
square roots and even nth roots of these irrational numbers, where n is any natural
number. Let us look at some examples.

Example 12 : Add 2 2 + 5 3 and 2 – 3 3.

(
Solution : 2 2 + 5 3 + ) ( ) ( ) (
2 –3 3 = 2 2 + 2 + 5 3 –3 3 )
= (2 + 1) 2 + (5 − 3) 3 = 3 2 + 2 3

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16 MATHEMATICS

Example 13 : Multiply 6 5 by 2 5 .
Solution : 6 5 × 2 5 = 6 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

Example 14 : Divide 8 15 by 2 3 .

8 3× 5
Solution : 8 15 ÷ 2 3 = =4 5
2 3
These examples may lead you to expect the following facts, which are true:
(i) The sum or difference of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
(ii) The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number with an irrational number is
irrational.
(iii) If we add, subtract, multiply or divide two irrationals, the result may be rational or
irrational.
We now turn our attention to the operation of taking square roots of real numbers.
Recall that, if a is a natural number, then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0. The same
definition can be extended for positive real numbers.
Let a > 0 be a real number. Then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0.
In Section 1.2, we saw how to represent n for any positive integer n on the number
line. We now show how to find x for any given positive real number x geometrically.
For example, let us find it for x = 3.5, i.e., we find 3.5 geometrically.

Fig. 1.11
Mark the distance 3.5 units from a fixed point A on a given line to obtain a point B such
that AB = 3.5 units (see Fig. 1.11). From B, mark a distance of 1 unit and mark the
new point as C. Find the mid-point of AC and mark that point as O. Draw a semicircle
with centre O and radius OC. Draw a line perpendicular to AC passing through B and
intersecting the semicircle at D. Then, BD = 3.5 .

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 17

More generally, to find x , for any positive real

number x, we mark B so that AB = x units, and, as in
Fig. 1.12, mark C so that BC = 1 unit. Then, as we
have done for the case x = 3.5, we find BD = x
(see Fig. 1.12). We can prove this result using the
Pythagoras Theorem. Fig. 1.12
Notice that, in Fig. 1.12, ∆ OBD is a right-angled triangle. Also, the radius of the circle
x +1
is units.
2
x +1
Therefore, OC = OD = OA = units.
2
 x + 1 x − 1
Now, OB = x −  = ⋅
 2  2
So, by the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
2 2
 x + 1  x − 1 4x
BD2 = OD2 – OB2 =   −  = = x.
 2   2  4

This shows that BD = x.

This construction gives us a visual, and geometric way of showing that x exists for
all real numbers x > 0. If you want to know the position of x on the number line,
then let us treat the line BC as the number line, with B as zero, C as 1, and so on.
Draw an arc with centre B and radius BD, which intersects the number line in E
(see Fig. 1.13). Then, E represents x.

Fig. 1.13

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18 MATHEMATICS

We would like to now extend the idea of square roots to cube roots, fourth roots,
and in general nth roots, where n is a positive integer. Recall your understanding of
square roots and cube roots from earlier classes.
What is 3
8 ? Well, we know it has to be some positive number whose cube is 8, and
you must have guessed 8 = 2. Let us try 5 243 . Do you know some number b such
3

that b5 = 243? The answer is 3. Therefore, 5 243 = 3.

From these examples, can you define n
a for a real number a > 0 and a positive
integer n?
Let a > 0 be a real number and n be a positive integer. Then n
a = b, if bn = a and
b > 0. Note that the symbol ‘ ’ used in 2, 3 8, n a , etc. is called the radical sign.
We now list some identities relating to square roots, which are useful in various
ways. You are already familiar with some of these from your earlier classes. The
remaining ones follow from the distributive law of multiplication over addition of real
numbers, and from the identity (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2, for any real numbers x and y.
Let a and b be positive real numbers. Then

a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

(iii) ( a+ b )( a − b =a−b ) (
(iv) a + b ) (a − b ) = a 2
−b

(v) ( a+ b )( )
c + d = ac + ad + bc + bd

( )
2
(vi) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

Let us look at some particular cases of these identities.

Example 15 : Simplify the following expressions:

(i) (5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) (
(ii) 5 + 5 ) (5 − 5 )
(iii) ( 3 + 7 ) ( 11 − 7 ) ( 11 + 7 )
2
(iv)

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 19

Solution : (i) ( 5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) = 10 + 5 5 + 2 7 + 35
( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 − 5 ) = 5 − ( 5 ) = 25 – 5 = 20
2
2
(ii)

( 3 + 7 ) = ( 3 ) + 2 3 7 + ( 7 ) = 3 + 2 21 + 7 = 10 + 2
2 2 2
(iii) 21

( 11 − 7 ) ( 11 + 7 ) = ( 11 ) − ( 7 ) = 11 − 7 = 4
2 2
(iv)
Remark : Note that ‘simplify’ in the example above has been used to mean that the
expression should be written as the sum of a rational and an irrational number.
1
We end this section by considering the following problem. Look at ⋅ Can you tell
2
where it shows up on the number line? You know that it is irrational. May be it is easier
to handle if the denominator is a rational number. Let us see, if we can ‘rationalise’ the
denominator, that is, to make the denominator into a rational number. To do so, we
need the identities involving square roots. Let us see how.

1
Example 16 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
2

1
Solution : We want to write as an equivalent expression in which the denominator
2

is a rational number. We know that 2 . 2 is rational. We also know that multiplying

1 2 2
by will give us an equivalent expression, since = 1. So, we put these two
2 2 2
facts together to get

1 1 2 2
= × = ⋅
2 2 2 2
1
In this form, it is easy to locate on the number line. It is half way between 0
2
and 2.

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20 MATHEMATICS

1
Example 17 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
2+ 3

1
Solution : We use the Identity (iv) given earlier. Multiply and divide by
2+ 3

1 2− 3 2− 3
2 − 3 to get 2 + 3 × 2 − 3 = 4 − 3 = 2 − 3 .

5
Example 18 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
3− 5
Solution : Here we use the Identity (iii) given earlier.

5 3+ 5 5 3+ 5  −5  ( )
So,
3− 5
=
5
3− 5
×
3+ 5
=
3−5
= 
 2 
( 3+ 5 )
1
Example 19 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
7+3 2

1 1 7 −3 2 7 −3 2 7 −3 2
Solution : = ×  = =
7 + 3 2 7 + 3 2  7 − 3 2  49 − 18 31
So, when the denominator of an expression contains a term with a square root (or
a number under a radical sign), the process of converting it to an equivalent expression
whose denominator is a rational number is called rationalising the denominator.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational:

(i) 2− 5 (
(ii) 3 + )
23 − 23 (iii)
2 7
7 7
1
(iv) (v) 2π
2

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 21

2. Simplify each of the following expressions:

(i) (3 + 3 ) ( 2 + 2 ) (
(ii) 3 + 3 ) (3 − 3 )
( 5 + 2) (iv) ( 2) ( 5 + 2)
2
(iii) 5−

3. Recall, π is defined as the ratio of the circumference (say c) of a circle to its diameter
c
(say d). That is, π = ⋅ This seems to contradict the fact that π is irrational. How will
d
you resolve this contradiction?
4. Represent 9.3 on the number line.
5. Rationalise the denominators of the following:
1 1
(i) (ii)
7 7− 6

1 1
(iii) (iv)
5+ 2 7 −2

1.5 Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

Do you remember how to simplify the following?
(i) 172 . 175 = (ii) (52)7 =

2310
(iii) = (iv) 73 . 93 =
237
Did you get these answers? They are as follows:
(i) 172 . 175 = 177 (ii) (52)7 = 514

2310
(iii) = 233 (iv) 73 . 93 = 633
237
To get these answers, you would have used the following laws of exponents,
which you have learnt in your earlier classes. (Here a, n and m are natural numbers.
Remember, a is called the base and m and n are the exponents.)
(i) am . an = am + n (ii) (am)n = amn
am
(iii) = am − n , m > n (iv) ambm = (ab)m
an

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22 MATHEMATICS

What is (a)0? Yes, it is 1! So you have learnt that (a)0 = 1. So, using (iii), we can
1 −n
get n = a . We can now extend the laws to negative exponents too.
a
So, for example :
1
(i) 17 ⋅ 17 = 17 = 3
2 –5 –3
(ii) (52 ) –7 = 5–14
17
23–10
(iii) = 23–17 (iv) (7) –3 ⋅ (9) –3 = (63) –3
237
Suppose we want to do the following computations:
4
2 1
 1
(i) 2 3 ⋅ 23 (ii)  35 
 
1
5 1 1
7
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 ⋅ 17 5
3
7
How would we go about it? It turns out that we can extend the laws of exponents
that we have studied earlier, even when the base is a positive real number and the
exponents are rational numbers. (Later you will study that it can further to be extended
when the exponents are real numbers.) But before we state these laws, and to even
3
make sense of these laws, we need to first understand what, for example 4 2 is. So,
we have some work to do!
We define n
a for a real number a > 0 as follows:
Let a > 0 be a real number and n a positive integer. Then n
a = b, if bn = a and
b > 0.
1 1
n
In the language of exponents, we define n
a = a . So, in particular, 3
2 = 23 .
3
There are now two ways to look at 4 2 .
3
3  1
4 =  42  = 2 = 8
2 3

 
3 1 1
4 2 = ( 4 ) 2 = ( 64 ) 2 = 8
3

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 23

Therefore, we have the following definition:

Let a > 0 be a real number. Let m and n be integers such that m and n have no
common factors other than 1, and n > 0. Then,
m

( a)
m
n
a = n
= n am
We now have the following extended laws of exponents:
Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then, we have
(i) ap . aq = ap+q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap p−q
(iii) q = a (iv) apbp = (ab)p
a
You can now use these laws to answer the questions asked earlier.
4
2 1
 1
Example 20 : Simplify (i) 2 ⋅ 2 3 3 (ii)  35 
1  
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 ⋅ 17 5
3
Solution : 7
 2 1 4
2 1
 + 
3
 1 4
(i) 2 ⋅2 =2
3 3  3 3
=2 =2 =2
3 1
(ii)  35  = 35
 
1
1 1 3−5 −2 1 1 1 1
75  − 
(iii) 1
= 7 5 3
=7 15
= 7 15 (iv) 135 ⋅ 17 5 = (13 × 17) 5 = 2215
73

EXERCISE 1.5
1 1 1
1. Find : (i) 64 2 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 125 3
3 2 3 −1
2. Find : (i) 9 2 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 16 4 (iv) 125 3
1
2 1 1 1
 1 
7
112
3. Simplify : (i) 2 ⋅ 2 3 5 (ii)  3 (iii) 1
(iv) 7 2 ⋅ 8 2
3 
4
11

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24 MATHEMATICS

1.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
p
1. A number r is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form , where p and q are
q
integers and q ≠ 0.

p
2. A number s is called a irrational number, if it cannot be written in the form , where p and
q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.
3. The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-terminating recurring
is rational.
4. The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring. Moreover,
a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is irrational.
5. All the rational and irrational numbers make up the collection of real numbers.

r
6. If r is rational and s is irrational, then r + s and r – s are irrational numbers, and rs and are
s
irrational numbers, r ≠ 0.
7. For positive real numbers a and b, the following identities hold:
a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b
(iii) ( a + b )( )
a − b =a−b (iv) (a + b ) (a − b ) = a 2
−b

( )
2
(v) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

1 , we multiply this by a −b
8. To rationalise the denominator of , where a and b are
a +b a −b
integers.
9. Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then
(i) ap . aq = ap + q (ii) (ap)q = apq

ap
(iii) = ap − q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
aq

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 CHAPTER 7

TRIANGLES

7.1 Introduction
You have studied about triangles and their various properties in your earlier classes.
You know that a closed figure formed by three intersecting lines is called a triangle.
(‘Tri’ means ‘three’). A triangle has three sides, three angles and three vertices. For
example, in triangle ABC, denoted as ∆ ABC (see Fig. 7.1); AB, BC, CA are the three
sides, ∠ A, ∠ B, ∠ C are the three angles and A, B, C are three vertices.
In Chapter 6, you have also studied some properties
of triangles. In this chapter, you will study in details
about the congruence of triangles, rules of congruence,
some more properties of triangles and inequalities in
a triangle. You have already verified most of these
properties in earlier classes. We will now prove some
of them.

7.2 Congruence of Triangles Fig. 7.1

You must have observed that two copies of your photographs of the same size are
identical. Similarly, two bangles of the same size, two ATM cards issued by the same
bank are identical. You may recall that on placing a one rupee coin on another minted
in the same year, they cover each other completely.
Do you remember what such figures are called? Indeed they are called congruent
figures (‘congruent’ means equal in all respects or figures whose shapes and sizes
are both the same).
Now, draw two circles of the same radius and place one on the other. What do
you observe? They cover each other completely and we call them as congruent circles.

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84 MATHEMATICS

Repeat this activity by placing one

square on the other with sides of the same
measure (see Fig. 7.2) or by placing two
equilateral triangles of equal sides on each
other. You will observe that the squares are
congruent to each other and so are the
equilateral triangles. Fig. 7.2

You may wonder why we are studying congruence. You all must have seen the ice
tray in your refrigerator. Observe that the moulds for making ice are all congruent.
The cast used for moulding in the tray also has congruent depressions (may be all are
rectangular or all circular or all triangular). So, whenever identical objects have to be
produced, the concept of congruence is used in making the cast.
Sometimes, you may find it difficult to replace the refill in your pen by a new one
and this is so when the new refill is not of the same size as the one you want to
remove. Obviously, if the two refills are identical or congruent, the new refill fits.
So, you can find numerous examples where congruence of objects is applied in
daily life situations.
Can you think of some more examples of congruent figures?
Now, which of the following figures are not congruent to the square in
Fig 7.3 (i) :

Fig. 7.3
The large squares in Fig. 7.3 (ii) and (iii) are obviously not congruent to the one in
Fig 7.3 (i), but the square in Fig 7.3 (iv) is congruent to the one given in Fig 7.3 (i).
Let us now discuss the congruence of two triangles.
You already know that two triangles are congruent if the sides and angles of one
triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and angles of the other triangle.

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TRIANGLES 85

Now, which of the triangles given below are congruent to triangle ABC in
Fig. 7.4 (i)?

Fig. 7.4
Cut out each of these triangles from Fig. 7.4 (ii) to (v) and turn them around and
try to cover ∆ ABC. Observe that triangles in Fig. 7.4 (ii), (iii) and (iv) are congruent
to ∆ ABC while ∆ TSU of Fig 7.4 (v) is not congruent to ∆ ABC.
If ∆ PQR is congruent to ∆ ABC, we write ∆ PQR ≅ ∆ ABC.
Notice that when ∆ PQR ≅ ∆ ABC, then sides of ∆ PQR fall on corresponding
equal sides of ∆ ABC and so is the case for the angles.
That is, PQ covers AB, QR covers BC and RP covers CA; ∠ P covers ∠ A,
∠ Q covers ∠ B and ∠ R covers ∠ C. Also, there is a one-one correspondence
between the vertices. That is, P corresponds to A, Q to B, R to C and so on which is
written as
P ↔ A, Q ↔ B, R ↔ C
Note that under this correspondence, ∆ PQR ≅ ∆ ABC; but it will not be correct to
write ∆QRP ≅ ∆ ABC.
Similarly, for Fig. 7.4 (iii),

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86 MATHEMATICS

FD ↔ AB, DE ↔ BC and EF ↔ CA
and F ↔ A, D ↔ B and E ↔ C
So, ∆ FDE ≅ ∆ ABC but writing ∆ DEF ≅ ∆ ABC is not correct.
Give the correspondence between the triangle in Fig. 7.4 (iv) and ∆ ABC.
So, it is necessary to write the correspondence of vertices correctly for writing of
congruence of triangles in symbolic form.
Note that in congruent triangles corresponding parts are equal and we write
in short ‘CPCT’ for corresponding parts of congruent triangles.

7.3 Criteria for Congruence of Triangles

In earlier classes, you have learnt four criteria for congruence of triangles. Let us
recall them.
Draw two triangles with one side 3 cm. Are these triangles congruent? Observe
that they are not congruent (see Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5
Now, draw two triangles with one side 4 cm and one angle 50° (see Fig. 7.6). Are
they congruent?

Fig. 7.6

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TRIANGLES 87

See that these two triangles are not congruent.

Repeat this activity with some more pairs of triangles.
So, equality of one pair of sides or one pair of sides and one pair of angles is not
sufficient to give us congruent triangles.
What would happen if the other pair of arms (sides) of the equal angles are also
equal?
In Fig 7.7, BC = QR, ∠ B = ∠ Q and also, AB = PQ. Now, what can you say
about congruence of ∆ ABC and ∆ PQR?
Recall from your earlier classes that, in this case, the two triangles are congruent.
Verify this for ∆ ABC and ∆ PQR in Fig. 7.7.
Repeat this activity with other pairs of triangles. Do you observe that the equality
of two sides and the included angle is enough for the congruence of triangles? Yes, it
is enough.

Fig. 7.7
This is the first criterion for congruence of triangles.
Axiom 7.1 (SAS congruence rule) : Two triangles are congruent if two sides
and the included angle of one triangle are equal to the two sides and the included
angle of the other triangle.
This result cannot be proved with the help of previously known results and so it is
accepted true as an axiom (see Appendix 1).
Let us now take some examples.
Example 1 : In Fig. 7.8, OA = OB and OD = OC. Show that
(i) ∆ AOD ≅ ∆ BOC and (ii) AD || BC.
Solution : (i) You may observe that in ∆ AOD and ∆ BOC,
OA = OB 
 (Given)
OD = OC 
Fig. 7.8

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88 MATHEMATICS

Also, since ∠ AOD and ∠ BOC form a pair of vertically opposite angles, we have
∠ AOD = ∠ BOC.
So, ∆ AOD ≅ ∆ BOC (by the SAS congruence rule)
(ii) In congruent triangles AOD and BOC, the other corresponding parts are also
equal.
So, ∠ OAD = ∠ OBC and these form a pair of alternate angles for line segments
AD and BC.
Therefore, AD || BC.
Example 2 : AB is a line segment and line l is its perpendicular bisector. If a point P
lies on l, show that P is equidistant from A and B.
Solution : Line l ⊥ AB and passes through C which
is the mid-point of AB (see Fig. 7.9). You have to
show that PA = PB. Consider ∆ PCA and ∆ PCB.
We have AC = BC (C is the mid-point of AB)
∠ PCA = ∠ PCB = 90° (Given)
PC = PC (Common)
So, ∆ PCA ≅ ∆ PCB (SAS rule)
and so, PA = PB, as they are corresponding sides of
congruent triangles. Fig. 7.9
Now, let us construct two triangles, whose sides are 4 cm and 5 cm and one of the
angles is 50° and this angle is not included in between the equal sides (see Fig. 7.10).
Are the two triangles congruent?

Fig. 7.10

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TRIANGLES 89

Notice that the two triangles are not congruent.

Repeat this activity with more pairs of triangles. You will observe that for triangles
to be congruent, it is very important that the equal angles are included between the
pairs of equal sides.
So, SAS congruence rule holds but not ASS or SSA rule.
Next, try to construct the two triangles in which two angles are 60° and 45° and
the side included between these angles is 4 cm (see Fig. 7.11).

Fig. 7.11
Cut out these triangles and place one triangle on the other. What do you observe?
See that one triangle covers the other completely; that is, the two triangles are congruent.
Repeat this activity with more pairs of triangles. You will observe that equality of two
angles and the included side is sufficient for congruence of triangles.
This result is the Angle-Side-Angle criterion for congruence and is written as
ASA criterion. You have verified this criterion in earlier classes, but let us state and
prove this result.
Since this result can be proved, it is called a theorem and to prove it, we use the
SAS axiom for congruence.
Theorem 7.1 (ASA congruence rule) : Two triangles are congruent if two angles
and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the included
side of other triangle.
Proof : We are given two triangles ABC and DEF in which:
∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F
and BC = EF
We need to prove that ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF
For proving the congruence of the two triangles see that three cases arise.

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90 MATHEMATICS

Case (i) : Let AB = DE (see Fig. 7.12).

Now what do you observe? You may observe that
AB = DE (Assumed)
∠B= ∠E (Given)
BC = EF (Given)
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF (By SAS rule)

Fig. 7.12
Case (ii) : Let if possible AB > DE. So, we can take a point P on AB such that
PB = DE. Now consider ∆ PBC and ∆ DEF (see Fig. 7.13).

Fig. 7.13
Observe that in ∆ PBC and ∆ DEF,
PB = DE (By construction)
∠B=∠E (Given)
BC = EF (Given)
So, we can conclude that:
∆ PBC ≅ ∆ DEF, by the SAS axiom for congruence.

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TRIANGLES 91

Since the triangles are congruent, their corresponding parts will be equal.
So, ∠ PCB = ∠ DFE
But, we are given that
∠ ACB = ∠ DFE
So, ∠ ACB = ∠ PCB
Is this possible?
This is possible only if P coincides with A.
or, BA = ED
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF (by SAS axiom)
Case (iii) : If AB < DE, we can choose a point M on DE such that ME = AB and
repeating the arguments as given in Case (ii), we can conclude that AB = DE and so,
∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF.
Suppose, now in two triangles two pairs of angles and one pair of corresponding
sides are equal but the side is not included between the corresponding equal pairs of
angles. Are the triangles still congruent? You will observe that they are congruent.
Can you reason out why?
You know that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°. So if two pairs of
angles are equal, the third pair is also equal (180° – sum of equal angles).
So, two triangles are congruent if any two pairs of angles and one pair of
corresponding sides are equal. We may call it as the AAS Congruence Rule.
Now let us perform the following activity :
Draw triangles with angles 40°, 50° and 90°. How many such triangles can you
draw?
In fact, you can draw as many triangles as you want with different lengths of
sides (see Fig. 7.14).

Fig. 7.14

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92 MATHEMATICS

Observe that the triangles may or may not be congruent to each other.
So, equality of three angles is not sufficient for congruence of triangles. Therefore,
for congruence of triangles out of three equal parts, one has to be a side.
Let us now take some more examples.

Example 3 : Line-segment AB is parallel to another line-segment CD. O is the

mid-point of AD (see Fig. 7.15). Show that (i) ∆AOB ≅ ∆DOC (ii) O is also the
mid-point of BC.
Solution : (i) Consider ∆ AOB and ∆ DOC.
∠ ABO = ∠ DCO
(Alternate angles as AB || CD
and BC is the transversal)
∠ AOB = ∠ DOC
(Vertically opposite angles)
OA = OD (Given) Fig. 7.15

Therefore, ∆AOB ≅ ∆DOC (AAS rule)

(ii) OB = OC (CPCT)
So, O is the mid-point of BC.

EXERCISE 7.1
1. In quadrilateral ACBD,
AC = AD and AB bisects ∠ A
(see Fig. 7.16). Show that ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ ABD.
What can you say about BC and BD?

Fig. 7.16

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TRIANGLES 93

2. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AD = BC and

∠ DAB = ∠ CBA (see Fig. 7.17). Prove that
(i) ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ BAC
(ii) BD = AC
(iii) ∠ ABD = ∠ BAC.

Fig. 7.17
3. AD and BC are equal perpendiculars to a line
segment AB (see Fig. 7.18). Show that CD bisects
AB.

Fig. 7.18
4. l and m are two parallel lines intersected by
another pair of parallel lines p and q
(see Fig. 7.19). Show that ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ CDA.

Fig. 7.19
5. Line l is the bisector of an angle ∠ A and B is any
point on l. BP and BQ are perpendiculars from B
to the arms of ∠ A (see Fig. 7.20). Show that:
(i) ∆ APB ≅ ∆ AQB
(ii) BP = BQ or B is equidistant from the arms
of ∠ A.

Fig. 7.20

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94 MATHEMATICS

6. In Fig. 7.21, AC = AE, AB = AD and

∠ BAD = ∠ EAC. Show that BC = DE.

Fig. 7.21
7. AB is a line segment and P is its mid-point. D and
E are points on the same side of AB such that
∠ BAD = ∠ ABE and ∠ EPA = ∠ DPB
(see Fig. 7.22). Show that
(i) ∆ DAP ≅ ∆ EBP
(ii) AD = BE

Fig. 7.22
8. In right triangle ABC, right angled at C, M is
the mid-point of hypotenuse AB. C is joined
to M and produced to a point D such that
DM = CM. Point D is joined to point B
(see Fig. 7.23). Show that:
(i) ∆ AMC ≅ ∆ BMD
(ii) ∠ DBC is a right angle.
(iii) ∆ DBC ≅ ∆ ACB Fig. 7.23
1
(iv) CM = AB
2

7.4 Some Properties of a Triangle

In the above section you have studied two criteria for congruence of triangles. Let us
now apply these results to study some properties related to a triangle whose two sides
are equal.

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TRIANGLES 95

Perform the activity given below:

Construct a triangle in which two sides are
equal, say each equal to 3.5 cm and the third side
equal to 5 cm (see Fig. 7.24). You have done such
constructions in earlier classes.
Do you remember what is such a triangle
called?
Fig. 7.24
A triangle in which two sides are equal is called
an isosceles triangle. So, ∆ ABC of Fig. 7.24 is
an isosceles triangle with AB = AC.
Now, measure ∠ B and ∠ C. What do you observe?
Repeat this activity with other isosceles triangles with different sides.
You may observe that in each such triangle, the angles opposite to the equal sides
are equal.
This is a very important result and is indeed true for any isosceles triangle. It can
be proved as shown below.

Theorem 7.2 : Angles opposite to equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal.
This result can be proved in many ways. One of
the proofs is given here.
Proof : We are given an isosceles triangle ABC
in which AB = AC. We need to prove that
∠ B = ∠ C.
Let us draw the bisector of ∠ A and let D be
the point of intersection of this bisector of Fig. 7.25
∠ A and BC (see Fig. 7.25).
In ∆ BAD and ∆ CAD,
AB = AC (Given)
∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (By construction)
AD = AD (Common)
So, ∆ BAD ≅ ∆ CAD (By SAS rule)
So, ∠ ABD = ∠ ACD, since they are corresponding angles of congruent triangles.
So, ∠B=∠C

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96 MATHEMATICS

Is the converse also true? That is:

If two angles of any triangle are equal, can we conclude that the sides opposite to
them are also equal?
Perform the following activity.
Construct a triangle ABC with BC of any length and ∠ B = ∠ C = 50°. Draw the
bisector of ∠ A and let it intersect BC at D (see Fig. 7.26).
Cut out the triangle from the sheet of paper and fold it along AD so that vertex C
falls on vertex B.
What can you say about sides AC and AB?
Observe that AC covers AB completely
So, AC = AB
Repeat this activity with some more triangles.
Each time you will observe that the sides opposite
to equal angles are equal. So we have the Fig. 7.26
following:
Theorem 7.3 : The sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
This is the converse of Theorem 7.2.
You can prove this theorem by ASA congruence rule.
Let us take some examples to apply these results.
Example 4 : In ∆ ABC, the bisector AD of ∠ A is perpendicular to side BC
(see Fig. 7.27). Show that AB = AC and ∆ ABC is isosceles.
Solution : In ∆ABD and ∆ACD,
∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (Given)
AD = AD (Common)
∠ ADB = ∠ ADC = 90° (Given)
So, ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACD (ASA rule)
So, AB = AC (CPCT)
or, ∆ ABC is an isosceles triangle.

Fig. 7.27

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TRIANGLES 97

Example 5 : E and F are respectively the mid-points

of equal sides AB and AC of ∆ ABC (see Fig. 7.28).
Show that BF = CE.
Solution : In ∆ ABF and ∆ ACE,
AB = AC (Given)
∠ A= ∠A (Common)
AF = AE (Halves of equal sides)
Fig. 7.28
So, ∆ ABF ≅ ∆ ACE (SAS rule)
Therefore, BF = CE (CPCT)
Example 6 : In an isosceles triangle ABC with AB = AC, D and E are points on BC
such that BE = CD (see Fig. 7.29). Show that AD = AE.
Solution : In ∆ ABD and ∆ ACE,
AB = AC (Given) (1)
∠B= ∠C
(Angles opposite to equal sides) (2)
Also, BE = CD
So, BE – DE = CD – DE
That is, BD = CE (3) Fig. 7.29
So, ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACE
(Using (1), (2), (3) and SAS rule).
This gives AD = AE (CPCT)

EXERCISE 7.2
1. In an isosceles triangle ABC, with AB = AC, the bisectors of ∠ B and ∠ C intersect
each other at O. Join A to O. Show that :
(i) OB = OC (ii) AO bisects ∠ A
2. In ∆ ABC, AD is the perpendicular bisector of BC
(see Fig. 7.30). Show that ∆ ABC is an isosceles
triangle in which AB = AC.

Fig. 7.30

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98 MATHEMATICS

3. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which altitudes

BE and CF are drawn to equal sides AC and AB
respectively (see Fig. 7.31). Show that these
altitudes are equal.

Fig. 7.31
4. ABC is a triangle in which altitudes BE and CF to
sides AC and AB are equal (see Fig. 7.32). Show
that
(i) ∆ ABE ≅ ∆ ACF
(ii) AB = AC, i.e., ABC is an isosceles triangle.

Fig. 7.32
5. ABC and DBC are two isosceles triangles on the
same base BC (see Fig. 7.33). Show that
∠ ABD = ∠ ACD.

Fig. 7.33
6. ∆ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC.
Side BA is produced to D such that AD = AB
(see Fig. 7.34). Show that ∠ BCD is a right angle.
7. ABC is a right angled triangle in which ∠ A = 90°
and AB = AC. Find ∠ B and ∠ C.
8. Show that the angles of an equilateral triangle
are 60° each.

Fig. 7.34

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TRIANGLES 99

7.5 Some More Criteria for Congruence of Triangles

You have seen earlier in this chapter that equality of three angles of one triangle to
three angles of the other is not sufficient for the congruence of the two triangles. You
may wonder whether equality of three sides of one triangle to three sides of another
triangle is enough for congruence of the two triangles. You have already verified in
earlier classes that this is indeed true.
To be sure, construct two triangles with sides 4 cm, 3.5 cm and 4.5 cm
(see Fig. 7.35). Cut them out and place them on each other. What do you observe?
They cover each other completely, if the equal sides are placed on each other. So, the
triangles are congruent.

Fig. 7.35
Repeat this activity with some more triangles. We arrive at another rule for
congruence.
Theorem 7.4 (SSS congruence rule) : If three sides of one triangle are equal to
the three sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
This theorem can be proved using a suitable construction.
You have already seen that in the SAS congruence rule, the pair of equal angles
has to be the included angle between the pairs of corresponding pair of equal sides and
if this is not so, the two triangles may not be congruent.
Perform this activity:
Construct two right angled triangles with hypotenuse equal to 5 cm and one side
equal to 4 cm each (see Fig. 7.36).

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100 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 7.36
Cut them out and place one triangle over the other with equal side placed on each
other. Turn the triangles, if necessary. What do you observe?
The two triangles cover each other completely and so they are congruent. Repeat
this activity with other pairs of right triangles. What do you observe?
You will find that two right triangles are congruent if one pair of sides and the
hypotenuse are equal. You have verified this in earlier classes.
Note that, the right angle is not the included angle in this case.
So, you arrive at the following congruence rule:
Theorem 7.5 (RHS congruence rule) : If in two right triangles the hypotenuse
and one side of one triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and one side of the
other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
Note that RHS stands for Right angle - Hypotenuse - Side.
Let us now take some examples.
Example 7 : AB is a line-segment. P and Q are
points on opposite sides of AB such that each of them
is equidistant from the points A and B (see Fig. 7.37).
Show that the line PQ is the perpendicular bisector
of AB.
Solution : You are given that PA = PB and
QA = QB and you are to show that PQ ⊥ AB and
PQ bisects AB. Let PQ intersect AB at C.
Can you think of two congruent triangles in this figure?
Fig. 7.37
Let us take ∆ PAQ and ∆ PBQ.
In these triangles,

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TRIANGLES 101

AP = BP (Given)
AQ = BQ (Given)
PQ = PQ (Common)
So, ∆ PAQ ≅ ∆ PBQ (SSS rule)
Therefore, ∠ APQ = ∠ BPQ (CPCT).
Now let us consider ∆ PAC and ∆ PBC.
You have : AP = BP (Given)
∠ APC = ∠ BPC (∠ APQ = ∠ BPQ proved above)
PC = PC (Common)
So, ∆ PAC ≅ ∆ PBC (SAS rule)
Therefore, AC = BC (CPCT) (1)
and ∠ ACP = ∠ BCP (CPCT)
Also, ∠ ACP + ∠ BCP = 180° (Linear pair)
So, 2∠ ACP = 180°
or, ∠ ACP = 90° (2)
From (1) and (2), you can easily conclude that PQ is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
[Note that, without showing the congruence of ∆ PAQ and ∆ PBQ, you cannot show
that ∆ PAC ≅ ∆ PBC even though AP = BP (Given)
PC = PC (Common)
and ∠ PAC = ∠ PBC (Angles opposite to equal sides in
∆APB)
It is because these results give us SSA rule which is not always valid or true for
congruence of triangles. Also the angle is not included between the equal pairs of
sides.]
Let us take some more examples.
Example 8 : P is a point equidistant from two lines l and m intersecting at point A
(see Fig. 7.38). Show that the line AP bisects the angle between them.
Solution : You are given that lines l and m intersect each other at A. Let PB ⊥ l,
PC ⊥ m. It is given that PB = PC.
You are to show that ∠ PAB = ∠ PAC.

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102 MATHEMATICS

Let us consider ∆ PAB and ∆ PAC. In these two

triangles,
PB = PC (Given)
∠ PBA = ∠ PCA = 90° (Given)
PA = PA (Common)
So, ∆ PAB ≅ ∆ PAC (RHS rule) Fig. 7.38
So, ∠ PAB = ∠ PAC (CPCT)
Note that this result is the converse of the result proved in Q.5 of Exercise 7.1.

EXERCISE 7.3
1. ∆ ABC and ∆ DBC are two isosceles triangles on
the same base BC and vertices A and D are on the
same side of BC (see Fig. 7.39). If AD is extended
to intersect BC at P, show that
(i) ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACD
(ii) ∆ ABP ≅ ∆ ACP
(iii) AP bisects ∠ A as well as ∠ D.
(iv) AP is the perpendicular bisector of BC. Fig. 7.39
2. AD is an altitude of an isosceles triangle ABC in which AB = AC. Show that
(i) AD bisects BC (ii) AD bisects ∠ A.
3. Two sides AB and BC and median AM
of one triangle ABC are respectively
equal to sides PQ and QR and median
PN of ∆ PQR (see Fig. 7.40). Show that:
(i) ∆ ABM ≅ ∆ PQN
(ii) ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ PQR
Fig. 7.40

4. BE and CF are two equal altitudes of a triangle ABC. Using RHS congruence
rule, prove that the triangle ABC is isosceles.
5. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC. Draw AP ⊥ BC to show that
∠ B = ∠ C.

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TRIANGLES 103

7.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. Two figures are congruent, if they are of the same shape and of the same size.
2. Two circles of the same radii are congruent.
3. Two squares of the same sides are congruent.
4. If two triangles ABC and PQR are congruent under the correspondence A ↔ P,
B ↔ Q and C ↔ R, then symbolically, it is expressed as ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ PQR.
5. If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and the included
angle of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (SAS Congruence Rule).
6. If two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the
included side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (ASA Congruence
Rule).
7. If two angles and one side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the corresponding
side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (AAS Congruence Rule).
8. Angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.
9. Sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
10. Each angle of an equilateral triangle is of 60°.
11. If three sides of one triangle are equal to three sides of the other triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent (SSS Congruence Rule).
12. If in two right triangles, hypotenuse and one side of a triangle are equal to the hypotenuse
and one side of other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (RHS Congruence
Rule).

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104 MATHEMATICS

CHAPTER 8

QUADRILATERALS

8.1 Properties of a Parallelogram

You have already studied quadrilaterals and their types in Class VIII. A quadrilateral
has four sides, four angles and four vertices. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in
which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
Let us perform an activity.
Cut out a parallelogram from a sheet of paper
and cut it along a diagonal (see Fig. 8.1). You obtain
two triangles. What can you say about these
triangles?
Place one triangle over the other. Turn one around,
if necessary. What do you observe?
Observe that the two triangles are congruent to Fig. 8.1
each other.
Repeat this activity with some more parallelograms. Each time you will observe
that each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
Let us now prove this result.
Theorem 8.1 : A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent
triangles.
Proof : Let ABCD be a parallelogram and AC be a diagonal (see Fig. 8.2). Observe
that the diagonal AC divides parallelogram ABCD into two triangles, namely, ∆ ABC
and ∆ CDA. We need to prove that these triangles are congruent.

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QUADRILATERALS 105

In ∆ ABC and ∆ CDA, note that BC || AD and AC is a transversal.

So, ∠ BCA = ∠ DAC (Pair of alternate angles)
Also, AB || DC and AC is a transversal.
So, ∠ BAC = ∠ DCA (Pair of alternate angles)
and AC = CA (Common)
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ CDA (ASA rule) Fig. 8.2
or, diagonal AC divides parallelogram ABCD into two congruent
triangles ABC and CDA.
Now, measure the opposite sides of parallelogram ABCD. What do you observe?
You will find that AB = DC and AD = BC.
This is another property of a parallelogram stated below:
Theorem 8.2 : In a parallelogram, opposite sides are equal.
You have already proved that a diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent
triangles; so what can you say about the corresponding parts say, the corresponding
sides? They are equal.
So, AB = DC and AD = BC
Now what is the converse of this result? You already know that whatever is given
in a theorem, the same is to be proved in the converse and whatever is proved in the
theorem it is given in the converse. Thus, Theorem 8.2 can be stated as given below :
If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then each pair of its opposite sides is equal. So
its converse is :
Theorem 8.3 : If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then it
is a parallelogram.
Can you reason out why?
Let sides AB and CD of the quadrilateral ABCD
be equal and also AD = BC (see Fig. 8.3). Draw
diagonal AC.
Clearly, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ CDA (Why?)
So, ∠ BAC = ∠ DCA
and ∠ BCA = ∠ DAC (Why?) Fig. 8.3
Can you now say that ABCD is a parallelogram? Why?

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106 MATHEMATICS

You have just seen that in a parallelogram each pair of opposite sides is equal and
conversely if each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then it is a
parallelogram. Can we conclude the same result for the pairs of opposite angles?
Draw a parallelogram and measure its angles. What do you observe?
Each pair of opposite angles is equal.
Repeat this with some more parallelograms. We arrive at yet another result as
given below.
Theorem 8.4 : In a parallelogram, opposite angles are equal.
Now, is the converse of this result also true? Yes. Using the angle sum property of
a quadrilateral and the results of parallel lines intersected by a transversal, we can see
that the converse is also true. So, we have the following theorem :
Theorem 8.5 : If in a quadrilateral, each pair of opposite angles is equal, then
it is a parallelogram.
There is yet another property of a parallelogram. Let us study the same. Draw a
parallelogram ABCD and draw both its diagonals intersecting at the point O
(see Fig. 8.4).
Measure the lengths of OA, OB, OC and OD.
What do you observe? You will observe that
OA = OC and OB = OD.
or, O is the mid-point of both the diagonals.
Repeat this activity with some more parallelograms.
Each time you will find that O is the mid-point of Fig. 8.4
both the diagonals.
So, we have the following theorem :
Theorem 8.6 : The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Now, what would happen, if in a quadrilateral the diagonals bisect each other?
Will it be aparallelogram? Indeed this is true.
This result is the converse of the result of Theorem 8.6. It is given below:
Theorem 8.7 : If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a
parallelogram.
You can reason out this result as follows:

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QUADRILATERALS 107

Note that in Fig. 8.5, it is given that OA = OC

and OB = OD.
So, ∆ AOB ≅ ∆ COD (Why?)
Therefore, ∠ ABO = ∠ CDO (Why?)
From this, we get AB || CD
Similarly, BC || AD
Therefore ABCD is a parallelogram. Fig. 8.5
Let us now take some examples.
Example 1 : Show that each angle of a rectangle is a right angle.
Solution : Let us recall what a rectangle is.
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which one angle is a right angle.
Let ABCD be a rectangle in which ∠ A = 90°.
We have to show that ∠ B = ∠ C = ∠ D = 90°
We have, AD || BC and AB is a transversal
(see Fig. 8.6).
So, ∠ A + ∠ B = 180° (Interior angles on the same
side of the transversal)
Fig. 8.6
But, ∠ A = 90°
So, ∠ B = 180° – ∠ A = 180° – 90° = 90°
Now, ∠ C = ∠ A and ∠ D = ∠ B
(Opposite angles of the parallellogram)
So, ∠ C = 90° and ∠ D = 90°.
Therefore, each of the angles of a rectangle is a right angle.
Example 2 : Show that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.
Solution : Consider the rhombus ABCD (see Fig. 8.7).
You know that AB = BC = CD = DA (Why?)
Now, in ∆ AOD and ∆ COD,
OA = OC (Diagonals of a parallelogram
bisect each other)
OD = OD (Common)
AD = CD Fig. 8.7

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108 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, ∆ AOD ≅ ∆ COD

(SSS congruence rule)
This gives, ∠ AOD = ∠ COD (CPCT)
But, ∠ AOD + ∠ COD = 180° (Linear pair)
So, 2∠ AOD = 180°
or, ∠ AOD = 90°
So, the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.

Example 3 : ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC. AD bisects exterior

angle PAC and CD || AB (see Fig. 8.8). Show that
(i) ∠ DAC = ∠ BCA and (ii) ABCD is a parallelogram.
Solution : (i) ∆ ABC is isosceles in which AB = AC (Given)
So, ∠ ABC = ∠ ACB (Angles opposite to equal sides)
Also, ∠ PAC = ∠ ABC + ∠ ACB
(Exterior angle of a triangle)
or, ∠ PAC = 2∠ ACB (1)
Now, AD bisects ∠ PAC.
So, ∠ PAC = 2∠ DAC (2)
Therefore,
2∠ DAC = 2∠ ACB [From (1) and (2)]
Fig. 8.8
or, ∠ DAC = ∠ ACB
(ii) Now, these equal angles form a pair of alternate angles when line segments BC
and AD are intersected by a transversal AC.
So, BC || AD
Also, BA || CD (Given)
Now, both pairs of opposite sides of quadrilateral ABCD are parallel.
So, ABCD is a parallelogram.
Example 4 : Two parallel lines l and m are intersected by a transversal p
(see Fig. 8.9). Show that the quadrilateral formed by the bisectors of interior angles is
a rectangle.

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QUADRILATERALS 109

Solution : It is given that PS || QR and transversal p intersects them at points A and

C respectively.
The bisectors of ∠ PAC and ∠ ACQ intersect at B and bisectors of ∠ ACR and
∠ SAC intersect at D.
We are to show that quadrilateral ABCD is a
rectangle.
Now, ∠ PAC = ∠ ACR
(Alternate angles as l || m and p is a transversal)
1 1
So, ∠ PAC = ∠ ACR
2 2
i.e., ∠ BAC = ∠ ACD
These form a pair of alternate angles for lines AB
Fig. 8.9
and DC with AC as transversal and they are equal also.
So, AB || DC
Similarly, BC || AD (Considering ∠ ACB and ∠ CAD)
Therefore, quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.
Also, ∠ PAC + ∠ CAS = 180° (Linear pair)

1 1 1
So, ∠ PAC + ∠ CAS = × 180° = 90°
2 2 2
or, ∠ BAC + ∠ CAD = 90°
or, ∠ BAD = 90°
So, ABCD is a parallelogram in which one angle is 90°.
Therefore, ABCD is a rectangle.
Example 5 : Show that the bisectors of angles of a parallelogram form a rectangle.
Solution : Let P, Q, R and S be the points of
intersection of the bisectors of ∠ A and ∠ B, ∠ B
and ∠ C, ∠ C and ∠ D, and ∠ D and ∠ A respectively
of parallelogram ABCD (see Fig. 8.10).
In ∆ ASD, what do you observe?
Since DS bisects ∠ D and AS bisects ∠ A, therefore, Fig. 8.10

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110 MATHEMATICS

1 1
∠ DAS + ∠ ADS = ∠ A+ ∠ D
2 2
1
= (∠ A + ∠ D)
2
1
= × 180° (∠ A and ∠ D are interior angles
2
on the same side of the transversal)
= 90°
Also, ∠ DAS + ∠ ADS + ∠ DSA = 180° (Angle sum property of a triangle)
or, 90° + ∠ DSA = 180°
or, ∠ DSA = 90°
So, ∠ PSR = 90° (Being vertically opposite to ∠ DSA)
Similarly, it can be shown that ∠ APB = 90° or ∠ SPQ = 90° (as it was shown for
∠ DSA). Similarly, ∠ PQR = 90° and ∠ SRQ = 90°.
So, PQRS is a quadrilateral in which all angles are right angles.
Can we conclude that it is a rectangle? Let us examine. We have shown that
∠ PSR = ∠ PQR = 90° and ∠ SPQ = ∠ SRQ = 90°. So both pairs of opposite angles
are equal.
Therefore, PQRS is a parallelogram in which one angle (in fact all angles) is 90° and
so, PQRS is a rectangle.

EXERCISE 8.1
1. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, then show that it is a rectangle.
2. Show that the diagonals of a square are equal and bisect each other at right angles.
3. Diagonal AC of a parallelogram ABCD bisects
∠ A (see Fig. 8.11). Show that
(i) it bisects ∠ C also,
(ii) ABCD is a rhombus.

4. ABCD is a rectangle in which diagonal AC bisects

∠ A as well as ∠ C. Show that: (i) ABCD is a square Fig. 8.11
(ii) diagonal BD bisects ∠ B as well as ∠ D.

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QUADRILATERALS 111

5. In parallelogram ABCD, two points P and Q are

taken on diagonal BD such that DP = BQ
(see Fig. 8.12). Show that:
(i) ∆ APD ≅ ∆ CQB
(ii) AP = CQ
(iii) ∆ AQB ≅ ∆ CPD
(iv) AQ = CP
Fig. 8.12
(v) APCQ is a parallelogram
6. ABCD is a parallelogram and AP and CQ are
perpendiculars from vertices A and C on diagonal
BD (see Fig. 8.13). Show that
(i) ∆ APB ≅ ∆ CQD
(ii) AP = CQ

Fig. 8.13

7. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || CD and

AD = BC (see Fig. 8.14). Show that
(i) ∠ A = ∠ B
(ii) ∠ C = ∠ D
(iii) ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ BAD
(iv) diagonal AC = diagonal BD
[Hint : Extend AB and draw a line through C Fig. 8.14
parallel to DA intersecting AB produced at E.]
8.2 The Mid-point Theorem
You have studied many properties of a triangle as well as a quadrilateral. Now let us
study yet another result which is related to the mid-point of sides of a triangle. Perform
the following activity.
Draw a triangle and mark the mid-points E and F of two sides of the triangle. Join
the points E and F (see Fig. 8.15).
Measure EF and BC. Measure ∠ AEF and ∠ ABC.
What do you observe? You will find that :
1
EF = BC and ∠ AEF = ∠ ABC
2
so, EF || BC
Repeat this activity with some more triangles.
So, you arrive at the following theorem: Fig. 8.15
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112 MATHEMATICS

Theorem 8.8 : The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side.
You can prove this theorem using the following
clue:
Observe Fig 8.16 in which E and F are mid-points
of AB and AC respectively and CD || BA.
∆ AEF ≅ ∆ CDF (ASA Rule)
So, EF = DF and BE = AE = DC (Why?)
Therefore, BCDE is a parallelogram. (Why?)
This gives EF || BC. Fig. 8.16
1 1
In this case, also note that EF =ED = BC.
2 2
Can you state the converse of Theorem 8.8? Is the converse true?
You will see that converse of the above theorem is also true which is stated as
below:
Theorem 8.9 : The line drawn through the mid-point of one side of a triangle,
parallel to another side bisects the third side.
In Fig 8.17, observe that E is the mid-point of
AB, line l is passsing through E and is parallel to BC
and CM || BA.
Prove that AF = CF by using the congruence of
∆ AEF and ∆ CDF.

Fig. 8.17

Example 6 : In ∆ ABC, D, E and F are respectively

the mid-points of sides AB, BC and CA
(see Fig. 8.18). Show that ∆ ABC is divided into four
congruent triangles by joining D, E and F.
Solution : As D and E are mid-points of sides AB
and BC of the triangle ABC, by Theorem 8.8,
DE || AC
Fig. 8.18
Similarly, DF || BC and EF || AB

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QUADRILATERALS 113

Therefore ADEF, BDFE and DFCE are all parallelograms.

Now DE is a diagonal of the parallelogram BDFE,
therefore, ∆ BDE ≅ ∆ FED
Similarly ∆ DAF ≅ ∆ FED
and ∆ EFC ≅ ∆ FED
So, all the four triangles are congruent.

Example 7 : l, m and n are three parallel lines

intersected by transversals p and q such that l, m
and n cut off equal intercepts AB and BC on p
(see Fig. 8.19). Show that l, m and n cut off equal
intercepts DE and EF on q also.
Solution : We are given that AB = BC and have
to prove that DE = EF.
Let us join A to F intersecting m at G..
The trapezium ACFD is divided into two triangles; Fig. 8.19
namely ∆ ACF and ∆ AFD.
In ∆ ACF, it is given that B is the mid-point of AC (AB = BC)
and BG || CF (since m || n).
So, G is the mid-point of AF (by using Theorem 8.9)
Now, in ∆ AFD, we can apply the same argument as G is the mid-point of AF,
GE || AD and so by Theorem 8.9, E is the mid-point of DF,
i.e., DE = EF.
In other words, l, m and n cut off equal intercepts on q also.

EXERCISE 8.2
1. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which P, Q, R and S are
mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD and DA
(see Fig 8.20). AC is a diagonal. Show that :
1
(i) SR || AC and SR = AC
2
(ii) PQ = SR
(iii) PQRS is a parallelogram. Fig. 8.20

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114 MATHEMATICS

2. ABCD is a rhombus and P, Q, R and S are the mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD and
DA respectively. Show that the quadrilateral PQRS is a rectangle.
3. ABCD is a rectangle and P, Q, R and S are mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD and DA
respectively. Show that the quadrilateral PQRS is a rhombus.
4. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || DC, BD is a diagonal and E is the mid-point of AD.
A line is drawn through E parallel to AB intersecting BC at F (see Fig. 8.21). Show that
F is the mid-point of BC.

Fig. 8.21
5. In a parallelogram ABCD, E and F are the
mid-points of sides AB and CD respectively
(see Fig. 8.22). Show that the line segments AF
and EC trisect the diagonal BD.

Fig. 8.22

6. ABC is a triangle right angled at C. A line through the mid-point M of hypotenuse AB

and parallel to BC intersects AC at D. Show that
(i) D is the mid-point of AC (ii) MD ⊥ AC
1
(iii) CM = MA = AB
2

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QUADRILATERALS 115

8.3 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles.
2. In a parallelogram,
(i) opposite sides are equal (ii) opposite angles are equal
(iii) diagonals bisect each other
3. Diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other and are equal and vice-versa.
4. Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles and vice-versa.
5. Diagonals of a square bisect each other at right angles and are equal, and vice-versa.
6. The line-segment joining the mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side and is half of it.
7. A line through the mid-point of a side of a triangle parallel to another side bisects the third
side.

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CHAPTER 9

CIRCLES

9.1 Angle Subtended by a Chord at a Point

You have already studied about circles and its parts in Class VI.
Take a line segment PQ and a point R not on the line containing PQ. Join PR and QR
(see Fig. 9.1). Then ∠ PRQ is called the angle subtended by the line segment PQ at
the point R. What are angles POQ, PRQ and PSQ called in Fig. 9.2? ∠ POQ is the
angle subtended by the chord PQ at the centre O, ∠ PRQ and ∠ PSQ are respectively
the angles subtended by PQ at points R and S on the major and minor arcs PQ.

Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2

Let us examine the relationship between the size of the chord and the angle
subtended by it at the centre. You may see by drawing different chords of a circle
and angles subtended by them at the centre that the longer is the chord, the bigger
will be the angle subtended by it at the centre. What will happen if you take two
equal chords of a circle? Will the angles subtended at the centre be the same
or not?

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CIRCLES 117

Draw two or more equal chords of a circle and

measure the angles subtended by them at the centre
(see Fig.9.3). You will find that the angles subtended
by them at the centre are equal. Let us give a proof
of this fact.

Theorem 9.1 : Equal chords of a circle subtend

equal angles at the centre.
Proof : You are given two equal chords AB and CD Fig. 9.3
of a circle with centre O (see Fig.9.4). You want to
prove that ∠ AOB = ∠ COD.
In triangles AOB and COD,
OA = OC (Radii of a circle)
OB = OD (Radii of a circle)
AB = CD (Given)
Therefore, ∆ AOB ≅ ∆ COD (SSS rule)
This gives ∠ AOB = ∠ COD
(Corresponding parts of congruent triangles) Fig. 9.4
Remark : For convenience, the abbreviation CPCT will be used in place of
‘Corresponding parts of congruent triangles’, because we use this very frequently as
you will see.
Now if two chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre, what can you
say about the chords? Are they equal or not? Let us examine this by the following
activity:
Take a tracing paper and trace a circle on it. Cut
it along the circle to get a disc. At its centre O, draw
an angle AOB where A, B are points on the circle.
Make another angle POQ at the centre equal to
∠AOB. Cut the disc along AB and PQ
(see Fig. 9.5). You will get two segments ACB and
PRQ of the circle. If you put one on the other, what
do you observe? They cover each other, i.e., they
are congruent. So AB = PQ. Fig. 9.5

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118 MATHEMATICS

Though you have seen it for this particular case, try it out for other equal angles
too. The chords will all turn out to be equal because of the following theorem:
Theorem 9.2 : If the angles subtended by the chords of a circle at the centre are
equal, then the chords are equal.
The above theorem is the converse of the Theorem 9.1. Note that in Fig. 9.4, if
you take ∠ AOB = ∠ COD, then
∆ AOB ≅ ∆ COD (Why?)
Can you now see that AB = CD?

EXERCISE 9.1
1. Recall that two circles are congruent if they have the same radii. Prove that equal
chords of congruent circles subtend equal angles at their centres.
2. Prove that if chords of congruent circles subtend equal angles at their centres, then
the chords are equal.

9.2 Perpendicular from the Centre to a Chord

Activity : Draw a circle on a tracing paper. Let O
be its centre. Draw a chord AB. Fold the paper along
a line through O so that a portion of the chord falls on
the other. Let the crease cut AB at the point M. Then,
∠ OMA = ∠ OMB = 90° or OM is perpendicular to
AB. Does the point B coincide with A (see Fig.9.6)?
Yes it will. So MA = MB. Fig. 9.6

Give a proof yourself by joining OA and OB and proving the right triangles OMA
and OMB to be congruent. This example is a particular instance of the following
result:

Theorem 9.3 : The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects
the chord.
What is the converse of this theorem? To write this, first let us be clear what is
assumed in Theorem 9.3 and what is proved. Given that the perpendicular from the
centre of a circle to a chord is drawn and to prove that it bisects the chord. Thus in the
converse, what the hypothesis is ‘if a line from the centre bisects a chord of a
circle’ and what is to be proved is ‘the line is perpendicular to the chord’. So the
converse is:

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CIRCLES 119

Theorem 9.4 : The line drawn through the centre of a circle to bisect a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.
Is this true? Try it for few cases and see. You will
see that it is true for these cases. See if it is true, in
general, by doing the following exercise. We will write
the stages and you give the reasons.
Let AB be a chord of a circle with centre O and
O is joined to the mid-point M of AB. You have to
prove that OM ⊥ AB. Join OA and OB
(see Fig. 9.7). In triangles OAM and OBM,
OA = OB (Why ?)
AM = BM (Why ?)
Fig. 9.7
OM = OM (Common)
Therefore, ∆OAM ≅ ∆OBM (How ?)
This gives ∠OMA = ∠OMB = 90° (Why ?)

9.3 Equal Chords and their Distances from the Centre

Let AB be a line and P be a point. Since there are
infinite numbers of points on a line, if you join these
points to P, you will get infinitely many line segments
PL1, PL2, PM, PL3, PL4, etc. Which of these is the
distance of AB from P? You may think a while and
get the answer. Out of these line segments, the
perpendicular from P to AB, namely PM in Fig. 9.8,
will be the least. In Mathematics, we define this least
length PM to be the distance of AB from P. So you Fig. 9.8
may say that:
The length of the perpendicular from a point to a line is the distance of the
line from the point.
Note that if the point lies on the line, the distance of the line from the point is zero.
A circle can have infinitely many chords. You may observe by drawing chords of
a circle that longer chord is nearer to the centre than the smaller chord. You may
observe it by drawing several chords of a circle of different lengths and measuring
their distances from the centre. What is the distance of the diameter, which is the

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120 MATHEMATICS

longest chord from the centre? Since the centre lies on it, the distance is zero. Do you
think that there is some relationship between the length of chords and their distances
from the centre? Let us see if this is so.

Fig. 9.9
Activity : Draw a circle of any radius on a tracing paper. Draw two equal chords
AB and CD of it and also the perpendiculars OM and ON on them from the centre
O. Fold the figure so that D falls on B and C falls on A [see Fig.9.9 (i)]. You may
observe that O lies on the crease and N falls on M. Therefore, OM = ON. Repeat
the activity by drawing congruent circles with centres O and O′ and taking equal
chords AB and CD one on each. Draw perpendiculars OM and O′N on them [see
Fig. 9.9(ii)]. Cut one circular disc and put it on the other so that AB coincides with
CD. Then you will find that O coincides with O′ and M coincides with N. In this
way you verified the following:

Theorem 9.5 : Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equidistant
from the centre (or centres).
Next, it will be seen whether the converse of this theorem is true or not. For
this, draw a circle with centre O. From the centre O, draw two line segments OL
and OM of equal length and lying inside the circle [see Fig. 9.10(i)]. Then draw
chords PQ and RS of the circle perpendicular to OL and OM respectively [see Fig
9.10(ii)]. Measure the lengths of PQ and RS. Are these different? No, both are
equal. Repeat the activity for more equal line segments and drawing the chords
perpendicular to them. This verifies the converse of the Theorem 9.5 which is stated
as follows:

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CIRCLES 121

Fig. 9.10

Theorem 9.6 : Chords equidistant from the centre of a circle are equal in length.
We now take an example to illustrate the use of the above results:

Example 1 : If two intersecting chords of a circle make equal angles with the diameter
passing through their point of intersection, prove that the chords are equal.
Solution : Given that AB and CD are two chords of
a circle, with centre O intersecting at a point E. PQ
is a diameter through E, such that ∠ AEQ = ∠ DEQ
(see Fig.9.11). You have to prove that AB = CD.
Draw perpendiculars OL and OM on chords AB and
CD, respectively. Now
∠ LOE = 180° – 90° – ∠ LEO = 90° – ∠ LEO
(Angle sum property of a triangle)
= 90° – ∠ AEQ = 90° – ∠ DEQ
Fig. 9.11
= 90° – ∠ MEO = ∠ MOE
In triangles OLE and OME,
∠ LEO = ∠ MEO (Why ?)
∠ LOE = ∠ MOE (Proved above)
EO = EO (Common)
Therefore, ∆ OLE ≅ ∆ OME (Why ?)
This gives OL = OM (CPCT)
So, AB = CD (Why ?)

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122 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 9.2
1. Two circles of radii 5 cm and 3 cm intersect at two points and the distance between
their centres is 4 cm. Find the length of the common chord.
2. If two equal chords of a circle intersect within the circle, prove that the segments of
one chord are equal to corresponding segments of the other chord.
3. If two equal chords of a circle intersect within the circle, prove that the line
joining the point of intersection to the centre makes equal angles with the chords.
4. If a line intersects two concentric circles (circles
with the same centre) with centre O at A, B, C and
D, prove that AB = CD (see Fig. 9.12).
5. Three girls Reshma, Salma and Mandip are
playing a game by standing on a circle of radius
5m drawn in a park. Reshma throws a ball to
Salma, Salma to Mandip, Mandip to Reshma. If
the distance between Reshma and Salma and
between Salma and Mandip is 6m each, what is
the distance between Reshma and Mandip? Fig. 9.12
6. A circular park of radius 20m is situated in a colony. Three boys Ankur, Syed and
David are sitting at equal distance on its boundary each having a toy telephone in
his hands to talk each other. Find the length of the string of each phone.

9.4 Angle Subtended by an Arc of a Circle

You have seen that the end points of a chord other than diameter of a circle cuts it into
two arcs – one major and other minor. If you take two equal chords, what can you say
about the size of arcs? Is one arc made by first chord equal to the corresponding arc
made by another chord? In fact, they are more than just equal in length. They are
congruent in the sense that if one arc is put on the other, without bending or twisting,
one superimposes the other completely.
You can verify this fact by cutting the arc,
corresponding to the chord CD from the circle along
CD and put it on the corresponding arc made by equal
chord AB. You will find that the arc CD superimpose
the arc AB completely (see Fig. 9.13). This shows
that equal chords make congruent arcs and
conversely congruent arcs make equal chords of a
circle. You can state it as follows: Fig. 9.13

If two chords of a circle are equal, then their corresponding arcs are congruent
and conversely, if two arcs are congruent, then their corresponding chords are equal.

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Also the angle subtended by an arc at the centre

is defined to be angle subtended by the corresponding
chord at the centre in the sense that the minor arc
subtends the angle and the major arc subtends the
reflex angle. Therefore, in Fig 9.14, the angle
subtended by the minor arc PQ at O is ∠POQ and
the angle subtended by the major arc PQ at O is
reflex angle POQ.
In view of the property above and Theorem 9.1,
the following result is true: Fig. 9.14
Congruent arcs (or equal arcs) of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.
Therefore, the angle subtended by a chord of a circle at its centre is equal to the
angle subtended by the corresponding (minor) arc at the centre. The following theorem
gives the relationship between the angles subtended by an arc at the centre and at a
point on the circle.

Theorem 9.7 : The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle
subtended by it at any point on the remaining part of the circle.
Proof : Given an arc PQ of a circle subtending angles POQ at the centre O and
PAQ at a point A on the remaining part of the circle. We need to prove that
∠ POQ = 2 ∠ PAQ.

Fig. 9.15
Consider the three different cases as given in Fig. 9.15. In (i), arc PQ is minor; in (ii),
arc PQ is a semicircle and in (iii), arc PQ is major.
Let us begin by joining AO and extending it to a point B.
In all the cases,
∠ BOQ = ∠ OAQ + ∠ AQO
because an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite
angles.

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124 MATHEMATICS

Also in ∆ OAQ,
OA = OQ (Radii of a circle)
Therefore, ∠ OAQ = ∠ OQA (Theorem 7.5)
This gives ∠ BOQ = 2 ∠ OAQ (1)
Similarly, ∠ BOP = 2 ∠ OAP (2)
From (1) and (2), ∠ BOP + ∠ BOQ = 2(∠ OAP + ∠ OAQ)
This is the same as ∠ POQ = 2 ∠ PAQ (3)
For the case (iii), where PQ is the major arc, (3) is replaced by
reflex angle POQ = 2 ∠ PAQ
Remark : Suppose we join points P and Q and
form a chord PQ in the above figures. Then
∠ PAQ is also called the angle formed in the
segment PAQP.
In Theorem 9.7, A can be any point on the
remaining part of the circle. So if you take any
other point C on the remaining part of the circle
(see Fig. 9.16), you have
Fig. 9.16
∠ POQ = 2 ∠ PCQ = 2 ∠ PAQ
Therefore, ∠ PCQ = ∠ PAQ.
This proves the following:
Theorem 9.8 : Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
Again let us discuss the case (ii) of Theorem 10.8 separately. Here ∠PAQ is an angle
1 1
in the segment, which is a semicircle. Also, ∠ PAQ = ∠ POQ = × 180° = 90°.
2 2
If you take any other point C on the semicircle, again you get that
∠ PCQ = 90°
Therefore, you find another property of the circle as:
Angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
The converse of Theorem 9.8 is also true. It can be stated as:

Theorem 9.9 : If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two
other points lying on the same side of the line containing the line segment, the
four points lie on a circle (i.e. they are concyclic).

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CIRCLES 125

You can see the truth of this result as follows:

In Fig. 9.17, AB is a line segment, which subtends equal angles at two points C and D.
That is
∠ ACB = ∠ ADB
To show that the points A, B, C and D lie on a circle
let us draw a circle through the points A, C and B.
Suppose it does not pass through the point D. Then it
will intersect AD (or extended AD) at a point, say E
(or E′).
If points A, C, E and B lie on a circle,
∠ ACB = ∠ AEB (Why?)
But it is given that ∠ ACB = ∠ ADB.
Therefore, ∠ AEB = ∠ ADB.
Fig. 9.17
This is not possible unless E coincides with D. (Why?)
Similarly, E′ should also coincide with D.

9.5 Cyclic Quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral ABCD is called cyclic if all the four vertices
of it lie on a circle (see Fig 9.18). You will find a peculiar
property in such quadrilaterals. Draw several cyclic
quadrilaterals of different sides and name each of these
as ABCD. (This can be done by drawing several circles
of different radii and taking four points on each of them.)
Measure the opposite angles and write your observations
Fig. 9.18
in the following table.

S.No. of Quadrilateral ∠A ∠B ∠C ∠D ∠ A +∠ C ∠ B +∠ D
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

What do you infer from the table?

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126 MATHEMATICS

You find that ∠A + ∠C = 180° and ∠B + ∠D = 180°, neglecting the error in

measurements. This verifies the following:

Theorem 9.10 : The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
is 180º.
In fact, the converse of this theorem, which is stated below is also true.

Theorem 9.11 : If the sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 180º,

the quadrilateral is cyclic.
You can see the truth of this theorem by following a method similar to the method
adopted for Theorem 9.9.

Example 2 : In Fig. 9.19, AB is a diameter of the circle, CD is a chord equal to the

radius of the circle. AC and BD when extended intersect at a point E. Prove that
∠ AEB = 60°.
Solution : Join OC, OD and BC.
Triangle ODC is equilateral (Why?)
Therefore, ∠ COD = 60°
1
Now, ∠ CBD = ∠ COD (Theorem 9.7)
2
This gives ∠ CBD = 30°
Again, ∠ ACB = 90° (Why ?)
So, ∠ BCE = 180° – ∠ ACB = 90°
Which gives ∠ CEB = 90° – 30° = 60°, i.e., ∠ AEB = 60° Fig. 9.19

Example 3 : In Fig 9.20, ABCD is a cyclic

quadrilateral in which AC and BD are its diagonals.
If ∠ DBC = 55° and ∠ BAC = 45°, find ∠ BCD.
Solution : ∠ CAD = ∠ DBC = 55°
(Angles in the same segment)
Therefore, ∠ DAB = ∠ CAD + ∠ BAC
= 55° + 45° = 100°
But ∠ DAB + ∠ BCD = 180°
(Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral)
Fig. 9.20
So, ∠ BCD = 180° – 100° = 80°

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CIRCLES 127

Example 4 : Two circles intersect at two points A

and B. AD and AC are diameters to the two circles
(see Fig. 9.21). Prove that B lies on the line segment
DC.
Solution : Join AB.
∠ ABD = 90° (Angle in a semicircle)
Fig. 9.21
∠ ABC = 90° (Angle in a semicircle)
So, ∠ ABD + ∠ ABC = 90° + 90° = 180°
Therefore, DBC is a line. That is B lies on the line segment DC.
Example 5 : Prove that the quadrilateral formed (if possible) by the internal angle
bisectors of any quadrilateral is cyclic.
Solution : In Fig. 9.22, ABCD is a quadrilateral in
which the angle bisectors AH, BF, CF and DH of
internal angles A, B, C and D respectively form a
quadrilateral EFGH.
Now, ∠ FEH = ∠ AEB = 180° – ∠ EAB – ∠ EBA (Why ?)
1
= 180° – (∠ A + ∠ B) Fig. 9.22
2
and ∠ FGH = ∠ CGD = 180° – ∠ GCD – ∠ GDC (Why ?)
1
= 180° – (∠ C + ∠ D)
2
1 1
Therefore, ∠ FEH + ∠ FGH = 180° – (∠ A + ∠ B) + 180° – (∠ C + ∠ D)
2 2
1 1
= 360° – (∠ A+ ∠ B +∠ C +∠ D) = 360° – × 360°
2 2
= 360° – 180° = 180°
Therefore, by Theorem 9.11, the quadrilateral EFGH is cyclic.

EXERCISE 9.3
1. In Fig. 9.23, A,B and C are three points on a circle
with centre O such that ∠ BOC = 30° and
∠ AOB = 60°. If D is a point on the circle other
than the arc ABC, find ∠ADC.

Fig. 9.23

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128 MATHEMATICS

2. A chord of a circle is equal to the radius of the

circle. Find the angle subtended by the chord at
a point on the minor arc and also at a point on the
major arc.
3. In Fig. 9.24, ∠ PQR = 100°, where P, Q and R are
points on a circle with centre O. Find ∠ OPR.

Fig. 9.24

4. In Fig. 9.25, ∠ ABC = 69°, ∠ ACB = 31°, find

∠ BDC.

Fig. 9.25
5. In Fig. 9.26, A, B, C and D are four points on a
circle. AC and BD intersect at a point E such
that ∠ BEC = 130° and ∠ ECD = 20°. Find
∠ BAC.

Fig. 9.26

6. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral whose diagonals intersect at a point E. If ∠ DBC = 70°,

∠ BAC is 30°, find ∠ BCD. Further, if AB = BC, find ∠ ECD.
7. If diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral are diameters of the circle through the vertices of
the quadrilateral, prove that it is a rectangle.
8. If the non-parallel sides of a trapezium are equal, prove that it is cyclic.

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CIRCLES 129

9. Two circles intersect at two points B and C.

Through B, two line segments ABD and PBQ
are drawn to intersect the circles at A, D and P,
Q respectively (see Fig. 9.27). Prove that
∠ ACP = ∠ QCD.

Fig. 9.27

10. If circles are drawn taking two sides of a triangle as diameters, prove that the point of
intersection of these circles lie on the third side.
11. ABC and ADC are two right triangles with common hypotenuse AC. Prove that
∠ CAD = ∠ CBD.
12. Prove that a cyclic parallelogram is a rectangle.

9.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. A circle is the collection of all points in a plane, which are equidistant from a fixed point in
the plane.
2. Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) subtend equal angles at the centre.
3. If the angles subtended by two chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) at the centre
(corresponding centres) are equal, the chords are equal.
4. The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
5. The line drawn through the centre of a circle to bisect a chord is perpendicular to
the chord.
6. Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equidistant from the centre (or
corresponding centres).
7. Chords equidistant from the centre (or corresponding centres) of a circle (or of congruent
circles) are equal.
8. If two arcs of a circle are congruent, then their corresponding chords are equal and
conversely if two chords of a circle are equal, then their corresponding arcs (minor, major)
are congruent.
9. Congruent arcs of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.
10. The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle subtended by it at any
point on the remaining part of the circle.
11. Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

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130 MATHEMATICS

12. Angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

13. If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points lying on
the same side of the line containing the line segment, the four points lie on a circle.
14. The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 1800.
15. If sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 1800, the quadrilateral is cyclic.

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 CHAPTER 10

HERON’S FORMULA

10.1 Area of a Triangle — by Heron’s Formula

1
We know that the area of triangle when its height is given, is × base × height. Now
2
suppose that we know the lengths of the sides of a scalene triangle and not the height.
Can you still find its area? For instance, you have a triangular park whose sides are 40
m, 32 m, and 24 m. How will you calculate its area? Definitely if you want to apply the
formula, you will have to calculate its height. But we do not have a clue to calculate
the height. Try doing so. If you are not able to get it, then go to the next section.
Heron was born in about 10AD possibly in Alexandria in
Egypt. He worked in applied mathematics. His works on
mathematical and physical subjects are so numerous and
varied that he is considered to be an encyclopedic writer
in these fields. His geometrical works deal largely with
problems on mensuration written in three books. Book I
deals with the area of squares, rectangles, triangles,
trapezoids (trapezia), various other specialised
quadrilaterals, the regular polygons, circles, surfaces of
cylinders, cones, spheres etc. In this book, Heron has
derived the famous formula for the area of a triangle in Heron (10 C.E. – 75 C.E.)
terms of its three sides. Fig. 10.1

The formula given by Heron about the area of a triangle, is also known as Hero’s
formula. It is stated as:

Area of a triangle = s( s − a ) ( s − b ) ( s − c ) (I)

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132 MATHEMATICS

where a, b and c are the sides of the triangle, and s = semi-perimeter, i.e., half the
a + b + c,
perimeter of the triangle =
2
This formula is helpful where it is not possible to find the height of the triangle
easily. Let us apply it to calculate the area of the triangular park ABC, mentioned
above (see Fig. 10.2).
Let us take a = 40 m, b = 24 m, c = 32 m,

40 + 24 + 32
so that we have s = m = 48 m.
2
s – a = (48 – 40) m = 8 m,
s – b = (48 – 24) m = 24 m,
s – c = (48 – 32) m = 16 m.
Fig. 10.2
Therefore, area of the park ABC

= s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c )

= 48 × 8 × 24 × 16 m 2 = 384 m 2
We see that 322 + 242 = 1024 + 576 = 1600 = 402. Therefore, the sides of the park
make a right triangle. The largest side, i.e., BC which is 40 m will be the hypotenuse
and the angle between the sides AB and AC will be 90°.
1
We can check that the area of the park is× 32 × 24 m2 = 384 m2.
2
We find that the area we have got is the same as we found by using Heron’s
formula.
Now using Heron’s formula, you verify this fact by finding the areas of other
triangles discussed earlier viz.,
(i) equilateral triangle with side 10 cm.
(ii) isosceles triangle with unequal side as 8 cm and each equal side as 5 cm.
You will see that
10 + 10 + 10
For (i), we have s = cm = 15 cm.
2

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HERON’S FORMULA 133

Area of triangle = 15(15 − 10) (15 − 10) (15 − 10) cm2

= 15 × 5 × 5 × 5 cm 2 = 25 3 cm 2

8+5+5
For (ii), we have s = cm = 9 cm
2

Area of triangle = 9(9 − 8) (9 − 5) (9 − 5) cm2 = 9 × 1 × 4 × 4 cm 2 = 12 cm 2 .

Let us now solve some more examples:
Example 1 : Find the area of a triangle, two sides of which are 8 cm and 11 cm and
the perimeter is 32 cm (see Fig. 10.3).
Solution : Here we have perimeter of the triangle = 32 cm, a = 8 cm and b = 11 cm.
Third side c = 32 cm – (8 + 11) cm = 13 cm
So, 2s = 32, i.e., s = 16 cm,
s – a = (16 – 8) cm = 8 cm,
s – b = (16 – 11) cm = 5 cm,
s – c = (16 – 13) cm = 3 cm. Fig. 10.3

Therefore, area of the triangle = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c )

= 16 × 8 × 5 × 3 cm 2 = 8 30 cm 2

Example 2 : A triangular park ABC has sides 120m, 80m and 50m (see Fig. 10.4). A
gardener Dhania has to put a fence all around it and also plant grass inside. How
much area does she need to plant? Find the cost of fencing it with barbed wire at the
rate of `20 per metre leaving a space 3m wide for a gate on one side.
Solution : For finding area of the park, we have
2s = 50 m + 80 m + 120 m = 250 m.
i.e., s = 125 m
Now, s – a = (125 – 120) m = 5 m,
s – b = (125 – 80) m = 45 m,
s – c = (125 – 50) m = 75 m. Fig. 10.4

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134 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, area of the park = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c )

= 125 × 5 × 45 × 75 m2

= 375 15 m2
Also, perimeter of the park = AB + BC + CA = 250 m
Therefore, length of the wire needed for fencing = 250 m – 3 m (to be left for gate)
= 247 m
And so the cost of fencing = `20 × 247 = `4940
Example 3 : The sides of a triangular plot are in the ratio of 3 : 5 : 7 and its perimeter
is 300 m. Find its area.
Solution : Suppose that the sides, in metres, are 3x, 5x and 7x (see Fig. 10.5).
Then, we know that 3x + 5x + 7x = 300 (perimeter of the triangle)
Therefore, 15x = 300, which gives x = 20.
So the sides of the triangle are 3 × 20 m, 5 × 20 m and 7 × 20 m
i.e., 60 m, 100 m and 140 m.
Can you now find the area [Using Heron’s formula]?

60 + 100 + 140
We have s = m = 150 m, Fig. 10.5
2

and area will be 150(150 − 60) (150 − 100) (150 −140) m2

= 150 × 90 × 50 × 10 m2

= 1500 3 m 2

EXERCISE 10.1
1. A traffic signal board, indicating ‘SCHOOL AHEAD’, is an equilateral triangle with
side ‘a’. Find the area of the signal board, using Heron’s formula. If its perimeter is
180 cm, what will be the area of the signal board?

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HERON’S FORMULA 135

2. The triangular side walls of a flyover have been used for advertisements. The sides of
the walls are 122 m, 22 m and 120 m (see Fig. 10.6). The advertisements yield an
earning of ` 5000 per m2 per year. A company hired one of its walls for 3 months. How
much rent did it pay?

Fig. 10.6
3. There is a slide in a park. One of its side walls has been painted in some colour with a
message “KEEP THE PARK GREEN AND CLEAN” (see Fig. 10.7 ). If the sides of the
wall are 15 m, 11 m and 6 m, find the area painted in colour.

Fig. 10.7
4. Find the area of a triangle two sides of which are 18cm and 10cm and the perimeter is
42cm.
5. Sides of a triangle are in the ratio of 12 : 17 : 25 and its perimeter is 540cm. Find its area.
6. An isosceles triangle has perimeter 30 cm and each of the equal sides is 12 cm. Find
the area of the triangle.

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136 MATHEMATICS

10.2 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. Area of a triangle with its sides as a, b and c is calculated by using Heron’s formula,
stated as
Area of triangle = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c )
a+b+c
where s=
2

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REAL NUMBERS 1

REAL NUMBERS 1
1.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you began your exploration of the world of real numbers and encountered
irrational numbers. We continue our discussion on real numbers in this chapter. We
begin with two very important properties of positive integers in Sections 1.2 and 1.3,
namely the Euclid’s division algorithm and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Euclid’s division algorithm, as the name suggests, has to do with divisibility of
integers. Stated simply, it says any positive integer a can be divided by another positive
integer b in such a way that it leaves a remainder r that is smaller than b. Many of you
probably recognise this as the usual long division process. Although this result is quite
easy to state and understand, it has many applications related to the divisibility properties
of integers. We touch upon a few of them, and use it mainly to compute the HCF of
two positive integers.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, on the other hand, has to do something
with multiplication of positive integers. You already know that every composite number
can be expressed as a product of primes in a unique way — this important fact is the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Again, while it is a result that is easy to state and
understand, it has some very deep and significant applications in the field of mathematics.
We use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for two main applications. First, we
use it to prove the irrationality of many of the numbers you studied in Class IX, such as
2 , 3 and 5 . Second, we apply this theorem to explore when exactly the decimal
p
expansion of a rational number, say (q  0) , is terminating and when it is non-
q
terminating repeating. We do so by looking at the prime factorisation of the denominator
p
q of . You will see that the prime factorisation of q will completely reveal the nature
q
of the decimal expansion of p .
q
So let us begin our exploration.

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2 MATHEMATICS

1.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

In your earlier classes, you have seen that any natural number can be written as a
product of its prime factors. For instance, 2 = 2, 4 = 2 × 2, 253 = 11 × 23, and so on.
Now, let us try and look at natural numbers from the other direction. That is, can any
natural number be obtained by multiplying prime numbers? Let us see.
Take any collection of prime numbers, say 2, 3, 7, 11 and 23. If we multiply
some or all of these numbers, allowing them to repeat as many times as we wish,
we can produce a large collection of positive integers (In fact, infinitely many).
Let us list a few :
7 × 11 × 23 = 1771 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 5313
2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 10626 23 × 3 × 73 = 8232
22 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 21252
and so on.
Now, let us suppose your collection of primes includes all the possible primes.
What is your guess about the size of this collection? Does it contain only a finite
number of integers, or infinitely many? Infact, there are infinitely many primes. So,
if we combine all these primes in all possible ways, we will get an infinite
collection of numbers, all
the primes and all possible
products of primes. The
question is – can we
produce all the composite
numbers this way? What
do you think? Do you
think that there may be a
composite number which
is not the product of
powers of primes?
Before we answer this,
let us factorise positive
integers, that is, do the
opposite of what we have
done so far.
We are going to use
the factor tree with which
you are all familiar. Let us
take some large number,
say, 32760, and factorise
it as shown.
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REAL NUMBERS 3

So we have factorised 32760 as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of

primes, i.e., 32760 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of powers of primes. Let us try
another number, say, 123456789. This can be written as 32 × 3803 × 3607. Of course,
you have to check that 3803 and 3607 are primes! (Try it out for several other natural
numbers yourself.) This leads us to a conjecture that every composite number can be
written as the product of powers of primes. In fact, this statement is true, and is called
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic because of its basic crucial importance
to the study of integers. Let us now formally state this theorem.
Theorem 1.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) : Every composite
number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this factorisation
is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.

An equivalent version of Theorem 1.2 was probably

first recorded as Proposition 14 of Book IX in Euclid’s
Elements, before it came to be known as the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. However, the
first correct proof was given by Carl Friedrich Gauss
in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae.
Carl Friedrich Gauss is often referred to as the ‘Prince
of Mathematicians’ and is considered one of the three
greatest mathematicians of all time, along with
Archimedes and Newton. He has made fundamental Carl Friedrich Gauss
contributions to both mathematics and science. (1777 – 1855)

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that every composite number can
be factorised as a product of primes. Actually it says more. It says that given any
composite number it can be factorised as a product of prime numbers in a ‘unique’
way, except for the order in which the primes occur. That is, given any composite
number there is one and only one way to write it as a product of primes, as long as we
are not particular about the order in which the primes occur. So, for example, we
regard 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 as the same as 3 × 5 × 7 × 2, or any other possible order in which
these primes are written. This fact is also stated in the following form:
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique, except for the order
of its factors.

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4 MATHEMATICS

In general, given a composite number x, we factorise it as x = p1 p2 ... pn, where

p 1 , p 2 ,..., p n are primes and written in ascending order, i.e., p 1  p 2
 . . .  pn. If we combine the same primes, we will get powers of primes. For example,
32760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13
Once we have decided that the order will be ascending, then the way the number
is factorised, is unique.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic has many applications, both within
mathematics and in other fields. Let us look at some examples.

Example 1 : Consider the numbers 4n, where n is a natural number. Check whether
there is any value of n for which 4n ends with the digit zero.
Solution : If the number 4n, for any n, were to end with the digit zero, then it would be
divisible by 5. That is, the prime factorisation of 4n would contain the prime 5. This is
not possible because 4n = (2)2n; so the only prime in the factorisation of 4n is 2. So, the
uniqueness of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic guarantees that there are no
other primes in the factorisation of 4n. So, there is no natural number n for which 4n
ends with the digit zero.
You have already learnt how to find the HCF and LCM of two positive integers
using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic in earlier classes, without realising it!
This method is also called the prime factorisation method. Let us recall this method
through an example.

Example 2 : Find the LCM and HCF of 6 and 20 by the prime factorisation method.
Solution : We have : 6 = 21 × 31 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.
You can find HCF(6, 20) = 2 and LCM(6, 20) = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60, as done in your
earlier classes.
Note that HCF(6, 20) = 21 = Product of the smallest power of each common
prime factor in the numbers.
LCM (6, 20) = 22 × 31 × 51 = Product of the greatest power of each prime factor,
involved in the numbers.

From the example above, you might have noticed that HCF(6, 20) × LCM(6, 20)
= 6 × 20. In fact, we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b,
HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b. We can use this result to find the LCM of two
positive integers, if we have already found the HCF of the two positive integers.

Example 3: Find the HCF of 96 and 404 by the prime factorisation method. Hence,
find their LCM.

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REAL NUMBERS 5

Solution : The prime factorisation of 96 and 404 gives :

96 = 25 × 3, 404 = 22 × 101
Therefore, the HCF of these two integers is 22 = 4.

96  404 96  404
Also, LCM (96, 404) =   9696
HCF(96, 404) 4

Example 4 : Find the HCF and LCM of 6, 72 and 120, using the prime factorisation
method.
Solution : We have :
6 = 2 × 3, 72 = 23 × 32, 120 = 23 × 3 × 5
Here, 21 and 31 are the smallest powers of the common factors 2 and 3, respectively.
So, HCF (6, 72, 120) = 21 × 31 = 2 × 3 = 6
23, 32 and 51 are the greatest powers of the prime factors 2, 3 and 5 respectively
involved in the three numbers.
So, LCM (6, 72, 120) = 23 × 32 × 51 = 360

Remark : Notice, 6 × 72 × 120  HCF (6, 72, 120) × LCM (6, 72, 120). So, the
product of three numbers is not equal to the product of their HCF and LCM.

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Express each number as a product of its prime factors:
(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
2. Find the LCM and HCF of the following pairs of integers and verify that LCM × HCF =
product of the two numbers.
(i) 26 and 91 (ii) 510 and 92 (iii) 336 and 54
3. Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by applying the prime factorisation
method.
(i) 12, 15 and 21 (ii) 17, 23 and 29 (iii) 8, 9 and 25
4. Given that HCF (306, 657) = 9, find LCM (306, 657).
5. Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
6. Explain why 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 and 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 are composite numbers.
7. There is a circular path around a sports field. Sonia takes 18 minutes to drive one round
of the field, while Ravi takes 12 minutes for the same. Suppose they both start at the

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6 MATHEMATICS

same point and at the same time, and go in the same direction. After how many minutes
will they meet again at the starting point?

1.3 Revisiting Irrational Numbers

In Class IX, you were introduced to irrational numbers and many of their properties.
You studied about their existence and how the rationals and the irrationals together
made up the real numbers. You even studied how to locate irrationals on the number
line. However, we did not prove that they were irrationals. In this section, we will
prove that 2 , 3 , 5 and, in general, p is irrational, where p is a prime. One of
the theorems, we use in our proof, is the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
p
Recall, a number ‘s’ is called irrational if it cannot be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0. Some examples of irrational numbers, with
which you are already familiar, are :
2,
2, 3 , 15 ,  ,  0.10110111011110 . . . , etc.
3
Before we prove that 2 is irrational, we need the following theorem, whose
proof is based on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Theorem 1.2 : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where
a is a positive integer.
*Proof : Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows :
a = p1p2 . . . pn, where p1,p2, . . ., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore, a2 = ( p1 p2 . . . pn)( p1 p2 . . . pn) = p21 p22 . . . p2n.
Now, we are given that p divides a2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. However, using the
uniqueness part of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only
prime factors of a2 are p1, p2, . . ., pn. So p is one of p1, p2, . . ., pn.
Now, since a = p1 p2 . . . pn , p divides a.
We are now ready to give a proof that 2 is irrational.
The proof is based on a technique called ‘proof by contradiction’. (This technique is
discussed in some detail in Appendix 1).

Theorem 1.3 : 2 is irrational.

Proof : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 2 is rational.
* Not from the examination point of view.

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REAL NUMBERS 7

r
So, we can find integers r and s (¹ 0) such that2 = s.
Suppose r and s have a common factor other than 1. Then, we divide by the common

factor to get a , where a and b are coprime.

2
b
So, b 2 = a.
Squaring on both sides and rearranging, we get 2b2 = a2. Therefore, 2 divides a2.
Now, by Theorem 1.3, it follows that 2 divides a.
So, we can write a = 2c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 2b2 = 4c2, that is, b2 = 2c2.
This means that 2 divides b2, and so 2 divides b (again using Theorem 1.3 with p = 2).
Therefore, a and b have at least 2 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common factors other than 1.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 2 is rational.
So, we conclude that 2 is irrational.

Example 5 : Prove that 3 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find integers a and b (¹ 0) such that  3 =
b
Suppose a and b have a common factor other than 1, then we can divide by the
common factor, and assume that a and b are coprime.
So, b 3  a 
Squaring on both sides, and rearranging, we get 3b2 = a2.
Therefore, a2 is divisible by 3, and by Theorem 1.3, it follows that a is also divisible
by 3.
So, we can write a = 3c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 3b2 = 9c2, that is, b2 = 3c2.
This means that b2 is divisible by 3, and so b is also divisible by 3 (using Theorem 1.3
with p = 3).

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8 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, a and b have at least 3 as a common factor.

But this contradicts the fact that a and b are coprime.

This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 3 is rational.
So, we conclude that 3 is irrational.
In Class IX, we mentioned that :

 the sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational and

 the product and quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is

irrational.
We prove some particular cases here.

Example 6 : Show that 5 – 3 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 5 – 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b  0) such that 5  3  
b
a
Therefore, 5   3 
b
Rearranging this equation, we get 3  5 – 
a 5b  a

b b
a
Since a and b are integers, we get 5 – is rational, and so 3 is rational.
b
But this contradicts the fact that 3 is irrational.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 5 – 3 is
rational.

So, we conclude that 5  3 is irrational.

Example 7 : Show that 3 2 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 2 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b  0) such that 3 2  
b
Rearranging, we get 2  
a
3b
a
Since 3, a and b are integers, is rational, and so 2 is rational.
3b

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REAL NUMBERS 9

But this contradicts the fact that 2 is irrational.

So, we conclude that 3 2 is irrational.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Prove that 5 is irrational.
2. Prove that 3  2 5 is irrational.

3. Prove that the following are irrationals :

1
(i) (ii) 7 5 (iii) 6  2
2

1.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic :
Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this
factorisation is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.
2. If p is a prime and p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.

3. To prove that 2, 3 are irrationals.

A NOTE TO THE READER

You have seen that :
HCF ( p, q, r) × LCM (p, q, r)  p × q × r, where p, q, r are positive integers
(see Example 8). However, the following results hold good for three numbers
p, q and r :

p  q  r  HCF(p, q, r )
LCM (p, q, r) =
HCF( p, q )  HCF(q, r )  HCF( p, r )

p  q  r  LCM(p, q, r )
HCF (p, q, r) =
LCM( p, q)  LCM(q, r )  LCM( p, r )

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TRIANGLES 73

TRIANGLES 6
6.1 Introduction
You are familiar with triangles and many of their properties from your earlier classes.
In Class IX, you have studied congruence of triangles in detail. Recall that two figures
are said to be congruent, if they have the same shape and the same size. In this
chapter, we shall study about those figures which have the same shape but not necessarily
the same size. Two figures having the same shape (and not necessarily the same size)
are called similar figures. In particular, we shall discuss the similarity of triangles and
apply this knowledge in giving a simple proof of Pythagoras Theorem learnt earlier.
Can you guess how heights of mountains (say Mount Everest) or distances of
some long distant objects (say moon) have been found out? Do you think these have

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74 MATHEMATICS

been measured directly with the help of a measuring tape? In fact, all these heights
and distances have been found out using the idea of indirect measurements, which is
based on the principle of similarity of figures (see Example 7, Q.15 of Exercise 6.3
and also Chapters 8 and 9 of this book).

6.2 Similar Figures

In Class IX, you have seen that all circles with the same radii are congruent, all
squares with the same side lengths are congruent and all equilateral triangles with the
same side lengths are congruent.
Now consider any two (or more)
circles [see Fig. 6.1 (i)]. Are they
congruent? Since all of them do not
have the same radius, they are not
congruent to each other. Note that
some are congruent and some are not,
but all of them have the same shape.
So they all are, what we call, similar.
Two similar figures have the same
shape but not necessarily the same
size. Therefore, all circles are similar.
What about two (or more) squares or
two (or more) equilateral triangles
[see Fig. 6.1 (ii) and (iii)]? As observed
in the case of circles, here also all
squares are similar and all equilateral
triangles are similar.
From the above, we can say
that all congruent figures are
similar but the similar figures need
not be congruent. Fig. 6.1
Can a circle and a square be
similar? Can a triangle and a square
be similar? These questions can be
answered by just looking at the
figures (see Fig. 6.1). Evidently
these figures are not similar. (Why?)
Fig. 6.2

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TRIANGLES 75

What can you say about the two quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS
(see Fig 6.2)?Are they similar? These figures appear to be similar but we cannot be
certain about it.Therefore, we must have some definition of similarity of figures and
based on this definition some rules to decide whether the two given figures are similar
or not. For this, let us look at the photographs given in Fig. 6.3:

Fig. 6.3
You will at once say that they are the photographs of the same monument
(Taj Mahal) but are in different sizes. Would you say that the three photographs are
similar? Yes,they are.
What can you say about the two photographs of the same size of the same
person one at the age of 10 years and the other at the age of 40 years? Are these
photographs similar? These photographs are of the same size but certainly they are
not of the same shape. So, they are not similar.
What does the photographer do when she prints photographs of different sizes
from the same negative? You must have heard about the stamp size, passport size and
postcard size photographs. She generally takes a photograph on a small size film, say
of 35mm size and then enlarges it into a bigger size, say 45mm (or 55mm). Thus, if we
consider any line segment in the smaller photograph (figure), its corresponding line
45  55 
segment in the bigger photograph (figure) will be  or  of that of the line segment.
35  35 
This really means that every line segment of the smaller photograph is enlarged
(increased) in the ratio 35:45 (or 35:55). It can also be said that every line segment
of the bigger photograph is reduced (decreased) in the ratio 45:35 (or 55:35). Further,
if you consider inclinations (or angles) between any pair of corresponding line segments
in the two photographs of different sizes, you shall see that these inclinations(or angles)
are always equal. This is the essence of the similarity of two figures and in particular
of two polygons. We say that:
Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their
corresponding angles are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the
same ratio (or proportion).

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76 MATHEMATICS

Note that the same ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as the scale
factor (or the Representative Fraction) for the polygons. You must have heard that
world maps (i.e., global maps) and blue prints for the construction of a building are
prepared using a suitable scale factor and observing certain conventions.
In order to understand similarity of figures more clearly, let us perform the following
activity:
Activity 1 : Place a lighted bulb at a
point O on the ceiling and directly below
it a table in your classroom. Let us cut a
polygon, say a quadrilateral ABCD, from
a plane cardboard and place this
cardboard parallel to the ground between
the lighted bulb and the table. Then a
shadow of ABCD is cast on the table.
Mark the outline of this shadow as
ABCD (see Fig.6.4).
Note that the quadrilateral ABCD is
an enlargement (or magnification) of the
quadrilateral ABCD. This is because of
the property of light that light propogates
in a straight line. You may also note that Fig. 6.4
A lies on ray OA, B lies on ray OB, C
lies on OC and D lies on OD. Thus, quadrilaterals ABCD and ABCD are of the
same shape but of different sizes.
So, quadrilateral ABCD is similiar to quadrilateral ABCD. We can also say
that quadrilateral ABCD is similar to the quadrilateral ABCD.
Here, you can also note that vertex A corresponds to vertex A, vertex B
corresponds to vertex B, vertex C corresponds to vertex C and vertex D corresponds
to vertex D. Symbolically, these correspondences are represented as A A, B B,
C C and D  D. By actually measuring the angles and the sides of the two
quadrilaterals, you may verify that
(i)  A =  A,  B =  B,  C =  C,  D =  D and
AB BC CD DA .
(ii)   
A B B C C D D A
This again emphasises that two polygons of the same number of sides are
similar, if (i) all the corresponding angles are equal and (ii) all the corresponding
sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).

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TRIANGLES 77

From the above, you can easily say that quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS of
Fig. 6.5 are similar.

Fig. 6.5
Remark : You can verify that if one polygon is similar to another polygon and this
second polygon is similar to a third polygon, then the first polygon is similar to the third
polygon.
You may note that in the two quadrilaterals (a square and a rectangle) of
Fig. 6.6, corresponding angles are equal, but their corresponding sides are not in the
same ratio.

Fig. 6.6

So, the two quadrilaterals are not similar. Similarly, you may note that in the two
quadrilaterals (a square and a rhombus) of Fig. 6.7, corresponding sides are in the
same ratio, but their corresponding angles are not equal. Again, the two polygons
(quadrilaterals) are not similar.

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78 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 6.7
Thus, either of the above two conditions (i) and (ii) of similarity of two
polygons is not sufficient for them to be similar.

EXERCISE 6.1
1. Fill in the blanks using the correct word given in brackets :
(i) All circles are . (congruent, similar)
(ii) All squares are . (similar, congruent)
(iii) All triangles are similar. (isosceles, equilateral)
(iv) Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (a) their corresponding
angles are and (b) their corresponding sides are . (equal,
proportional)
2. Give two different examples of pair of
(i) similar figures. (ii) non-similar figures.
3. State whether the following quadrilaterals are similar or not:

Fig. 6.8

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6.3 Similarity of Triangles

What can you say about the similarity of two triangles?
You may recall that triangle is also a polygon. So, we can state the same conditions
for the similarity of two triangles. That is:
Two triangles are similiar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
Note that if corresponding angles of two
triangles are equal, then they are known as
equiangular triangles. A famous Greek
mathematician Thales gave an important truth relating
to two equiangular triangles which is as follows:
The ratio of any two corresponding sides in
two equiangular triangles is always the same.
It is believed that he had used a result called
the Basic Proportionality Theorem (now known as
the Thales Theorem) for the same. Thales
(640 – 546 B.C.)
To understand the Basic Proportionality
Theorem, let us perform the following activity:
Activity 2 : Draw any angle XAY and on its one
arm AX, mark points (say five points) P, Q, D, R and
B such that AP = PQ = QD = DR = RB.
Now, through B, draw any line intersecting arm
AY at C (see Fig. 6.9).
Also, through the point D, draw a line parallel
to BC to intersect AC at E. Do you observe from
Fig. 6.9
AD 3
your constructions that  ? Measure AE and
DB 2
AE AE 3
EC. What about ? Observe that is also equal to . Thus, you can see that
EC EC 2
AD AE
in  ABC, DE || BC and  . Is it a coincidence? No, it is due to the following
DB EC
theorem (known as the Basic Proportionality Theorem):

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80 MATHEMATICS

Theorem 6.1 : If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the
other two sides in distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same
ratio.
Proof : We are given a triangle ABC in which a line
parallel to side BC intersects other two sides AB and
AC at D and E respectively (see Fig. 6.10).

AD AE
We need to prove that  .
DB EC
Let us join BE and CD and then draw DM  AC and
EN  AB. Fig. 6.10

1 1
Now, area of  ADE (= base × height) = AD × EN.
2 2
Recall from Class IX, that area of  ADE is denoted as ar(ADE).

1
So, ar(ADE) = AD × EN
2

1
Similarly, ar(BDE) = DB × EN,
2

1 1
ar(ADE) = AE × DM and ar(DEC) = EC × DM.
2 2

1
ar(ADE) AD × EN
AD
Therefore, = 2  (1)
ar(BDE) 1
DB × EN DB
2

1
ar(ADE) AE × DM
2 AE
and =  (2)
ar(DEC) 1
EC × DM EC
2
Note that  BDE and DEC are on the same base DE and between the same parallels
BC and DE.
So, ar(BDE) = ar(DEC) (3)

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TRIANGLES 81

Therefore, from (1), (2) and (3), we have :

AD AE
=
DB EC
Is the converse of this theorem also true (For the meaning of converse, see
Appendix 1)? To examine this, let us perform the following activity:

Activity 3 : Draw an angle XAY on your

notebook and on ray AX, mark points B1, B2,
B3, B4 and B such that AB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 =
B3B4 = B4B.
Similarly, on ray AY, mark points
C1, C2, C3, C4 and C such that AC1 = C1C2 =
C2C3 = C3C4 = C4C. Then join B1C1 and BC
(see Fig. 6.11).
Fig. 6.11
AB1 AC1 1
Note that B1B = C1C (Each equal to )
4
You can also see that lines B1C1 and BC are parallel to each other, i.e.,
B1C1 || BC (1)
Similarly, by joining B2C2, B3C3 and B4C4, you can see that:

AB2 AC2  2 
=    and B2C2 || BC (2)
B2 B C2C  3 

AB3 AC3  3 
=    and B3C3 || BC (3)
B3B C3 C  2 

AB4 AC4  4 
=    and B4C4 || BC (4)
B4 B C4C  1 
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), it can be observed that if a line divides two sides of a
triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side.
You can repeat this activity by drawing any angle XAY of different measure and
taking any number of equal parts on arms AX and AY . Each time, you will arrive at
the same result. Thus, we obtain the following theorem, which is the converse of
Theorem 6.1:

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82 MATHEMATICS

Theorem 6.2 : If a line divides any two sides of a

triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel
to the third side.
This theorem can be proved by taking a line DE such
AD AE
that  and assuming that DE is not parallel
DB EC
to BC (see Fig. 6.12).
If DE is not parallel to BC, draw a line DE
parallel to BC. Fig. 6.12

AD AE
So, = (Why ?)
DB EC

AE AE
Therefore, = (Why ?)
EC EC
Adding 1 to both sides of above, you can see that E and E must coincide.
(Why ?)
Let us take some examples to illustrate the use of the above theorems.

Example 1 : If a line intersects sides AB and AC of a  ABC at D and E respectively

AD AE
and is parallel to BC, prove that = (see Fig. 6.13).
AB AC
Solution : DE || BC (Given)

AD AE
So, = (Theorem 6.1)
DB EC
DB EC
or, =
AD AE
DB EC
or, 1 = 1
AD AE
AB AC
or, =
AD AE

AD AE
So, =
AB AC Fig. 6.13

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TRIANGLES 83

Example 2 : ABCD is a trapezium with AB || DC. E

and F are points on non-parallel sides AD and BC
respectively such that EF is parallel to AB
AE BF
(see Fig. 6.14). Show that  .
ED FC
Solution : Let us join AC to intersect EF at G
(see Fig. 6.15). Fig. 6.14
AB || DC and EF || AB (Given)
So, EF || DC (Lines parallel to the same line are
parallel to each other)
Now, in  ADC,
EG || DC (As EF || DC)

AE AG
So, = (Theorem 6.1) (1)
ED GC
Similarly, from  CAB,
Fig. 6.15
CG CF
=
AG BF

AG BF
i.e., = (2)
GC FC
Therefore, from (1) and (2),

AE BF
=
ED FC

PS PT
Example 3 : In Fig. 6.16, = and  PST =
SQ TR
 PRQ. Prove that PQR is an isosceles triangle.

PS PT Fig. 6.16
Solution : It is given that  
SQ TR
So, ST || QR (Theorem 6.2)
Therefore,  PST =  PQR (Corresponding angles) (1)

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84 MATHEMATICS

Also, it is given that

 PST =  PRQ (2)
So,  PRQ =  PQR [From (1) and (2)]
Therefore, PQ = PR (Sides opposite the equal angles)
i.e., PQR is an isosceles triangle.

EXERCISE 6.2
1. In Fig. 6.17, (i) and (ii), DE || BC. Find EC in (i) and AD in (ii).

Fig. 6.17

2. E and F are points on the sides PQ and PR

respectively of a  PQR. For each of the following
cases, state whether EF || QR :
(i) PE = 3.9 cm, EQ = 3 cm, PF = 3.6 cm and FR = 2.4 cm
(ii) PE = 4 cm, QE = 4.5 cm, PF = 8 cm and RF = 9 cm Fig. 6.18
(iii) PQ = 1.28 cm, PR = 2.56 cm, PE = 0.18 cm and PF = 0.36 cm
3. In Fig. 6.18, if LM || CB and LN || CD, prove that
AM AN
 
AB AD
4. In Fig. 6.19, DE || AC and DF || AE. Prove that
BF BE
 
FE EC
Fig. 6.19

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TRIANGLES 85

5. In Fig. 6.20, DE || OQ and DF || OR. Show that

EF || QR.
6. In Fig. 6.21, A, B and C are points on OP, OQ and
OR respectively such that AB || PQ and AC || PR.
Show that BC || QR.
7. Using Theorem 6.1, prove that a line drawn through
the mid-point of one side of a triangle parallel to
another side bisects the third side. (Recall that you Fig. 6.20
have proved it in Class IX).
8. Using Theorem 6.2, prove that the line joining the
mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side. (Recall that you have done it in
Class IX).
9. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || DC and its
diagonals intersect each other at the point O. Show
AO CO
that   Fig. 6.21
BO DO
10. The diagonals of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect each other at the point O such that
AO CO
  Show that ABCD is a trapezium.
BO DO

6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles

In the previous section, we stated that two triangles are similar, if (i) their corresponding
angles are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
That is, in  ABC and  DEF, if
(i)  A =  D,  B =  E,  C =  F and

AB BC CA ,
(ii)   then the two triangles are similar (see Fig. 6.22).
DE EF FD

Fig. 6.22

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86 MATHEMATICS

Here, you can see that A corresponds to D, B corresponds to E and C

corresponds to F. Symbolically, we write the similarity of these two triangles as
‘ ABC ~  DEF’ and read it as ‘triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF’. The
symbol ‘~’ stands for ‘is similar to’. Recall that you have used the symbol ‘’ for
‘is congruent to’ in Class IX.

It must be noted that as done in the case of congruency of two triangles, the
similarity of two triangles should also be expressed symbolically, using correct
correspondence of their vertices. For example, for the triangles ABC and DEF of
Fig. 6.22, we cannot write  ABC ~  EDF or  ABC ~  FED. However, we
can write  BAC ~  EDF.

Now a natural question arises : For checking the similarity of two triangles, say
ABC and DEF, should we always look for all the equality relations of their corresponding
angles ( A =  D,  B =  E,  C =  F) and all the equality relations of the ratios
 AB BC CA 
of their corresponding sides     ? Let us examine. You may recall that
 DE EF FD 
in Class IX, you have obtained some criteria for congruency of two triangles involving
only three pairs of corresponding parts (or elements) of the two triangles. Here also,
let us make an attempt to arrive at certain criteria for similarity of two triangles involving
relationship between less number of pairs of corresponding parts of the two triangles,
instead of all the six pairs of corresponding parts. For this, let us perform the following
activity:

Activity 4 : Draw two line segments BC and EF of two different lengths, say 3 cm
and 5 cm respectively. Then, at the points B and C respectively, construct angles PBC
and QCB of some measures, say, 60° and 40°. Also, at the points E and F, construct
angles REF and SFE of 60° and 40° respectively (see Fig. 6.23).

Fig. 6.23

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TRIANGLES 87

Let rays BP and CQ intersect each other at A and rays ER and FS intersect each
other at D. In the two triangles ABC and DEF, you can see that
 B =  E,  C =  F and  A =  D. That is, corresponding angles of these two
triangles are equal. What can you say about their corresponding sides ? Note that
BC 3 AB CA
  0.6. What about and ? On measuring AB, DE, CA and FD, you
EF 5 DE FD
AB CA
will find that and are also equal to 0.6 (or nearly equal to 0.6, if there is some
DE FD
AB BC CA
error in the measurement). Thus,    You can repeat this activity by
DE EF FD
constructing several pairs of triangles having their corresponding angles equal. Every
time, you will find that their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
This activity leads us to the following criterion for similarity of two triangles.

Theorem 6.3 : If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their
corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two
triangles are similar.
This criterion is referred to as the AAA
(Angle–Angle–Angle) criterion of
similarity of two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two
triangles ABC and DEF such that
 A =  D,  B =  E and  C =  F
(see Fig. 6.24)
Fig. 6.24
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.
So,  ABC   DPQ (Why ?)
This gives  B =  P =  E and PQ || EF (How?)

DP DQ
Therefore, = (Why?)
PE QF
AB AC
i.e., = (Why?)
DE DF
AB BC AB BC AC
Similarly, = and so   .
DE EF DE EF DF
Remark : If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another
triangle, then by the angle sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be
equal. Therefore, AAA similarity criterion can also be stated as follows:

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88 MATHEMATICS

If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another
triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
This may be referred to as the AA similarity criterion for two triangles.
You have seen above that if the three angles of one triangle are respectively
equal to the three angles of another triangle, then their corresponding sides are
proportional (i.e., in the same ratio). What about the converse of this statement? Is the
converse true? In other words, if the sides of a triangle are respectively proportional to
the sides of another triangle, is it true that their corresponding angles are equal? Let us
examine it through an activity :

Activity 5 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 3 cm, BC = 6 cm,
CA = 8 cm, DE = 4.5 cm, EF = 9 cm and FD = 12 cm (see Fig. 6.25).

Fig. 6.25

AB BC CA 2
So, you have :   (each equal to )
DE EF FD 3
Now measure  A,  B,  C,  D,  E and  F. You will observe that
 A =  D,  B =  E and  C =  F, i.e., the corresponding angles of the two
triangles are equal.
You can repeat this activity by drawing several such triangles (having their sides
in the same ratio). Everytime you shall see that their corresponding angles are equal.
It is due to the following criterion of similarity of two triangles:

Theorem 6.4 : If in two triangles, sides of one triangle are proportional to

(i.e., in the same ratio of ) the sides of the other triangle, then their corresponding
angles are equal and hence the two triangles are similiar.
This criterion is referred to as the SSS (Side–Side–Side) similarity criterion for
two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that
AB BC CA
  (< 1) (see Fig. 6.26):
DE EF FD

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TRIANGLES 89

Fig. 6.26
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.

DP DQ
It can be seen that = and PQ || EF (How?)
PE QF
So, P= E and  Q =  F.

DP DQ PQ
Therefore, = =
DE DF EF

DP DQ BC
So, = = (Why?)
DE DF EF

So, BC = PQ (Why?)
Thus,  ABC   DPQ (Why ?)
So,  A =  D,  B =  E and C=F (How ?)

Remark : You may recall that either of the two conditions namely, (i) corresponding
angles are equal and (ii) corresponding sides are in the same ratio is not sufficient for
two polygons to be similar. However, on the basis of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4, you can
now say that in case of similarity of the two triangles, it is not necessary to check both
the conditions as one condition implies the other.
Let us now recall the various criteria for congruency of two triangles learnt in
Class IX. You may observe that SSS similarity criterion can be compared with the SSS
congruency criterion.This suggests us to look for a similarity criterion comparable to
SAS congruency criterion of triangles. For this, let us perform an activity.

Activity 6 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 2 cm,  A = 50°,
AC = 4 cm, DE = 3 cm,  D = 50° and DF = 6 cm (see Fig.6.27).

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90 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 6.27

AB AC 2
Here, you may observe that = (each equal to ) and  A (included
DE DF 3
between the sides AB and AC) =  D (included between the sides DE and DF). That
is, one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and sides including
these angles are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion). Now let us measure  B,  C,
 E and  F.
You will find that  B =  E and  C =  F. That is,  A =  D,  B =  E and
 C =  F. So, by AAA similarity criterion,  ABC ~  DEF. You may repeat this
activity by drawing several pairs of such triangles with one angle of a triangle equal to
one angle of another triangle and the sides including these angles are proportional.
Everytime, you will find that the triangles are similar. It is due to the following criterion
of similarity of triangles:

Theorem 6.5 : If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other
triangle and the sides including these angles are proportional, then the two
triangles are similar.
This criterion is referred to as
the SAS (Side–Angle–Side)
similarity criterion for two
triangles.
As before, this theorem can
be proved by taking two triangles
ABC and DEF such that
AB AC
 ( 1) and  A =  D
DE DF
(see Fig. 6.28). Cut DP = AB, DQ Fig. 6.28
= AC and join PQ.

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TRIANGLES 91

Now, PQ || EF and  ABC  DPQ (How ?)

So,  A =  D,  B =  P and  C =  Q
Therefore,  ABC ~  DEF (Why?)
We now take some examples to illustrate the use of these criteria.

Example 4 : In Fig. 6.29, if PQ || RS, prove that  POQ ~  SOR.

Fig. 6.29
Solution : PQ || RS (Given)
So, P= S (Alternate angles)
and Q= R
Also,  POQ =  SOR (Vertically opposite angles)
Therefore,  POQ ~  SOR (AAA similarity criterion)

Example 5 : Observe Fig. 6.30 and then find  P.

Fig. 6.30
Solution : In  ABC and  PQR,

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92 MATHEMATICS

AB 3.8 1 , BC 6 1 CA 3 3 1
    and  
RQ 7.6 2 QP 12 2 PR 6 3 2

AB BC CA
That is,  
RQ QP PR

So,  ABC ~  RQP (SSS similarity)

Therefore, C= P (Corresponding angles of similar triangles)

But  C = 180° –  A –  B (Angle sum property)

= 180° – 80° – 60° = 40°

So,  P = 40°
Example 6 : In Fig. 6.31,
OA . OB = OC . OD.
Show that  A =  C and  B =  D.
Solution : OA . OB = OC . OD (Given)

OA OD Fig. 6.31
So, = (1)
OC OB
Also, we have  AOD =  COB (Vertically opposite angles) (2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2),  AOD ~  COB (SAS similarity criterion)
So,  A =  C and  D =  B
(Corresponding angles of similar triangles)

Example 7 : A girl of height 90 cm is

walking away from the base of a
lamp-post at a speed of 1.2 m/s. If the lamp
is 3.6 m above the ground, find the length
of her shadow after 4 seconds.
Solution : Let AB denote the lamp-post
and CD the girl after walking for 4 seconds
away from the lamp-post (see Fig. 6.32).
From the figure, you can see that DE is the
shadow of the girl. Let DE be x metres. Fig. 6.32

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TRIANGLES 93

Now, BD = 1.2 m × 4 = 4.8 m.

Note that in  ABE and  CDE,
B= D (Each is of 90° because lamp-post
as well as the girl are standing
vertical to the ground)
and E= E (Same angle)
So,  ABE ~  CDE (AA similarity criterion)

BE AB
Therefore, =
DE CD

4.8 + x 3.6 90
i.e., = (90 cm = m = 0.9 m)
x 0.9 100
i.e., 4.8 + x = 4x
i.e., 3x = 4.8
i.e., x = 1.6
So, the shadow of the girl after walking for 4 seconds is 1.6 m long.

Example 8 : In Fig. 6.33, CM and RN are

respectively the medians of  ABC and
 PQR. If  ABC ~  PQR, prove that :
(i)  AMC ~  PNR

CM AB
(ii) 
RN PQ
(iii)  CMB ~  RNQ
Fig. 6.33
Solution : (i)  ABC ~  PQR (Given)

AB BC CA
So, =  (1)
PQ QR RP
and  A =  P,  B =  Q and  C =  R (2)
But AB = 2 AM and PQ = 2 PN
(As CM and RN are medians)
2 AM CA
So, from (1), 2PN =
RP

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94 MATHEMATICS

AM CA
i.e., = (3)
PN RP
Also,  MAC =  NPR [From (2)] (4)
So, from (3) and (4),
 AMC ~  PNR (SAS similarity) (5)

CM CA
(ii) From (5), = (6)
RN RP
CA AB
But = [From (1)] (7)
RP PQ

CM AB
Therefore, = [From (6) and (7)] (8)
RN PQ
AB BC
(iii) Again, = [From (1)]
PQ QR
CM BC
Therefore, = [From (8)] (9)
RN QR
CM AB 2 BM
Also, = 
RN PQ 2 QN

CM BM
i.e., = (10)
RN QN

CM BC BM
i.e., =  [From (9) and (10)]
RN QR QN
Therefore,  CMB ~  RNQ (SSS similarity)
[Note : You can also prove part (iii) by following the same method as used for proving
part (i).]

EXERCISE 6.3
1. State which pairs of triangles in Fig. 6.34 are similar. Write the similarity criterion used by
you for answering the question and also write the pairs of similar triangles in the symbolic
form :

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TRIANGLES 95

Fig. 6.34

2. In Fig. 6.35,  ODC ~  OBA,  BOC = 125°

and  CDO = 70°. Find  DOC,  DCO and

 OAB.

3. Diagonals AC and BD of a trapezium ABCD

with AB || DC intersect each other at the

point O. Using a similarity criterion for two Fig. 6.35

OA OB
triangles, show that  
OC OD

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96 MATHEMATICS

QR QT
4. In Fig. 6.36,  and  1 =  2. Show
QS PR
that  PQS ~  TQR.

5. S and T are points on sides PR and QR of

 PQR such that  P =  RTS. Show that
 RPQ ~  RTS. Fig. 6.36

6. In Fig. 6.37, if  ABE  ACD, show that

 ADE ~  ABC.

7. In Fig. 6.38, altitudes AD and CE of  ABC

intersect each other at the point P. Show
that:
(i)  AEP ~  CDP
(ii)  ABD ~  CBE
(iii)  AEP ~  ADB
Fig. 6.37
(iv)  PDC ~  BEC
8. E is a point on the side AD produced of a
parallelogram ABCD and BE intersects CD
at F. Show that  ABE ~  CFB.

9. In Fig. 6.39, ABC and AMP are two right

triangles, right angled at B and M
respectively. Prove that:
(i)  ABC ~  AMP

CA BC Fig. 6.38
(ii) 
PA MP
10. CD and GH are respectively the bisectors
of  ACB and  EGF such that D and H lie
on sides AB and FE of  ABC and  EFG
respectively. If  ABC ~  FEG, show that:

CD AC
(i) 
GH FG
(ii)  DCB ~  HGE
(iii)  DCA ~  HGF Fig. 6.39

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TRIANGLES 97

11. In Fig. 6.40, E is a point on side CB

produced of an isosceles triangle ABC
with AB = AC. If AD  BC and EF  AC,
prove that  ABD ~  ECF.
12. Sides AB and BC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively propor-
tional to sides PQ and QR and median
PM of  PQR (see Fig. 6.41). Show that Fig. 6.40
 ABC ~  PQR.
13. D is a point on the side BC of a triangle
ABC such that  ADC =  BAC. Show
that CA2 = CB.CD.
14. Sides AB and AC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively
proportional to sides PQ and PR and
median PM of another triangle PQR. Fig. 6.41
Show that  ABC ~  PQR.
15. A vertical pole of length 6 m casts a shadow 4 m long on the ground and at the same time
a tower casts a shadow 28 m long. Find the height of the tower.
16. If AD and PM are medians of triangles ABC and PQR, respectively where
AB AD
 ABC ~  PQR, prove that  
PQ PM

6.5 Summary
In this chapter you have studied the following points :
1. Two figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar
figures.
2. All the congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
3. Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their corresponding angles
are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion).
4. If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
5. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the
third side.
6. If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding sides are in
the same ratio and hence the two triangles are similar (AAA similarity criterion).
7. If in two triangles, two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of
the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar (AA similarity criterion).

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8. If in two triangles, corresponding sides are in the same ratio, then their corresponding
angles are equal and hence the triangles are similar (SSS similarity criterion).
9. If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including
these angles are in the same ratio (proportional), then the triangles are similar
(SAS similarity criterion).

A NOTE TO THE READER

If in two right triangles, hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are
proportional to the hypotenuse and one side of the other triangle,
then the two triangles are similar. This may be referred to as the
RHS Similarity Criterion.
If you use this criterion in Example 2, Chapter 8, the proof will become
simpler.

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CIRCLES 10
10.1 Introduction
You have studied in Class IX that a circle is a collection of all points in a plane
which are at a constant distance (radius) from a fixed point (centre). You have
also studied various terms related to a circle like chord, segment, sector, arc etc.
Let us now examine the different situations that can arise when a circle and a line
are given in a plane.
So, let us consider a circle and a line PQ. There can be three possibilities given
in Fig. 10.1 below:

Fig. 10.1
In Fig. 10.1 (i), the line PQ and the circle have no common point. In this case,
PQ is called a non-intersecting line with respect to the circle. In Fig. 10.1 (ii), there
are two common points A and B that the line PQ and the circle have. In this case, we
call the line PQ a secant of the circle. In Fig. 10.1 (iii), there is only one point A which
is common to the line PQ and the circle. In this case, the line is called a tangent to the
circle.

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CIRCLES 145

You might have seen a pulley fitted over a well which is used
in taking out water from the well. Look at Fig. 10.2. Here the rope
on both sides of the pulley, if considered as a ray, is like a tangent
to the circle representing the pulley.
Is there any position of the line with respect to the circle
other than the types given above? You can see that there cannot
be any other type of position of the line with respect to the circle.
Fig. 10.2
In this chapter, we will study about the existence of the tangents
to a circle and also study some of their properties.

10.2 Tangent to a Circle

In the previous section, you have seen that a tangent* to a circle is a line that
intersects the circle at only one point.
To understand the existence of the tangent to a circle at a point, let us perform
the following activities:
Activity 1 : Take a circular wire and attach a straight wire AB at a point P of the
circular wire so that it can rotate about the point P in a plane. Put the system on a table
and gently rotate the wire AB about the point P to get different positions of the straight
wire [see Fig. 10.3(i)].
In various positions, the wire intersects the
circular wire at P and at another point Q1 or Q2 or
Q3, etc. In one position, you will see that it will
intersect the circle at the point P only (see position
AB of AB). This shows that a tangent exists at
the point P of the circle. On rotating further, you
can observe that in all other positions of AB, it will
intersect the circle at P and at another point, say R1
or R2 or R3, etc. So, you can observe that there is
only one tangent at a point of the circle. Fig. 10.3 (i)
While doing activity above, you must have observed that as the position AB
moves towards the position A B, the common point, say Q1, of the line AB and the
circle gradually comes nearer and nearer to the common point P. Ultimately, it coincides
with the point P in the position AB of AB. Again note, what happens if ‘AB’ is
rotated rightwards about P? The common point R3 gradually comes nearer and nearer
to P and ultimately coincides with P. So, what we see is:
The tangent to a circle is a special case of the secant, when the two end
points of its corresponding chord coincide.
*The word ‘tangent’ comes from the Latin word ‘tangere’, which means to touch and was
introduced by the Danish mathematician Thomas Fineke in 1583.
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146 MATHEMATICS

Activity 2 : On a paper, draw a circle and a

secant PQ of the circle. Draw various lines
parallel to the secant on both sides of it. You
will find that after some steps, the length of
the chord cut by the lines will gradually
decrease, i.e., the two points of intersection of
the line and the circle are coming closer and
closer [see Fig. 10.3(ii)]. In one case, it
becomes zero on one side of the secant and in
another case, it becomes zero on the other side
of the secant. See the positions PQ and PQ
of the secant in Fig. 10.3 (ii). These are the
tangents to the circle parallel to the given secant
PQ. This also helps you to see that there cannot Fig. 10.3 (ii)
be more than two tangents parallel to a given
secant.
This activity also establishes, what you must have observed, while doing
Activity 1, namely, a tangent is the secant when both of the end points of the
corresponding chord coincide.
The common point of the tangent and the circle is called the point of contact
[the point A in Fig. 10.1 (iii)]and the tangent is said to touch the circle at the
common point.
Now look around you. Have you seen a bicycle
or a cart moving? Look at its wheels. All the spokes
of a wheel are along its radii. Now note the position
of the wheel with respect to its movement on the
ground. Do you see any tangent anywhere?
(See Fig. 10.4). In fact, the wheel moves along a line
which is a tangent to the circle representing the wheel.
Also, notice that in all positions, the radius through
the point of contact with the ground appears to be at
right angles to the tangent (see Fig. 10.4). We shall Fig. 10.4
now prove this property of the tangent.

Theorem 10.1 : The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the

radius through the point of contact.
Proof : We are given a circle with centre O and a tangent XY to the circle at a
point P. We need to prove that OP is perpendicular to XY.

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CIRCLES 147

Take a point Q on XY other than P and join OQ (see Fig. 10.5).

The point Q must lie outside the circle.
(Why? Note that if Q lies inside the circle, XY
will become a secant and not a tangent to the
circle). Therefore, OQ is longer than the radius
OP of the circle. That is,
OQ > OP.
Since this happens for every point on the
line XY except the point P, OP is the
shortest of all the distances of the point O to the
points of XY. So OP is perpendicular to XY.
(as shown in Theorem A1.7.) Fig. 10.5

Remarks
1. By theorem above, we can also conclude that at any point on a circle there can be
one and only one tangent.
2. The line containing the radius through the point of contact is also sometimes called
the ‘normal’ to the circle at the point.

EXERCISE 10.1
1. How many tangents can a circle have?
2. Fill in the blanks :
(i) A tangent to a circle intersects it in point (s).
(ii) A line intersecting a circle in two points is called a .
(iii) A circle can have parallel tangents at the most.
(iv) The common point of a tangent to a circle and the circle is called .
3. A tangent PQ at a point P of a circle of radius 5 cm meets a line through the centre O at
a point Q so that OQ = 12 cm. Length PQ is :
(A) 12 cm (B) 13 cm (C) 8.5 cm (D) 119 cm.
4. Draw a circle and two lines parallel to a given line such that one is a tangent and the
other, a secant to the circle.

10.3 Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle

To get an idea of the number of tangents from a point on a circle, let us perform the
following activity:

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148 MATHEMATICS

Activity 3 : Draw a circle on a paper. Take a

point P inside it. Can you draw a tangent to the
circle through this point? You will find that all
the lines through this point intersect the circle in
two points. So, it is not possible to draw any
tangent to a circle through a point inside it
[see Fig. 10.6 (i)].
Next take a point P on the circle and draw
tangents through this point. You have already (i)
observed that there is only one tangent to the
circle at such a point [see Fig. 10.6 (ii)].
Finally, take a point P outside the circle and
try to draw tangents to the circle from this point.
What do you observe? You will find that you
can draw exactly two tangents to the circle
through this point [see Fig. 10.6 (iii)].
We can summarise these facts as follows:
Case 1 : There is no tangent to a circle passing
through a point lying inside the circle. (ii)
Case 2 : There is one and only one tangent to a
circle passing through a point lying on the circle.
Case 3 : There are exactly two tangents to a
circle through a point lying outside the circle.
In Fig. 10.6 (iii), T1and T2 are the points of
contact of the tangents PT 1 and PT 2
respectively.
The length of the segment of the tangent
from the external point P and the point of contact (iii)
with the circle is called the length of the tangent
Fig. 10.6
from the point P to the circle.
Note that in Fig. 10.6 (iii), PT1 and PT2 are the lengths of the tangents from P to
the circle. The lengths PT1 and PT2 have a common property. Can you find this?
Measure PT1 and PT2. Are these equal? In fact, this is always so. Let us give a proof
of this fact in the following theorem.

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CIRCLES 149

Theorem 10.2 : The lengths of tangents drawn

from an external point to a circle are equal.
Proof : We are given a circle with centre O, a
point P lying outside the circle and two tangents
PQ, PR on the circle from P (see Fig. 10.7). We
are required to prove that PQ = PR.
For this, we join OP, OQ and OR. Then
∠ OQP and ∠ ORP are right angles, because
these are angles between the radii and tangents,
and according to Theorem 10.1 they are right Fig. 10.7
angles. Now in right triangles OQP and ORP,
OQ = OR (Radii of the same circle)
OP = OP (Common)
Therefore, ∆ OQP ≅ ∆ ORP (RHS)
This gives PQ = PR (CPCT)

Remarks
1. The theorem can also be proved by using the Pythagoras Theorem as follows:
PQ2 = OP2 – OQ2 = OP2 – OR2 = PR2 (As OQ = OR)
which gives PQ = PR.
2. Note also that ∠ OPQ = ∠ OPR. Therefore, OP is the angle bisector of ∠ QPR,
i.e., the centre lies on the bisector of the angle between the two tangents.
Let us take some examples.

Example 1 : Prove that in two concentric circles,

the chord of the larger circle, which touches the
smaller circle, is bisected at the point of contact.
Solution : We are given two concentric circles
C1 and C2 with centre O and a chord AB of the
larger circle C1 which touches the smaller circle
C2 at the point P (see Fig. 10.8). We need to prove
that AP = BP.
Let us join OP. Then, AB is a tangent to C2 at P Fig. 10.8
and OP is its radius. Therefore, by Theorem 10.1,
OP ⊥ AB

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150 MATHEMATICS

Now AB is a chord of the circle C1 and OP  AB. Therefore, OP is the bisector of the
chord AB, as the perpendicular from the centre bisects the chord,
i.e., AP = BP
Example 2 : Two tangents TP and TQ are drawn
to a circle with centre O from an external point T.
Prove that  PTQ = 2  OPQ.
Solution : We are given a circle with centre O,
an external point T and two tangents TP and TQ
to the circle, where P, Q are the points of contact
(see Fig. 10.9). We need to prove that

 PTQ = 2  OPQ Fig. 10.9

Let  PTQ = 

Now, by Theorem 10.2, TP = TQ. So, TPQ is an isosceles triangle.

1 1
Therefore,  TPQ =  TQP = (180°  )  90°  
2 2
Also, by Theorem 10.1,  OPT = 90°
 1 
So,  OPQ =  OPT –  TPQ = 90°   90° –  
 2 
1 1
=    PTQ
2 2
This gives  PTQ = 2  OPQ

Example 3 : PQ is a chord of length 8 cm of a

circle of radius 5 cm. The tangents at P and Q
intersect at a point T (see Fig. 10.10). Find the
length TP.
Solution : Join OT. Let it intersect PQ at the
point R. Then  TPQ is isosceles and TO is the
angle bisector of  PTQ. So, OT  PQ
and therefore, OT bisects PQ which gives
PR = RQ = 4 cm.
Fig. 10.10
Also, OR = OP 2  PR 2  52  42 cm  3 cm.

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CIRCLES 151

Now,  TPR +  RPO = 90° =  TPR +  PTR (Why?)

So,  RPO =  PTR
Therefore, right triangle TRP is similar to the right triangle PRO by AA similarity.

TP RP TP 4 20
This gives = , i.e., = or TP = cm.
PO RO 5 3 3
Note : TP can also be found by using the Pythagoras Theorem, as follows:
Let TP = x and TR = y. Then
x2 = y2 + 16 (Taking right  PRT) (1)
x + 5 = (y + 3)
2 2 2
(Taking right  OPT) (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
32 16
25 = 6y – 7 or y= 
6 3
2
 16  16 16  25
Therefore, x =    16  (16  9) 
2
[From (1)]
 3 9 9
20
or x=
3

EXERCISE 10.2
In Q.1 to 3, choose the correct option and give justification.
1. From a point Q, the length of the tangent to a circle is 24 cm and the distance of Q from
the centre is 25 cm. The radius of the circle is
(A) 7 cm (B) 12 cm
(C) 15 cm (D) 24.5 cm
2. In Fig. 10.11, if TP and TQ are the two tangents
to a circle with centre O so that  POQ = 110°,
then PTQ is equal to
(A) 60° (B) 70°
(C) 80° (D) 90° Fig. 10.11
3. If tangents PA and PB from a point P to a circle with centre O are inclined to each other
at angle of 80°, then  POA is equal to
(A) 50° (B) 60°
(C) 70° (D) 80°

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152 MATHEMATICS

4. Prove that the tangents drawn at the ends of a diameter of a circle are parallel.
5. Prove that the perpendicular at the point of contact to the tangent to a circle passes
through the centre.
6. The length of a tangent from a point A at distance 5 cm from the centre of the circle is 4
cm. Find the radius of the circle.
7. Two concentric circles are of radii 5 cm and 3 cm. Find the length of the chord of the
larger circle which touches the smaller circle.
8. A quadrilateral ABCD is drawn to circumscribe a circle (see Fig. 10.12). Prove that
AB + CD = AD + BC

Fig. 10.12 Fig. 10.13

9. In Fig. 10.13, XY and XY are two parallel tangents to a circle with centre O and
another tangent AB with point of contact C intersecting XY at A and XY at B. Prove
that  AOB = 90°.
10. Prove that the angle between the two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle
is supplementary to the angle subtended by the line-segment joining the points of
contact at the centre.
11. Prove that the parallelogram circumscribing a
circle is a rhombus.
12. A triangle ABC is drawn to circumscribe a circle
of radius 4 cm such that the segments BD and
DC into which BC is divided by the point of
contact D are of lengths 8 cm and 6 cm
respectively (see Fig. 10.14). Find the sides AB
and AC.
13. Prove that opposite sides of a quadrilateral
circumscribing a circle subtend supplementary
angles at the centre of the circle. Fig. 10.14

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CIRCLES 153

10.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. The meaning of a tangent to a circle.
2. The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
3. The lengths of the two tangents from an external point to a circle are equal.

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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 11

11.1 Areas of Sector and Segment of a Circle
You have already come across the terms sector and
segment of a circle in your earlier classes. Recall
that the portion (or part) of the circular region enclosed
by two radii and the corresponding arc is called a
sector of the circle and the portion (or part) of the
circular region enclosed between a chord and the
corresponding arc is called a segment of the circle.
Thus, in Fig. 11.1, shaded region OAPB is a sector Fig. 11.1
of the circle with centre O. ∠ AOB is called the
angle of the sector. Note that in this figure, unshaded region OAQB is also a sector of
the circle. For obvious reasons, OAPB is called the minor sector and
OAQB is called the major sector. You can also see that angle of the major sector is
360° – ∠ AOB.
Now, look at Fig. 11.2 in which AB is a chord
of the circle with centre O. So, shaded region APB is
a segment of the circle. You can also note that
unshaded region AQB is another segment of the circle
formed by the chord AB. For obvious reasons, APB
is called the minor segment and AQB is called the
major segment.
Remark : When we write ‘segment’ and ‘sector’
we will mean the ‘minor segment’ and the ‘minor
sector’ respectively, unless stated otherwise. Fig. 11.2

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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 155

Now with this knowledge, let us try to find some

relations (or formulae) to calculate their areas.
Let OAPB be a sector of a circle with centre
O and radius r (see Fig. 11.3). Let the degree
measure of Ð AOB be q.
You know that area of a circle (in fact of a
circular region or disc) is pr2.
In a way, we can consider this circular region to
be a sector forming an angle of 360° (i.e., of degree
measure 360) at the centre O. Now by applying the Fig. 11.3
Unitary Method, we can arrive at the area of the
sector OAPB as follows:
When degree measure of the angle at the centre is 360, area of the
sector = pr 2
So, when the degree measure of the angle at the centre is 1, area of the
r 2
sector = 
360
Therefore, when the degree measure of the angle at the centre is q, area of the
r 2 
sector =  =  r 2 .
360 360
Thus, we obtain the following relation (or formula) for area of a sector of a
circle:

Area of the sector of angle q =  r 2 ,
360
where r is the radius of the circle and q the angle of the sector in degrees.
Now, a natural question arises : Can we find
the length of the arc APB corresponding to this
sector? Yes. Again, by applying the Unitary
Method and taking the whole length of the circle
(of angle 360°) as 2pr, we can obtain the required

length of the arc APB as  2 r .
360

So, length of an arc of a sector of angle q =  2 r .
360 Fig. 11.4

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156 MATHEMATICS

Now let us take the case of the area of the

segment APB of a circle with centre O and radius r
(see Fig. 11.4). You can see that :
Area of the segment APB = Area of the sector OAPB – Area of  OAB

=  r 2 – area of  OAB
360
Note : From Fig. 11.3 and Fig. 11.4 respectively, you can observe that:
Area of the major sector OAQB = r2 – Area of the minor sector OAPB
and Area of major segment AQB = r2 – Area of the minor segment APB
Let us now take some examples to understand these concepts (or results).

Example 1 : Find the area of the sector of a circle

with radius 4 cm and of angle 30°. Also, find the area
of the corresponding major sector (Use  = 3.14).
Solution : Given sector is OAPB (see Fig. 11.5).

Area of the sector =  r 2
360
30
=  3.14  4  4 cm 2
360 Fig. 11.5
12.56
= cm 2  4.19cm 2 (approx.)
3
Area of the corresponding major sector
= r2 – area of sector OAPB
= (3.14 × 16 – 4.19) cm2
= 46.05 cm2 = 46.1 cm2 (approx.)

(360 – )
Alternatively, area of the major sector =  r 2
360
 360  30  2
=    3.14  16 cm
 360 
330
=  3.14  16cm 2  46.05 cm2
360
= 46.1 cm2 (approx.)

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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 157

Example 2 : Find the area of the segment AYB

shown in Fig. 11.6, if radius of the circle is 21 cm and
22
 AOB = 120°. (Use  = )
7

Fig. 11.6

Solution : Area of the segment AYB

= Area of sector OAYB – Area of  OAB (1)
120 22
Now, area of the sector OAYB =   21  21 cm2 = 462 cm2 (2)
360 7
For finding the area of  OAB, draw OM  AB as shown in Fig. 11.7.
Note that OA = OB. Therefore, by RHS congruence,  AMO  BMO.

1
So, M is the mid-point of AB and  AOM =  BOM =  120  60 .
2
Let OM = x cm

OM
So, from  OMA, = cos 60°
OA
x 1  1
or, =  cos 60° =  Fig. 11.7
21 2  2
21
or, x=
2
21
So, OM = cm
2
AM 3
Also, = sin 60° =
OA 2
21 3
So, AM = cm
2
2  21 3
Therefore, AB = 2 AM = cm = 21 3 cm
2

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158 MATHEMATICS

1 1 21
So, area of  OAB = AB × OM =  21 3  cm2
2 2 2
441
= 3 cm 2 (3)
4

 441 
Therefore, area of the segment AYB =  462  3  cm 2 [From (1), (2) and (3)]
 4 
21
= (88 – 21 3)cm2
4
EXERCISE 11.1

22
Unless stated otherwise, use  = .
7
1. Find the area of a sector of a circle with radius 6 cm if angle of the sector is 60°.
2. Find the area of a quadrant of a circle whose circumference is 22 cm.
3. The length of the minute hand of a clock is 14 cm. Find the area swept by the minute
hand in 5 minutes.
4. A chord of a circle of radius 10 cm subtends a right angle at the centre. Find the area of
the corresponding : (i) minor segment (ii) major sector. (Use  = 3.14)
5. In a circle of radius 21 cm, an arc subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. Find:
(i) the length of the arc (ii) area of the sector formed by the arc
(iii) area of the segment formed by the corresponding chord
6. A chord of a circle of radius 15 cm subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. Find
the areas of the corresponding minor and major
segments of the circle.
(Use  = 3.14 and 3 = 1.73)
7. A chord of a circle of radius 12 cm subtends an
angle of 120° at the centre. Find the area of the
corresponding segment of the circle.
(Use  = 3.14 and 3 = 1.73)
8. A horse is tied to a peg at one corner of a square
shaped grass field of side 15 m by means of a 5 m
long rope (see Fig. 11.8). Find Fig. 11.8

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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 159

(i) the area of that part of the field in which the

horse can graze.
(ii) the increase in the grazing area if the rope
were 10 m long instead of 5 m. (Use  = 3.14)
9. A brooch is made with silver wire in the form
of a circle with diameter 35 mm. The wire is also
used in making 5 diameters which divide the
circle into 10 equal sectors as shown in
Fig. 11.9. Find :
Fig. 11.9
(i) the total length of the silver wire required.
(ii) the area of each sector of the brooch.
10. An umbrella has 8 ribs which are equally spaced
(see Fig. 11.10). Assuming umbrella to be a flat
circle of radius 45 cm, find the area between the
two consecutive ribs of the umbrella.
11. A car has two wipers which do not overlap. Each
wiper has a blade of length 25 cm sweeping
through an angle of 115°. Find the total area
Fig. 11.10
cleaned at each sweep of the blades.
12. To warn ships for underwater rocks, a lighthouse
spreads a red coloured light over a sector of
angle 80° to a distance of 16.5 km. Find the area
of the sea over which the ships are warned.
(Use  = 3.14)
13. A round table cover has six equal designs as
shown in Fig. 11.11. If the radius of the cover is
28 cm, find the cost of making the designs at the
rate of ` 0.35 per cm2. (Use 3 = 1.7) Fig. 11.11
14. Tick the correct answer in the following :
Area of a sector of angle p (in degrees) of a circle
with radius R is

p p p p
(A)  2R (B)   R2 (C)  2R (D)  2  R2
180 180 360 720

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11.2 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. Length of an arc of a sector of a circle with radius r and angle with degree measure  is

 2  r
360

2. Area of a sector of a circle with radius r and angle with degree measure  is   r 2
360
3. Area of segment of a circle
= Area of the corresponding sector – Area of the corresponding triangle.

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