BLDC MOTOR DRIVE FOR ELECTRIC LOAD CARRIER

A MINI PROJECT REPORT

Submitted to

BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE,

NARSAMPET

In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BY:

K. SAI KIRAN 22C35A0219

M. BHASKAR 22C35A0222
R. SAGAR 22C35A0238
B. DURGAPRASAD 22C35A0206
M. GIRIDHAR 22C35A0223

Under the Guidance of

Mrs.V.C. LAXMI PRASANNA, Assistant Professor, EEE Dept.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
NARSAMPET, WARANGAL-506331
Accredited by NBA (CE, EEE, ME, ECE&CS E) & NAAC A+ Grade
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Accredited by NAAC & ISO 9001:2015
2024-25
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
NARSAMPET, WARANGAL-506331
Accredited by NBA (CE, EEE, ME, ECE&CSE) & NAAC A+ Grade
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Accredited by NAAC & ISO 9001:2015
2024-25

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Minor Project Report entitled “BLDC MOTOR DRIVE FOR
ELECTRIC LOAD CARRIER” is a bonafide record carried out by K.SAI KIRAN
(22C35A0219), M.BHASKAR(22C35A0222), R.SAGAR (22C35A0238), B.DURGA
PRASAD(22C35A0206),
M.GIRIDHAR (22C35A0223) submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING in the academic year (2024-25) to the Balaji Institute of Technology & Science,
Narsampet.

Guide Head of the Department

Mrs. V.C. LAXMI PRASANNA Dr. S. MALLIKARJUN REDDY
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
 CANDIDATES DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled “BLDC MOTOR DRIVE FOR
ELECTRIC LOAD CARRIER” submitted towards completion of minor project in Seventh
Semester of B. Tech (EEE) at the Bachelor of Technology, in ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING to BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
SCIENCE, NARSAMPET, Warangal affiliated It is an authentic record of my original work
pursued under the guidance of Mrs. V.C. Laxmi Prasanna, Assistant Professor, EEE Dept.
I have not submitted the matter embodied in this project for the award of any other degree.

By
K. SAI KIRAN 22C35A0219
M. BHASKAR 22C35A0222
R. SAGAR 22C35A0238
B. DURGAPRASAD 22C35A0206
M. GIRIDHAR 22C35A0223

Place: Narsampet
Date:

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above declaration made by the students is correct to the best
of our knowledge and belief.

Place: Narsampet Date: Mrs. V.C. Laxmi Prasanna

Assistant Professor
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

.
This project has been carried out in the department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
of BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, NARSAMPET. Many
people have helped me in the realization of this work and I would like this opportunity to
express my gratitude to all of them.
I also express my sincere thanks to Guide Mrs. V.C. Laxmi Prasanna, Assistant
Professor for giving me the opportunity to go further in studying my work. I am deeply
grateful to Dr. S. Mallikarjun Reddy, Head of the Department, for his constant support
and Project Co-Ordinator S. Sridhar, Assistant Professor for broadening my knowledge
about “BLDC MOTOR DRIVE FOR ELECTRIC LOAD CARRIER”

We wish to express my healthy gratitude to Mr. S. SRIDHAR Asst. Prof of EEE

Department for valuable corrections and comments & for gratuitous cooperation extended by
him & who has given valuable suggestions. We had the privilege to accomplish this MINOR
project presentation of “BLDC MOTOR DRIVE FOR ELECTRIC VECHICLE”

We desire to convey my heartful thanks to all my friends those who have directly or in
directly involved in completing this MINOR project We grateful to the management of
Balaji Institute of Technology and Science for providing all the facilities required for
completing this project work..

By

K. SAI KIRAN 22C35A0219

M. BHASKAR 22C35A0222
R. SAGAR 22C35A0238
B. DURGAPRASAD 22C35A0206
M. GIRIDHAR 22C35A0223
 ABSTRACT

The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates efficient and clean propulsion systems.
Brushless DC (BLDC) motors emerge as a frontrunner due to their high efficiency, compact
size, and quiet operation. This abstract explores the design and control of BLDC motor
drives specifically for EV applications.

BLDC motors lack brushes, relying on electronic commutation for rotor position sensing
and stator winding energization. This control strategy requires a BLDC motor drive,
consisting of power electronics and control algorithms. The drive regulates the motor's speed
and torque based on driver input and vehicle conditions.

The abstract delves into various control techniques employed in BLDC motor drives for
EVs. Common approaches include Field-Oriented Control (FOC) and simpler techniques for
cost-sensitive applications. These control methods ensure smooth operation, maximize
efficiency, and optimize torque delivery for various driving scenarios.

Furthermore, the abstract discusses challenges associated with BLDC motor drives in
EVs. These include current ripple mitigation, thermal management of the motor and drive
electronics, and regenerative braking implementation for improved energy efficiency.

In conclusion, the abstract emphasizes the critical role of BLDC motor drives in
propelling electric vehicles. It highlights the control techniques employed to achieve optimal
performance and addresses key challenges that need to be tackled for a robust and efficient
EV drivetrain.

KEYWORDS:
Brushless DC (BLDC) motors, Efficiency, Control algorithms, Field-Oriented Control (FOC).
Torque, Power Electronics.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER-1 1

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Electric Vehicle vs IC engine 3-4

CHAPTER-2 5

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Propulsion motor types 6

2.2.1 Dc motors 6

2.2.2 Induction motors 7

2.2.3 Brushless dc motor 7-9

2.3 Factors influencing the selection of motor 10-14

CHAPTER-3 15

3.1 BLDC motor 16

3.1.1 Definition of BLDC hub motor 16

3.2 BLDC motor working principle 17-20

3.3 Calculations power energy of BLDC motor 20-24

CHAPTER-4 25

4.1 Hall sensor working 26

4.1.1 60-degree mode 26-27

4.1.2 120-degree mode 27

4.2 BLDC motor Controller 28

CHAPTER-5 29

5.1 Hub Motor Specifications 30

5.2 Hub Motor Dimensions 31-32

PROJECT INTERPRETATION 33

CONCLUSION 34

FUTURE & SCOPE 35

REFERENCES 36
 CHAPTER-1

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 1.1 INTRODUCTION

The first demonstration of Electric vehicles was made in 1830’s and commercial electric
vehicles were available by the end of the 19th century. However, the major limitation of Electric
vehicle is the range. Another drawback is non availability of technically superior energy sources
those can drive the vehicles. This obviously, led to the development and wide usage of ICE
vehicles and by the year of 1930s EV’s almost taken over by ICE vehicles. Interestingly, the
EVs never run out of contention, this is because of advantage of Electric Motor that drives the
Electric vehicle. The response of the motor is far superior to that of an IC engine. Moreover, a
motor can be precisely controlled by modern techniques. With the advent of power electronic
devices and high-performance electronic controllers, the overall control of EV can be made very
safe and reliable.

This is further boosted up with the increasing cost of gasoline. Almost all automobile giants
have started a unit to investigate electric and hybrid vehicles. Therefore, it has also been felt that
a parallel push towards developing automotive electronics essential. Automotive electronics
covers many aspects including Batteries, Fuel Cells, DC/DC Converters, Inverters, and Motor-
Control etc.
Environmental pollution and increase in oil prices have recently rekindled the commercial
prospect of EVs. Almost all major industries (e.g. GM, Toyota, Honda, BMW, Ford, Nissan,
TATA Motors, and Maruti etc.) have developed different models. Most of the motors are used
together with several state-of-the-art power converters. However, there is no standardization
attempted. Moreover, developments of Energy Storage Systems have direct impact on the
development on EVs. Once low cost and high-performance Fuel cells and Super Capacitors are
available, the history of automotive industries may repeat itself, EVs regaining its lost glory.

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 1.1 Electric Vehicles vs. IC Engine driven Vehicles

The efficiency of IC engine is very low compared to the electric motor drives the
efficiency will not be less than 70 percent for electric motor-based vehicle. All these lead to
new development of Electric Vehicles.

Fig 1.1 Losses in IC engine driven vehicle

The losses of converting source fuels into electrical energy (conversion losses) and
delivering the energy to a local electrical outlet are far greater than the losses of extracting,
refining, and delivering petroleum motor fuel. However, petroleum fuel chain efficiency does
not include conversion losses, as does the electrical energy chain. Conversion of liquid motor
fuel into useable power takes place in the vehicle and is therefore considered a component of
conventional vehicle energy efficiency. Specifically, about 83% of the energy contained in the
crude oil arrives at the service station as gasoline, whereas only 20% to 27% of the primary
energy used to generate electricity (depending on the source fuel conversion efficiency) arrives
at the electrical outlet ready to charge EV batteries. When the entire energy chain is considered,
studies generally conclude that battery-electric cars are roughly 10-30% more energy efficient
than conventional gasoline cars.

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 CHAPTER – 2

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 2.1 Introduction
Owing to environmental problems, increase in oil prices and the research and
developments in drives and power electronics technology have improved the commercial
prospects for the development of electric vehicles. Almost all the leading automobile
manufacturers developed their own model for EVs. This chapter broadly describes the motors
suitable for EV application and the factors affecting those influence the selection of motor
rating.

2.2 Propulsion Motor Types

In order to select the most appropriate type of motor for electric vehicle, all available
motor types were researched. The three most common motor choices for electric vehicles are
series wound type DC motor due to their high stall torque and simplicity, squirrel cage type
AC motors for durability and Brushless DC motor which is one of the most efficient motor
types in the required power range partly due to the reduced friction from sensor induced
commutation and which has excellent torque speed characteristics for electric vehicle
application.

2.2.1 DC Motors:
Direct current (DC) motors run on the constant voltage supplied by a battery pack, thus
avoiding the inefficiencies of inverting power required for AC motors. They are very easy to
control as the commutation is mechanically induced through carbon brushes contacting the
rotor. However, the friction of the brushes dragging against the commutator limits their
potential efficiency. The carbon brushes wear down over time and if the motor is not
ventilated properly, the dust can accumulate and create arc paths. When a series-wound DC
motor is run- in no-load conditions, it can accelerate to dangerously high speeds and self-
destruct. On the plus side, series wound DC motors have very good torque and acceleration
properties, making them a popular choice for electric drag racing. For this particular vehicle,
however, the low efficiency and safety concerns make this motor type unacceptable.

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 2.2.2 Induction Motors:

Induction motors are widely accepted commutator less type for EV propulsion
because of their low cost, high reliability and free from maintenance. These are work
horses in most industries. Induction motors may be two or four pole to keep iron losses
down with high- speed operation up to 12000 rpm. The inverter chopping rate also limits
maximum frequency. A two-pole motor requires a high length/diameter ratio and is
generally used with single motor drives.. Variable speed control involves real time motion
control to vary the phase angle of the voltage in the stator. Regenerative braking is possible
with AC motors, depending on the motor controller. It is accomplished by maintaining a
lower voltage in the armature than in the field, thus effectively turning the motor into a
generator but for these the preference is less as compared to DC motors for EV because of
the less starting torque in Squirrel cage induction motors.

However conventional control of induction motors such as variable voltage variable

frequency (VVVF) cannot provide desired performance. One major reason is due to the
non- linearity of their dynamic model. With the advent of microcomputer era, the principle
of field-oriented control (FOC) of induction motors has been accepted to overcome their
control complexity due to non-linearity. Notice that FOC is also known as vector control or
decoupling control.
2.2.3 Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors:

Brushless dc motor is one kind of permanent magnet synchronous motor, having

permanent magnets on the rotor and trapezoidal shape back EMF. The BLDC motor
employs a dc power supply switched to the stator phase windings of the motor by power
devices, the switching sequence being determined from the rotor position. The phase
current of BLDC motor, in typically rectangular shape, is synchronized with the back EMF
to produce constant torque at a constant speed. The mechanical commutator of the brush dc
motor is replaced by electronic switches, This kind of ac motor is called brushless dc
motor, since its

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 performance is similar to the traditional dc motor with commutators motor employs a dc
power supply switched to the stator phase windings of the motor by power devices, the
switching sequence being determined from the rotor position. The phase current of BLDC
motor, in typically rectangular shape, is synchronized with the back EMF to produce constant
torque at a constant speed. The mechanical commutator of the brush dc motor is replaced by
electronic switches, which supply current to the motor windings as a function of the rotor
position. This kind of ac motor is called brushless dc motor, since its performance is similar to
the traditional dc motor with commutators.

This motor is one of the most efficient motor types in the required power range partly due to
the reduced friction from sensor induced commutation. The recent improvement in magnetic
materials with higher energy density (e.g. 35Jcm-3) and coercivity have become available (e.g.
neodymium-iron-boron magnets) with reasonable cost. This has opened up new possibilities
for a large-scale application of permanent magnet synchronous machines with high torque
density low loss/torque, high power factor, fast torque and speed response.

However, the high price, operating temperature limitations and danger of demagnetization of
these permanent magnets can be restrictive for many applications. It would appear that the
limitations imposed by the high cost might be overcome in the near future. Since there are
some countries where there is a large reservoir of these magnets and their cost may be
reduced.

Each conducting stage is called one step. Therefore, only two phases conduct current at any
time, leaving the third phase floating. It requires rotor position sensors for starting and for
providing the proper commutation sequence to control the inverter. These position sensors can
be Hall sensors, or absolute position sensors.

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 The BLDC motor is driven by rectangular voltage strokes coupled with the given rotor
position. The generated stator flux interacts with the rotor flux, which is generated by a rotor
magnet, defines the torque and thus speeds of the motor. The voltage strokes must be properly
applied to the two phases of the three-phase winding system so that the angle between the
stator flux and the rotor flux is kept close to 90° to get the maximum generated torque. In
order to produce maximum torque, the inverter should be commutated every 60 so that current
is in phase with the back EMF. The commutation timing is determined by the rotor position,
which can be detected by Hall sensors or estimated from motor parameters, i.e., the back EMF
on the floating coil of the motor if it is sensor less system. In brushless dc motor, only two out
of three phases are excited at one time, leaving the third winding floating. The back EMF
voltage in the floating winding can be measured to establish a switching sequence for
commutation of power devices in the three-phase inverter.

Fig 2.1: 3 phase Brushless DC motor with supply fed from inverter

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 2.3Factors influencing the selection of motor
Selection of motor is very important in designing of Electric vehicle, which decides
the ratings of the motor (Power, starting Torque, Current ratings). The power required to drive
the wheels dictates the type of motor, and the machine size. It not only gives motor selection
parameters, which also gives the information about the type of batteries with their
specifications and type of motor controller used for speed controlling of the machine. The
force propelling the vehicle (forward or reverse), i.e. the tractive effort has to accomplish the
following:

 Overcome the aerodynamic drag

 Overcome the rolling resistance
 Accelerate the vehicle, if the velocity is not constant
 Hill climbing force, to provide the force needed to overcome the component of the
vehicle’s acting down the slope.

Now, the force or power where the vehicle requires overcoming the above forces shall be the
continuous power rating of the electrical motor used in Electric Vehicle

Fig 2.2: Forces acting on a vehicle moving along a slope

Aerodynamic drag: This part of the force is due to the friction of the vehicle body
moving through the air. It is a function of the frontal area, shape, protrusions such as side
mirrors, ducts and air passages, spoilers, and many other factors. The formula for this
component is:
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 Fad = ½ ρACdV2

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 Fig 2.3: Power requirement to overcome aerodynamic drag for vehicle of different frontal areas
and drag coefficients for a range of speeds up to 160 kph

Fig 2.4: shows the effect of drag coefficient and speed on battery mass

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 Rolling resistance force: The rolling resistance is primarily due to the friction of the
vehicle tyre on the road. Friction in bearings and the gearing system also play their part. The
rolling resistance is approximately constant, and hardly depends on vehicle speed. It is
proportional to vehicle weight. The equation is,

Frr = µrrmg

The main factors controlling µrr are the type of tyre and the tyre pressure. Any cyclist
will know this very well; the free-wheeling performance of a bicycle becomes much better if
the tyres are pumped up to a high pressure, though the ride may be less comfortable.

The rolling drag is independent of speed. Power needed to overcome rolling is given

Prr = Frr × V = µrrmgV

The value of µrr can reasonably readily be found by pulling a vehicle at a steady very low
speed, and measuring the force required. Typical values of µrr are 0.015 for a radial ply tyre,
down to about 0.005 for tyres developed for electric vehicles.

Fig 2.5: Power requirement to overcome rolling resistance

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 It can be concluded that for all electric vehicles a low rolling resistance is desirable and
that the choice of tyres is therefore extremely important. A low coefficient of aerodynamic
drag is very important for high-speed vehicles, but is less important for town/city delivery
vehicles and commuter vehicles. On very low speed vehicles such as electric bicycles, golf
buggies and buggies for the disabled, aerodynamic drag has very little influence, whereas
rolling resistance certainly does

Fig 2.6 Power requirements for aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance at range of speeds.

Hill climbing force: The force needed to drive the vehicle up a slope is the straightest
forward to find. It is simply the component of the vehicle weight that acts along the slope.

Fhc = mg sin (ψ)

The power Phc in Watts for a vehicle climbing a slope at a velocity V ms−1 is given by:

Phc = Fhc × V = mgV sinψ

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 Acceleration force: If the velocity of the vehicle is changing, then clearly a force will
need to be applied in addition to the forces. This force will provide the linear acceleration of the
vehicle,

Fa = ma
However, for a more accurate picture of the force needed to accelerate the vehicle we
should also consider the force needed to make the rotating parts turn faster. In other words, we
need to consider rotational acceleration as well as linear acceleration. The main issue here is
the electric motor, not necessarily because of its particularly high moment of inertia, but
because of its higher angular speeds.

Total tractive effort: The total tractive effort is the sum of all these forces:

Fte = Frr + Fad + Fhc + Fa

Where:

Frr is the rolling resistance force, given by equation

Fad is the aerodynamic drag, given by equation

Fhc is the hill climbing force, given by equation

Fa is the force required to give linear acceleration given by equation

Fte = µrrmg + 0.625ACdV2 + ma+ mg sin (ψ)

The power is equal to the tractive effort multiplied by the velocity. Using the various
efficiencies in the energy flow diagram, the energy required to move the vehicle for one
second is calculated. The energy required to move the vehicle for 1 second is same as
power, Energy required each second = Pte = Fte ×V

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 CHAPTER – 3

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 3.1 BLDC MOTOR

A BLDC Hub Motor is a type of electric motor that is commonly used in electric scooters.
It is an integrated unit that combines the motor, the wheel, and the gearbox into a single unit.
This makes it compact, lightweight, and efficient, making it ideal for use in electric scooters.

BLDC Hub Motors are highly efficient, converting up to 90% of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. This means that they can provide excellent range on a single charge. They
are also relatively quiet compared to other types of electric motors, making them ideal for use
in urban environments.

There are three main types of BLDC Hub Motors: geared, gearless, and direct drive.
Geared motors are the most common type. They use a gearbox to reduce the speed of the
motor, which increases torque. This makes them ideal for climbing hills or carrying heavy
loads. Gearless motors are lighter and more efficient than geared motors, but they have less
torque. Direct drive motors are the most efficient type, but they are also the most expensive.

BLDC Hub Motors are typically rated by voltage, power, and current. The voltage rating
determines the battery voltage that the motor can handle. The power rating determines the
amount of power that the motor can produce. The current rating determines the amount of
current that the motor can draw.

A typical BLDC Hub Motor for an electric scooter might be rated at 48V, 1kW, and 30A.
This means that it can handle a 48V battery, it can produce 1kW of power, and it can draw up
to 30A of current

3.1.1 Definition of BLDC Hub Motor

A BLDC hub motor, also known as a brushless DC hub motor, is a type of electric
motor that combines the functionality of a motor, wheel, and gearbox into a single unit. This
makes them compact, lightweight, and highly efficient, making them ideal for electric
vehicles like scooters, bikes, and even some cars.

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 3.2 BLDC motor working principle:

To explain the rotation principles for brushless motors, we will use the simplified three-
phase, 2-pole model. With rotor magnets, both the north pole and south pole have a
magnetic pole angle of 180°. Magnetic pole sensors Ha, Hb, and Hc are spaced 120° apart,
and they detect the north pole of the rotor magnets and output a signal.

For each of the stator's phase windings, a south pole is generated in the inner diameter side of
the stator when a current flows from the drive circuit to the motor. A north pole is generated
in the inner diameter side of the stator when the current flows in the opposite direction. Fig
shows the state when a current flows from phase-U to phase-V.

Fig 3.1: Drive circuit of BLDC Motor

A brushless DC (BLDC) motor operates based on the interaction between magnetic

fields, electrical current, and the rotor’s permanent magnets. This interaction results in the
rotation of the motor shaft. Let’s break down the working principle step by step.

Stator with Electromagnetic Coils: The stator is the stationary part of the BLDC motor. It
contains coils of wire, typically wound around iron cores. These coils are arranged in a
specific pattern. When an electrical current is applied to these coils.

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 Fig 3.2: Field setup by North pole and South Pole

Rotor with Permanent Magnets: The rotor is the moving part of the motor,
mounted on a shaft. It holds a set of permanent magnets, often made of powerful
materials like neodymium. These permanent magnets have alternating north and
south poles arranged in a specific configuration.
Creation of a Rotating Magnetic Field: As electrical current flows through the
stator coils, they generate a magnetic field. What’s unique about BLDC motors is the
way this magnetic field is manipulated. The stator’s coils are energized in a
sequence, creating a rotating magnetic field. This field rapidly changes polarity,
effectively ‘pushing’ and ‘pulling’ the rotor.
Interaction and Rotation: The rotor, with its permanent magnets, responds to the
changing magnetic field created by the stator. The magnetic attraction and repulsion
between the stator’s field and the rotor’s magnets cause the rotor to turn. This
rotation of the rotor drives the motor’s shaft, resulting in mechanical motion.
Sensor Feedback for Precise Control: Many BLDC motors incorporate sensors like
Hall sensors or encoders. These sensors provide real-time feedback about the rotor’s
position and speed to the motor controller. The motor controller uses this feedback to
precisely time the energization of the stator coils. This process, known as
commutation, ensures that the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field with accuracy.

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 Fig 3.3: wave form of Sensors Feedback

1. In interval (a), magnetic pole sensors Ha and Hc detect the north pole and output a
signal. In this case, if transistors Tru+ and Trv= are turned ON, a current flows from
the phase-U coil to the phase-V coil in the stator. At this time, the phase-V is
magnetized in the north pole (excitation), attracts the south pole, and repels the north
pole in the rotor magnets. The phase-U is magnetized in the south pole (excitation)
and repels the south pole in the rotor magnets. This causes the rotor to rotate
clockwise.

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 2. In interval (b), which is past 60°, only magnetic pole sensor Ha detects the north
pole and outputs a signal. In this case, if transistors Tru+ and Trw- are turned ON, a
current flows from the phase-U coil to the phase-W coil in the stator. The phase-U
maintains excitation, attracts the north pole, and repels the south pole in the rotor
magnets. The phase-W is excited as the north pole and repels the north pole in the
rotor magnets. This causes the rotor to rotate clockwise.

3. For each 60° of rotation, the combination of ON and OFF states for magnetic pole
sensors Ha, Hb, and Hc changes. For a single rotation of the motor, there are 6
different magnetic pole sensor output combinations, represented by (a) through (f).
Through the sequential switching of a determined set of excited phases for each
pattern, a rotating magnetic field is continuously generated.

In addition, by changing the way the current flows through the coil for each of
the output combinations for magnetic pole sensors Ha, Hb, and Hc, the motor
rotation direction can be reversed.

For example, if transistors Trv+ and Tru- are turned ON when only magnetic
pole sensor Ha detects a north pole and outputs a signal at interval (b) noted above, a
current flows from the phase-V coil to the phase-U coil in the stator. At this time, the
phase-U is excited as the north pole, attracts the south pole, and repels the north pole
in the rotor magnets. The phase-V is excited as the south pole and repels the south
pole in the rotor magnets. This causes the rotor to rotate counter-clockwise.

3.3 Calculating Power and Weight of a BLDC Hub Motor:

BLDC hub motors are a popular choice for electric scooters and other electric vehicles due
to their efficiency, compactness, and low maintenance. To choose the right motor for your
needs, it's essential to understand how to calculate its power, energy consumption, and
weight.

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 Fig:3.4: Energy Consumption Vs Time waveform

Fig 3.5: Power vs Torque wave form

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Given Specifications

 Motor Power: 350 W

 Voltage: 24 V
 Current: 16 A
 Under Voltage: 21 V
 Frontal Area (A): 7.5 m²
 Aerodynamic Coefficient (Cd): 0.74
 Rolling Resistance Coefficient (Cr): 0.0041
 Target Speed (V): 15 km/h (4.17 m/s)
 Target Load Weight (Payload): 150 kg (but we'll calculate the load capacity)

Step-by-Step Calculation for Load Capacity

1. Total Propulsion Force Calculation

The propulsion force required is the sum of the forces due to gradient resistance,
aerodynamic drag, and rolling resistance.
Formula for Total Propulsion Force: (Fp)=Fd + Fwf + FR
Where:
 Fd = Gradient Resistance
 Fwf = Aerodynamic Resistance
 FR = Rolling Resistance
2. Gradient Resistance (Fd)
We already know the formula for gradient resistance:
Fd=m*g*sin(α)
Where:
 M = Total mass (which includes payload + carrier weight)
 g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²)
 α =1.8∘
 So the total force Fd depends on the mass.

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 Fwf = 0.5 * Cd * ρ * A * V2

Where:
 Cd=0.74
 ρ =1.225kg/m3
 A=7.5 m2
 V=4.17 m/s
So, Fwf=0.5*⋅0.74*1.225*7.5*(4.17)2=38.72N

3. Rolling Resistance (FR)

We know the formula for rolling resistance

(FR)=CR*m*g*cos(α)

Where:
 CR=0.0041
 m = Total mass (payload + carrier weight)
 g=9.81 m/ s2
 α=1.8∘

4. Power Requirement Calculation

Once we have the total force, we can calculate the power required using:

P=Fp⋅V

Where P is the required power to maintain the desired speed.

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5. Load Capacity Calculation
To find the maximum load capacity for the 350 W motor, we rearrange the power formula:
P=(Fd + Fwf + FR)* V

Total Propulsion Force (Fp)=Fd+Fwf+FR

350=[(0.3084* m) +38.72+(0.0403*m)]* 4.17
350=[0.3487*m+38.72]*4.17
350=1.454⋅m+161.75
350−161.75=1.454*m
188.25=1.454⋅m
m=188.25/1.454
m≈129kg
Estimated Load Capacity
Based on the calculations, the maximum load capacity for the motor with the given
specifications is approximately 129 kg.

This means the motor can carry a payload of about 129 kg at a speed of 15 km/h on a
flat terrain

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 CHAPTER – 4

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 4.1 HALL SENSOR WORKING IN BLDC

Normally the Hall sensors which are used in BLDC motors are North Pole detection
type gives a high pulse signal when it is crosses a North Pole and gives a low signal when
it experiences a South Pole to excite correct sequence of armature 3 phase winding on the
stator side to create an angular Force to rotate the wheel

Fig 4.1: Shows North Pole detect hall sensor signal

A rotor position decoder monitors the three sensor inputs to provide the proper
sequencing of the top and bottom drive outputs. The Sensor Inputs are designed to
interface directly with open collector type Hall Effect switches. Internal pull-up resistors
are included to minimize the required number of external components. With three Sensor
Inputs there are eight possible input code combinations, six of which are valid rotor
positions. The remaining two codes are invalid and are usually caused by an open or
shorted sensor line. With six valid input codes, the decoder can resolve the motor rotor
position to within a window of 60 electrical degrees. A 3 phase BLDC motor is having 3
hall sensors on its stator and gives appropriate signal to the rotor position decoder block
to generate gate signals for the Inverter. In BLDC motor stator winding is energized
either 60 degrees or 120 degrees electrical rotation of the rotor, i.e. Hall sensors are
placed 60/120 degrees (Electrical) apart from each other.

4.1.1 60 DEGREE MODE:

It means in 60-degree mode of operation hall sensor SB (meant for B phase) gives a
high signal after 60-degree rotation of the rotor from the starting point of hall sensor S A
(meant for A phase) and hall sensor S C (meant for C phase) gives high signal after 60
degrees (Electrical) starting from hall sensor Sb as shown below.

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 Fig 4.2 Hall sensor output signals in 60 degrees operation of BLDC motor.

4.12 120 DEGREE MODE:

Where as in case of 120 degrees mode of operation, hall sensor SB gives high signal
after 120 degrees (Electrical) rotation from the starting point of hall sensor S A and hall
sensor SC starts after 120 Electrical degrees rotation of the rotor from starting point of the
hall sensor SB as shown below.

Fig 4.3 Hall sensor output signals in 120 degrees operation of BLDC motor

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BLDC MOTOR CONTROLLER

Fig 4.8: BLDC motor Controller Hardware Circuit Board

Figure shows the motor controller circuit board. A ground plane was placed under
the lower power part of the circuit to reduce noise effects and increase the heat spreading
area. Reducing noise effect is particularly important to avoid false gate triggering. False
gate triggering would lead to cross conduction, which in turn would lead to large amounts
of dissipated power.

Functions:
1. Control Motor Speed: Adjusts the motor's speed by varying the power supply.

2. Direction Control: Enables forward and reverse movement.

3. Power Regulation: Ensures efficient use of the battery by regulating voltage

and current.
4. Braking Support: Integrates regenerative or electronic braking systems.

5. Sensor Integration: Works with hall sensors or other feedback mechanisms to

monitor the motor's position and performance.
Components:
 Microcontroller Unit (MCU): Acts as the brain of the controller, processing
input commands.
 MOSFETs: Regulate the power flow to the motor.

 Capacitors: Ensure smooth current delivery.

 Input/Output Interfaces: Connect with throttle, brakes, and battery.

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 CHAPTER – 5

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 5.1 HUB MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS

The 12-inch Brushless Toothless Hub Motor is designed to offer high performance and
reliability for electric vehicle applications, such as electric bikes or scooters. This hub
motor is characterized by its brushless and toothless design, which minimizes mechanical
wear and tear, ensuring a longer lifespan and improved efficiency. The motor is rated at
350W of power, making it suitable for medium-range electric vehicle applications. With a
rated voltage of 36V, it operates efficiently within a standard voltage range for electric
mobility systems.

5.2 TECHNICAL DETAILS

Motor type: 12-inch Brushless toothless hub. wheel motor Rated power: 350W.
Rated voltage: 36V.
Speed:20~ 35KM (450RPM).
Diameter: 275mm.
Open Size: 140mm.
Motor Weight: 4.5.KG
Load Weight: 150 -200KG.
Brake: Electronic brake, disc brakes.
Waterproof: IP54.

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5.3 HUB MOTOR DIMENSIONS

The image shows a wheel with detailed measurements. Below are the measurements provided:

 Wheel Diameter (Total Height): 325 mm

 Wheel Width (Tire Width): 130 mm

 Hub Length (Total): 230 mm

 Left Side Nut Length: 45 mm

 Right Side Nut Length: 55 mm.

specifications:
1. Wheel Diameter (Overall Height):
o 325 mm: The total height of the wheel from the ground to the top.
2. Tire Width:
o 130 mm: The width of the tire, indicating it is fairly thick and likely designed
for stability and gri

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 3. Axle Width (Hub Assembly):
o 230 mm: The total width of the axle, including the hub assembly and
protruding parts.
o 45 mm: Length of the left hub/axle extension.
o 55 mm: Length of the right hub/axle extension.
:
4. Other Notable Features:
o The wheel has a textured tread pattern on the tire, likely intended for
better grip and traction.
o The central hub assembly is metallic (possibly aluminium) for durability
and strength.
o There’s a visible cable extending from the right side, which suggests it
could house an electric motor or support features like brakes or sensors.

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PROJECT INTERPRETATION

The project focuses on designing and developing a BLDC (Brushless DC) hub motor for an
electric load carrier, aimed at providing high torque, energy efficiency, and reliability for heavy-
duty applications. The hub motor, integrated directly within the wheels, eliminates the need for a
separate drivetrain, enhancing efficiency and simplifying the design. Key features include a
robust motor controller with regenerative braking, a durable and lightweight chassis, and an
optimized battery system for extended range and load-carrying capacity. The project emphasizes
energy- efficient operation using advanced control algorithms, effective thermal management,
and a cost- effective design to ensure commercial viability.

I also express my sincere thanks Mr. S. SRIDHAR Asst. Prof of EEE Department for
valuable corrections and comments & for gratuitous cooperation extended by him & who has
given valuable suggestions. We had the privilege to accomplish this MINOR project
presentation of BLDC MOTOR DRIVE FOR ELECTRIC VECHICLE.

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 CONCLUSION

In this study three motors have been designed in order to focus on comparing the
effect of the phase number on motor. These motors used as wheel in EVs are called hub
motors.

Firstly, a 3-phase BLDC hub motor is designed as a base motor. This motor has
inner stator and outer rotor structures. Then, 5-phase and 7-phase motors having the same
rotor dimensions of the base motor have been designed. The number of the slots and
dimensions of the stator have been determined by considering the motor phase number.
The performance analyses of the 3-, 5-, and 7-phase motors have been obtained by
Infolytica
/Motor Solve Software package. Performance curves of phase-currents, output powers,
torques, efficiencies and power factors have been presented for these motors at the same
operating conditions.

According to the results, it is observed that as the number of the phases of the
motor increases, the phase currents reduce. This allows the use of lower power switches
in motor driving systems. This work shows that multi-phase BLDC motors are a good
alternative in order to use lower power inverter structure compared with 3- phase BLDC
motors that are used as standard. Output torque and power values have been calculated as
110Nm, 10.3kW in designed motors. By considering the use of four wheels for an EV,
total output torque and output power have approximately been obtained as 440 Nm and
41.2 kW in the designed motors.

The other important characteristic for BLDC motors is the output torque curve. As
the number of the motor phase increases, the torque ripple produced by the motors
significantly reduces. However, torque ripples of the 5-phase motor are lower than that of
other motors. Therefore, the motor phase number should be evaluated in terms of cost,
performance and usability when considered commercially.

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 FUTURE & SCOPE

The future of BLDC hub motor drives for electric load carriers is highly promising,
driven by the global shift toward electrification and sustainable transportation. These motors
offer high efficiency, compact design, low maintenance, and regenerative braking, making them
ideal for urban goods delivery, agriculture, industrial material handling, and municipal services.
Advances in battery technology, coupled with smart integration using IoT and AI, are expected
to enhance their performance and usability. Despite challenges like high initial costs and thermal
management, ongoing R&D and supportive government policies are paving the way for
widespread adoption. With increasing demand for cost-effective and eco-friendly solutions,
BLDC hub motors are poised to play a pivotal role in the future of electric mobility.

The market for electric load carriers is expanding rapidly, driven by global initiatives to
reduce carbon emissions and increasing adoption of electric vehicles in e-commerce and
logistics. Advances in battery technology, such as higher energy density and faster charging, are
further enhancing the range and reliability of electric load carriers powered by BLDC motors.
The integration of IoT and AI for smart fleet management and route optimization is also set to
revolutionize their use, making them more efficient and adaptive to various industries

However, challenges like high initial costs and thermal management need to be
addressed. Research in thermal management systems, lightweight materials, and improved power
density is underway to overcome these hurdles. Government policies, subsidies, and incentives
are also playing a crucial role in accelerating the adoption of electric load carriers. With these
advancements, BLDC hub motors are poised to dominate the market, offering a sustainable, cost-
effective, and reliable solution for the future of electric mobility across diverse sectors.

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 REFERENCES

[1] S. Abirami, S. M. Bala, R. J. Priya, "Design of BLDC hub motor using FEM
analysis", IEEE International Conference on Green Computing Communication and
Electrical Engineering, Coimbatore, India, March 6-8, 2014.
[2] S. Ekram, D. Mahajan, M. Fazil, V. Patwardhan, N. Ravi, "Design optimization of
brushless permanent magnet hub motor drive using FEA", International Conference on
Electrical Machines and Systems, Seoul, South Korea, pp. 1476-1480, October 8-11,
2007.
[3] G. A. Magallan, C. H. De Angelo and G. O. Garcia, “Maximization of the Traction
Forces in a 2WD Electric Vehicle,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 60,
no. 2, pp. 369-380, 2011, doi: 10.1109/TVT.2010.2091659
[4] K. Rajashekara, \History of electric vehicles in General Motors," IEEE Trans- actions
on Industrial Application, vol. 30, pp. 897{904, August 1994.
[5] A. Tashakori, M. Ektesabi, and N. Hosseinzadeh, \Characteristics of suitable drive
train for electric vehicle," in Proceeding of the International Conference on
Instrumentation, Measurement, Circuits and Systems (ICIMCS 2011).
[6] F. A. Barata, J. C. Quadrado, and J. F. Silva, \Brushless dc motor: position linear
control simulation," in Proceedings of the 9th WSEAS International Conference on
Systems, ICS'05, (Stevens Point, Wisconsin, USA), pp. 48:1{ 48:6, World Scientific and
Engineering Academy and Society (WSEAS), 2005.

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