MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II

Linear Differential Equations

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das

Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Patna
India 801106

January 8, 2025

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 1 / 23

Contents

Ordinary Linear Differential Equations of nth order

Solutions of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous equations (Method of variation

of parameters)

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 2 / 23

Introduction

Recall: C n (I, R) of all real functions on I having continuous derivatives up to

order n. C(I, R): the VS of all real cont. functions on I .
The differential operator D : C 1 (I, R) → C(I, R) defined by D(f ) = f ′ is a LT.
The same is true for Dn : C n (I, R) → C(I, R). And for
L : C n (I , R) → C(I , R), where L = a0 D (n) + a1 D (n−1 ) + ... + an I,
ai ∈ C(I, R), and I, the identity LT. (We often write Lf for L(f).)
For any choice of ai and b ∈ C(I, R),the differential equation Ly = b, i.e.,

a0 y (n) + a1 y (n−1) + ... + an y = b (1)

is called a linear differential equation. The order of (1) is n, if a0 ̸= 0.

The equation (1) with b ̸= 0, (i.e., the equation Ly = 0) is said to be
homogeneous. If b = 0, then Ly = b is non-homogeneous. In that case, Ly = 0 is
called the corresponding homogeneous equation of Ly = b.
A solution of Ly = b is a function ϕ ∈ C n (I, R) such that Lϕ = b
In particular,the general solution (solution set) of Ly = 0 is KER(L), a
subspace of C n (I, R)
Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 3 / 23
Solving Linear Equations

Consider a first order linear equation: y ′ + P y = Q,

where P,
R
Q ∈ C(R,RR). TheRgeneral solution is Cϕ + ψ : C ∈ R, Where
ϕ = e− P , ψ = e− P (e− P Q).
R

Note: ϕ is a particular solution of (1), and Cϕ : C ∈ R is the general solution of

y ′ + P = 0.
Consider a linear equation Ly = b. Let u be a particular solution. Then the
general solution is u + W, where W = KER(L), the general solution of Ly = 0.
A basis for W is called a set of fundamental solutions of Ly = 0.
Ex. Consider the equation y ′′ + 4y = 0. Then, cos 2x and sin 2x are two of its
solutions, i.e., they are in KER(D2 + 4I). Let us allow the solutions to be in
C n (I, C), a VS over C. Then e2ix and e−2ix are also solutions.
LS{cos 2x, sin 2x}= LS{e2ix , e−2ix } as sub spaces of C n (I, C).
Ex. Consider x2 y ′′ − 2xy ′ + 2y = x3 on I = (0, ∞). For any c1 , c2 ∈ R (or in C, if
you want,) u(x) = c1 x2 + c2 x + 1/2x3 is a solution. These will give the general
solution iff KER(x2 D2 − 2xD + 2I) = LS{x1 , x2 }

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 4 / 23

Linearly independent solutions

EXISTENCE AND UNIQUENESS THEOREM (EUT): Suppose

a0 (x) ̸= 0 ∀x ∈ I,
and x0 ∈ I. Then, for any choice of α0 , ..., αn−1 ∈ R, the initial value problem
(IVP)
Ly = a0 y (n) + a1 y (n−1) + ... + an y = b,

y(x0 ) = α0 , y ′ (x0 ) = α1 , ..., y (n−1) (x0 ) = αn−1 ,

has a unique solution. [Proof omitted.]
THEOREM: DIM (KER(L)) = n.
Proof: Consider T : KER(L) → Rn : T u := [u(x0 ), u′ (x0 ), ..., u(n−1) (x0 )]t .
Then T is linear. Appeal to EUT. For each α ∈ Rn , there is u ∈ KER(L) such
that T u = α. Therefore, T is onto. The solution u is unique, So, T is one one.
Thus,
KER(L) and Rn are isomorphic, and
DIM (KER(L)) = DIM (Rn ) = n.
Pn
Corollary: Suppose Ly = 0 have order n. Then, its general solution is i=1 ci ui ,
where
{ui : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is any L.I set of solutions.
One can choose ui = T −1 ei .
Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 5 / 23
Wronskian Matrix

Consider Ly = (D2 + 4)y = 0. We have cos 2x,sin 2x ∈ KER(L).

KER(L) = LS({cos 2x, sin 2x}) iff {cos 2x, sin 2x} is linearly independent in
C 2 (R, R).
Suppose {cos 2x, sin 2x} is linearly dependent. Then, ∃ 0 ̸= α ∈ R2 such that
∀x ∈ R, α1 cos 2x + α2 sin 2x = 0.
Differentiating, we get −2α1sin  2x + 2α2 cos 2x = 0.
a
Thus, α is a solution of A(x) = 0,
b
 
cos 2x sin 2x
where A(x) =
−2 sin 2x 2 cos 2x
= [W (cos 2x, sin 2x)]
This cannot be true, since DET (A(x)) = 2∀x ∈ R. Therefore,{cos 2x, sin 2x} is
linearly independent.
Suppose {u1 , ..., un } ⊆ C n (I, R). The Wronskian matrix of u1 , ..., un at x ∈ I is
defined to be  
u1 (x) u2 (x) ... un (x)
 u1 ′ (x) u2 ′ (x) ... un ′ (x) 
[W (u1 , ..., un )(x)] :=  
 ... ... ... ... 
u1 n−1 (x) u2 n−1 (x) ... un n−1 (x)

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 6 / 23

Wronskian and Linear Dependence

The Wronskian of u1 , ..., un ∈ C n (I, R) is the function (on I) defined by

DET [W (u1 , ..., un )].
Suppose u1 , ..., un ∈ C n (I, R), and W (u1 , ..., un )(x0 ) ̸= 0 for some x0 ∈ I. Then
{u1 , ..., un } is linearly independent.
THEOREM. Consider Ly = 0, where L = a0 Dn + ... + an I and
a0 (x) ̸= 0 ∀x ∈ I. Let
x0 be any point in I. A set of solutions u1 , ..., un on I is linearly independent iff
W (u1 , ..., un )(x0 ) ̸= 0.
Proof. (⇐) Follows from above. (⇒) Suppose W (u1 , ..., un )(x0 ) = 0. Then, the
t
Pn[W (u1 , ..., un )(x0 )]X = 0 has a nontrivial solution [α1 , ..., αn ] . Let
system
v = i=1 αi ui . We have Lv = 0 and

v(x0 ) = v ′ (x0 ) = ... = v (n−1) (x0 ) = 0.

By EUT, v = 0, that is, ui are linearly dependent.

Ex. Take distinct reals (complex numbers) αi ∈ R, 1 ⩽ i ⩽ k. Then,
{eαi x |1 ⩽ i ⩽ k}
is linearly independent in Cn (R, R)(in C n (R, C)).

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 7 / 23

Linear ODE with constant coefficients

Consider Ly = b, where L = a0 Dn + .... + an−1 D + an I. If ai are constants, then

Ly = b is said to be linear with constant coefficients. In this case, L = p(D),
where p(λ) = a0 λn + ..... + an−1 λ + an ∈ R[λ].
p(λ) = 0 is called the auxiliary equation of Ly = 0.
Let λ ∈ R (or C) Then, Deλx = λeλx , i.e., eλx ∈ KER(D − λ). So,
KER(D − λ) = LS{eλx }
For any polynomial q(x) ∈ R[x], we have
(D − λI)(q(x)eλx ) = eλx D(q(x)) Suppose deg(q) ⩽ k − 1. Then
(D − λI)k (q(x)eλx ) = eλx Dk (q(x)) = 0, i.e., q(x)eλx ∈ KER((D − λI)k).
So, KER((D − λI)k) = LS{eλx , xeλx , ..., xk−1 eλx }.
For λ ̸= 0, KER(D2 + λ2 I) = LS{cos λx, sin λx}
Suppose α ± iβ are the roots of a2 λ2 + a1 λ + a0 = 0. then
KER(a2 D2 + a1 D + a0 I) = LS{eαx cos βx, eαx sin βx}.
Let L = p(D), where p(λ) = ((λ − α)2 + β 2 )k , k > 1, a, b ̸= 0.
Find KER(L).

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 8 / 23

Solutions: Linear ODE with constant coefficients

Theorem: Suppose p, q, r ∈ R[λ] with positive degrees,

L p = qr and
GCD(q, r) = 1. Then KER (p(D)) = KER (q(D)) KER (r(D)).

Proof. Let u ∈ KER(q(D)), v ∈ KER(r(D)). Then,

p(D)(u + v) = r(D)q(D)u + q(D)r(D)v = 0,

that is, u + v ∈ KER(p(D)).

Next, since GCD(q, r) = 1, ∃s, t ∈ R[λ] such that sq + tr = 1. Thus,
u ∈ KER(q(D)) ∩ KER(r(D)) ⇒ u = (s(D)q(D) + t(D)r(D))u = 0.

Corollary: Let p, q, r be as above. Let S and T be sets of fundamental solutions

of q(D)y = 0 and r(D)y = 0, respectively. Then, S ∪ T is a set of fundamental
solutions of p(D)y = 0.

Ex. Consider the equation Ly = p(D)y = 0, where

p(λ) = (λ4 − 4λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ + 8I) = (λ − 2)2 (λ2 + 9) = 0.

The solutions of the equation are KER(L) = LS({e2x , xe2x } ∪ {cos 3x, sin 3x}).

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 9 / 23

Summing up: Homogeneous Linear ODE with constant coefficients

To solve p(D)y = 0 (p ∈ R[λ] first solve the auxiliary equation p(λ) = 0.

For each simple real root α, the corresponding fundamental solution is eαx .
If α is a real root with multiplicity k, then the fundamental
solutions corresponding to α are eαx , xeαx , ..., xk−1 eαx
For each pair of simple complex roots α ± β, the corresponding fundamental
solutions are eαx cos βx, eαx sin βx
If α ± β is a pair of complex roots each with multiplicity k, then the
corresponding fundamental solutions are

eαx cos βx, xeαx cos βx, ..., xk−1 eαx cos βx,

eαx sin βx, xeαx sin βx, ..., xk−1 eαx sin βx.
The span of all these fundamental solutions is the general solution.
Solve p(D)y = 0 on I = R, where
p(λ) = (λ − 3)(λ + 2)(λ − 3)3 (λ2 + 6)(λ2 − 4λ + 13)2 .

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 10 / 23

Particular solution for Non-homogeneous Linear ODE

Let Ly = b be of order n. Let KER(L) = LS{u1 , ..., un }. Then Ly = 0 has

general solution uc = n
P
i=1 ci ui , ci ∈ R (or C).uc is usually called the
complementary function of Ly = b.
Let L = p(D), p ∈ R[λ]. Then uc is known if the roots of p are known.
On the contrary, finding a particular solution up of Ly = 0 is hard in general.
Luckily, there is a simple way to find up with the help of uc when b is one of the
following:
a polynomial in x,
an exponential function eαx ,
a trigonometric function sin(αx)/cos(αx), or
a finite sum of products of the above functions.

In that case, b will have an antiderivative of one of the above types. It is

easy to find a q(λ) ∈ R[λ] such that q(D)b = 0.
Ex. Consider b(x) = x2 cos 3x + e−2x . Produce a q such that q(D)b = 0.
Easy. Take q(λ) = (λ2 + 9)3 (λ + 2)

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 11 / 23

Method of undetermined coefficients

Consider the equation Ly = p(D)y = b. Suppose q ∈ R[λ] be such that

q(D)b = 0. Then, KER(p(D)) ⪯ KER(q(D)p(D)) .

Let B be a basis for KER(p(D)). Extend B to a basis B1 of

KER(q(D)p(D))

Let u be any solution of Ly = b. (Existence ensured by EUT).

Now, p(D)u = b ⇒ (q(D)p(D))u = 0 ⇒ u ∈ KER(q(D)p(D))
X
⇒u= ci ui for some Ci ∈ R
ui ∈B1
X X
= c i ui + cj uj = u1 + u2 , say.
ui ∈B1 /B ui ∈B
P
Now, p(D)u1 = p(D)(u − u2 ) = b, i.e., u1 = ui ∈B1 /B ci ui is a particular
solution of Ly = b.
P
So, to get a particular solution u1 , put u1 = ui ∈B1 /B ci ui , and determine ci
comparing the coefficients of both sides in p(D)u1 = b.

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 12 / 23

Example: General Solution

Solve the equation (D2 + 9)y(x) = cos 3x.

Auxiliary equation: p(λ) = λ2 + 9 = 0 with roots λ = ±3i.
Complementary function: uc (x) = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x, c1 , c2 ∈ R.
We have q(D) cos 3x = 0 where q(λ) = λ2 + 9 = p(λ). A basis for
KER(p(D)q(D)) is {cos 3x, sin 3x, xcos 3x, xsin 3x}. Put
u = αxcos 3x + βxsin 3x. Solve for α, β so thatp(D)u = cos 3x.
Du = (α + 3βx) cos 3x + (β − 3αx) sin 3x.
D2 u = (6β − 9αx) cos 3x + (−6α − 9βx) sin 3x.
cos 3x = (D2 + 9)u
= (6β − 9αx) cos 3x + (−6α − 9βx) sin 3x + 9x(α cos 3x + β sin 3x)
= −6α sin 3x + 6β cos 3x
⇒ α = 0, β = 16 .
Thus, u = 16 x cos 3x. The general solution of the given equation is
y = u + uc = 16 x cos 3x + c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x, c1 , c2 ∈ R.

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 13 / 23

Operator Method

We write D−1 y = y and call D−1 the inverse differential operator.

R

Consider (D−α )y = b, which is linear of first order. A particular solution is given

by uP = eαx eαx b. We write (D−α )−1 b = eαx e−αx b.
R R

Let L = p(D) = a0 n
Q
i=1 (D − αi ). A particular solution for Ly = b is
−1 Qn
−1 Qn −1


L b = a0 i=1 (D − αi ) b = a0 i=1 (D − αi ) b.

Let b = emx . For α ̸= m,

(D − α)−1 emx = eαx e(m−α) x = eαx m−α
1
e(m−α) x = m−α
1
emx .
R

If m = α, then (D − α)−1 emx = eαx e−αx emx = xemx .

R

Thus we have the following.

If p(m) ̸= 0, then p(D)−1 emx = 1

p(m)
emx .

If p(λ) = (λ − m)k q(λ) with q(m) ̸= 0, then

1
p(D)−1 emx = xk emx
k! q(m)
.
Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 14 / 23
Operator Method continued

Let b = xm . We have
Z
(D − α)−1 xm = eαx xm e−αx
Z
1 1
= eαx (− xm e−αx + (Dxm )e−αx )
α α
xm Dxm D2 xm Dm xm
=− −( 2 )−( 3
) − ... − ( m+1 )
α α α α
1 D D2 Dn m
= − (1 + + 2 + ... + n + ...)x
α α α α

Q. Find (D2 + D + 1)−1 x3

To use the above procedure for finding p(D)−1 xm , express 1

p(λ)
as sum of partial
fraction.

Q. Find algorithms (like ones above) for finding p(D)−1 b, where

(a) cos mx/sin mx, (b) xk emx . Note that m may or may not be a root of p(λ).

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 15 / 23

Homogeneous Equations with Variable coefficients: Reduction of Order

Consider x2 y ′′ − 3xy ′ + 4y = 0, x ∈ (0, ∞). Note that u1 (x) = x2 is a solution.

Suppose that the other fundamental solution is u2 . We put w = uu21 , i.e.,
u2 = u1 w. Then

u2 ′ = u1 ′ w + u1 w ′ ,
u2 ′′ = u1 ′′ w + 2u1 ′ w + u1 w′′ .

Therefore we have,

0 = x2 u2 ′′ − 3xu2 ′ + 4u2
= (x2 u1 − 3xu1 ′ + 4u1 )w + (2x2 u1 ′ − 3xu1 )w′ + (x2 u1 )w′′
= x3 w′ + x4 w′′ .

⇒ (w′ )′ + x1 w′ = 0 (a linear equation of order 1 in w’ )

R 1
⇒ w′ = e− x = 1
x
⇒ w = lnx ⇒ u2 = u1 = x2 lnx.
Let a homogeneous equation Ly = 0 be given. With variable coefficients, finding
solutions is generally difficult, since factoring L is not easy.
Suppose one solution is known. Using reduction of order the problem can be
reduced to solving another equation of lower order.

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 16 / 23

Reduction of Order

Consider Ly(x) = 0, where L = a0 Dn + ... + an−1 D + a0 I,

ai ∈ C(I, R). Suppose u1 is a (non-zero) solution.Put
u2 = wu1 . Then
Du2 = wDu1 + (Dw)u1 ,
D2 u2 = wD2 u1 + 2(Dw)(Du1 ) + (D2 w)u1 ,
. .
. .
. .
D u2 = wDn u1 + n1 (Dw)(Dn−1 u1 ) + n2 (D2 w)Dn−2 u1 ... +
n n



n
n
(D w)u1 .
Multiply both sides of the ith equation by ai−1 and add to get
Lu2 = wLu1 + b1 (Dw) + b2 (D2 w) + ... + bn (Dn w), where
b1 = a1 u1 + 2a2 (Du1 ) + ... + n1 an (Dn−1 u1 ), and in general

bk = kk ak u1 + k+1 ak+1 (Du1 ) + ... + nk ak (Dn−k u1 ).

k
Since Lu1 = 0, Lu2 = 0 iff Dw is a solution of
L1 y = (b1 I + b2 D + ... + bn Dn−1 )y = 0.
R
Suppose v is a non-zero solution (1). Then u2 (x) = u1 (x) v(x)dx is a nonzero
solutions of Ly = 0. Clearly, u1 , u2 are linearly independent
Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 17 / 23
Particular solution by Variation of Parameters

Consider a second order equation

Ly = [D2 + aD + bI]y = g, a, b ∈ C(I, R). (1)

Let Ly = 0 have u1 , u2 as fundamental solutions so that y = c1 u1 + c2 u2 is its

general solution. We seek for a particular solution of (1) of the form
yp = w1 u1 + w2 u2 , where w1 , w2 are some functions in C(I, R). Then we should
have Lyp = g. Now,
Dyp = 2i=1 [(Dwi )ui + wi (Dui )] = 2i=1 wi (Dui ), assuming that
P P

(Dw1 )u1 + (Dw2 )u2 = 0. Then D2 yp = 2i=1 [(Dwi )(Dui ) + wi (D2 ui )].
P

Therefore, Lyp = 2i=1 {[(Dwi )(Dui ) + wi (D2 ui )] + awi (Dui ) + bwi ui }

P

i.e., g = Lyp = (Dw1 )(Du1 ) + (Dw2 )(Du2 ). Thus, w1 , w2 are to be chosen so

that

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 18 / 23

Particular solution by Variation of Parameters: Example

u1 (Dw1 ) + u2 (Dw2 ) = 0, (2)

(Du1 )(Dw1 ) + (Du2 )(Dw2 ) = g. (3)

Since W := W (u1 , u2 )(x) ̸= 0∀x ∈ I, the above system has unique solution for
Dw1 and Dw2 : Dw1 = −u2 g/W and Dw2 = u1 g/W . Integrating we get w1 and
w2 .
Ex. Consider y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = (x + 1)e2x . Then u1 = e2x , u2 = xe2x fundamental
solutions. Here W := W (u1 , u2 ) = e4x . Therefore
Dw1 = −xe2x (x + 1)e2x e4x = −(x2 + x) and
e2x (x+1)e2x
Dw2 = e4x
= x + 1.
3
x2 x2
We put w1 = − x3 − 2
and w2 = 2
+ x.
3
x2 2 3
x2
Hence yp = (− x3 − 2
)e2x + ( x2 + x)xe2x = ( x6 + 2
)e2x .

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 19 / 23

Example of Variation of Parameter

Solve the ODE using the method of variation of parameters, y ′′ − 2y ′ = ex sin x.

Answers: Given differential equation is,

y ′′ − 2y ′ = ex sin x (1)

The complementary function of (1) is C1 + C2 e2x where C1 and C2 are arbitrary

constants. Let u = 1 and v = e2x , R = ex sin x. The Wronskian of u and v is
2e2x (̸= 0).

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 20 / 23

Example Continued

The particular integral of (1) is uf (x) + vg(x), where

Z 2x x
e e sin x
f (x) = − dx
2e2x
x
1 e
= (sin x − cos x)
2 12 + 1 2
1
= − ex (sin x − cos x)
4
and
ex sin x
Z
g(x) = dx
2e2x
1 e−x
= (sin x − cos x)
2 (−1)2 + 12
e−x
= (sin x + cos x)
4
Hence the required solution of (1) becomes
1 x
y = C1 + C2 e2x − e sin x
2
Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 21 / 23
Variation of Parameters

The above method is known as variation of parameters and can be applied for any
order.
Suppose Ly = g be of order n ⩾ 1. Let {u1 , ..., un } be a set of fundamental
solutions. Put yp = u1 w1 + ... + un wn . If wi are chosen so that

u1 (Dw1 ) + ... + un (Dwn ) = 0, (1)

(Du1 )(Dw1 ) + ... + (Dun )(Dwn ) = 0, (2)
........................
(Dn−2 u1 )(Dw1 ) + ... + (Dn−2 un )(Dwn ) = 0. (n − 1)
Then, the requirement Lyp = g implies
(Dn−1 u1 )(Dw1 ) + ... + (Dn−1 un )(Dwn ) = g. (n)

Since W (u1 , ..., un ) ̸= 0 ∀ x ∈ I, the system (1) − (n) has a unique solution vi for
Dwi , 1 ⩽ i ⩽ n. Choosing anti-derivatives vi for wi , a particular solution of
Ly = g is obtained.

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 22 / 23

Cauchy-Euler Equation

An equation an xn Dn y + ... + a1 xDy + a0 y = g(x), where

a0 , ..., an ∈ R, g ∈ C((0, ∞), R), is called a Cauchy-Euler equation.
Put x = et , x ∈ (0, ∞). Denote d
dt
by Dt . Equation (1) transforms to
bn Dtn y t
+ ... + b1 Dt y + b0 y = g(e ), b0 , ..., bn ∈ R.Υ
[Hint : x = et , Dy = Dt y/Dt x = 1
D y, D2 y
x t
= 1
x2
Dt2 y − 1
x2
Dt y, ...]
Ex. Solve x2 y ′′ − 2xy ′ + 2y = x3 .
For x = et , Dy = 1
x2
Dt y, D2 y = 1
x2
Dt2 y − 1
x2
Dt y. The equation transforms to

(Dt2 − 3Dt + 2)y = e3t .

and its general solution is y(t) = c1 e2t + c2 et + 12 e3t , c1 , c2 ∈ R. So, the general
solution of the given equation on (0, ∞) is
1 3
y(x) = c1 x2 + c2 x + x , c1 , c2 ∈ R
2

Dr. Pratibhamoy Das (IITP) MA1201- MATHEMATICS-II January 8, 2025 23 / 23