Issues Involved in Maximizing Learning: definition of learning makes it clear that people acquire and develop skills and

knowledge, and change behavior, as a result of an interaction between forces within the learner and in the environment. There
three primary areas as we emphasize ways to maximize learning, namely trainee characteristics, training design, and the
transfer of training. Trainee Characteristics A learner or trainee’s personal characteristics will influence how he or she learns
new tasks and new information. Three such characteristics are trainability, personality, and attitudes.

climate This formula illustrates that a trainee must have both the motivation and the ability to learn; if either is lacking, learning
will not occur. The equation also shows that a very high level of one cannot completely overcome a very low level of the other.
In addition, if employees perceive little support in the work environment for learning new knowledge or skills, they will be less
likely to learn and use them. Thus, it is important to note that trainability is not just a function of the individual trainee, but also
of the work environment in which the learner will be asked to use what is presented in an HRD intervention. Trainability is
extremely important in HRD. Placing employees in programs they are not motivated to attend or are not prepared to do well in
wastes time and resources. Trainees with less ability take longer to learn, which can increase the length of the training period
and the expense involved in conducting training. In fact, it is possible that such trainees may never learn to the levels desired by
the organization. To illustrate this, suppose a service technician for an office equipment company is in a training program
designed to teach selling skills for the equipment being serviced. Selling requires skills in oral communication and interpersonal
relations. If the technician lacks either skill, it is likely that learning to sell effectively will be difficult. The technician may want to
learn and try hard to do so, but this low level of ability will hinder learning. Similarly, if the technician has excellent
communication skills but sees selling as unpleasant or distasteful, or does not think learning to sell will help to achieve his or
her own personal goals, no effort may be made to learn the sales skills. A number of studies have shown the clear links
between ability and learning.24 The same is true for motivation,25 as well as for perceptions of the work environment.26 Over
the past several years, researchers have studied the notion of pretraining motivation.27 Findings from this research include: •
The way trainees perceive training (e.g., as remedial versus advanced, or as an unpleasant task versus an opportunity) affects
levels of learning, perceptions of efficacy, anxiety, and perceptions of fairness.28 • The way in which individuals view their own
ability (as a fixed entity or an acquirable skill) affects anxiety level, efficacy perceptions, and the learning of declarative (factual)
knowledge.29 • Experiencing negative events on the job prior to training can increase trainees’ motivation to learn and their
performance in training.30 • A number of other factors have been found to increase individuals’ motivation to participate in
and learn from training. Factors investigated include involvement in decisions about training, perceptions that participation in
training will lead to benefits (e.g., increased job performance and career advancement opportunities), and perceptions of
support (or a lack of obstacles that might hinder using learned training in the work environment).31 • Characteristics of the
organization (e.g., policies and guidelines regarding training participation) have been linked to participation in developmental
activities. • These findings are useful in that they suggest ways in which organizations can increase the motivation to participate
in and learn from HRD interventions. For example, to ensure that trainees perceive the value of what is being presented, they
must see training as an opportunity, as a way to address a need they have, and as a way to achieve valued outcomes. Further,
trainees must perceive the organization and their immediate work environment as supporting participation in training and
using what has been learned.33 However, for an interesting study of the potential downfall of allowing trainees some choice in
what training they receive, see the boxed insert nearby entitled “The Perils of Participation.” An experiment on the impact of
ability and prior job knowledge on learning finds that general cognitive ability (i.e., intelligence) has a direct impact on “the
acquisition of” job knowledge, but prior job knowledge has almost no effect on the acquisition of subsequent job
knowledge.34 This finding suggests that cognitive ability rather than prior job knowledge should be used to select trainees into
programs designed to teach complex tasks. Trainability testing is one approach that can be used to ensure that trainees have
both the motivation and the ability to learn. This approach focuses on measuring the motivation and relevant abilities of
candidates for training and selecting for training only those who show a sufficient level of trainability. For example, military
researchers developed a questionnaire that measured motivational and personality factors to predict success in combat
training. The questionnaire measured such things as independence, sociability, and motivation to serve in a combat unit. The
combination of questionnaire responses and other predictors was strongly related to training success.35 Another approach to
trainee testing is to allow candidates to complete part of the training program and use their performance on that section as a
predictor of how well they will perform during the remainder of training. For example, Arthur Siegel described a method called
miniature training and evaluation testing, in which U.S. Navy recruits were trained on a sample of important tasks and tested
on their ability to perform these tasks. Using eleven training and evaluation modules, the approach yielded better predictions
of success for several jobs than the test normally conducted by the Navy.36 In a manufacturing setting, BMW took a similar
approach when it opened its first U.S. auto manufacturing facility in Greer, South Carolina. To lure the company to South
Carolina, state government officials offered generous tax incentives. The state also agreed to create training facilities to BMW’s
specifications and worked with them to recruit and train potential BMW employees. Once trainees completed their training,
BMW selected only those they wanted to hire to be among the initial 1,500 associates in its new plant. BMW stated that it was
looking for associates with a strong commitment to quality and teamwork, and this procedure allowed the company to select
the very best among those who had completed the rigorous training program administered by the state’s technical college
system. The quality and success of the cars made at this plant (including the Z3 roadster), as well as subsequent expansions of
the plant and workforce, indicate that this “train, and then select” strategy was successful.37 Similarly, from the research
literature, a meta-analysis of research studies examining the use of work sample tests of trainability concluded that such tests
predict success in training and job performance for untrained job applicants. Trainability testing has also been effective in
predicting the training success of older workers Personality and Attitudes. Although not explicitly mentioned in the definition of
trainability, a trainee’s personality and attitudes can also have an effect on learning (see Chapter 2). Ray Noe suggested that an
employee’s attitudes toward career exploration and job involvement impact learning and its applications to the job.39 Other
research has shown that job involvement, expectations for training, and trainee confidence are all related to success in
training.40 Personality is the stable set of personal characteristics that account for consistent patterns of behavior. Personality
traits that are related to employee learning include locus of control, the need for achievement, activity, independence, and
sociability.41 Murray Barrick and Michael Mount reported the results of a metaanalysis showing that two personality
dimensions—extraversion and openness to experience—are valid predictors of success in training.42 Joseph Martocchio and
Jane Webster found that an individual’s level of cognitive playfulness (which is in part the spontaneity, imagination, and
exploratory approach a person brings to task performance and learning) affects learning, mood, and satisfaction with training.
43 They also found that individuals with low levels of cognitive playfulness are affected more by positive feedback than
individuals with higher levels of cognitive playfulness. As further research is conducted on the impact of personality
characteristics on success in training, it may be useful to include measures of relevant traits in the selection process before
trainees are sent to expensive or lengthy training and other HRD programs.44 To summarize, assessing employee’s relevant
abilities, motivation, and personality prior to HRD programs can be important in maximizing the chances that learning will
occur. This approach to maximizing learning fits with Glaser’s notion that knowing the initial state of the learner is an important
part of effective training.45 Training Design Training design involves adapting the learning environment to maximize learning.
Training design issues include (1) the conditions of practice that influence learning and (2) the factors that impact retention of
what is learned. Although much of the research on this topic was conducted before 1970, new research in instructional
psychology has revived interest. While the information presented in the following sections can be helpful in designing an
effective training program, not all the findings will work in all situations. Recall Gagné’s arguments cited earlier about
traditional learning principles. There is no substitute for conducting a thorough task analysis and clearly specifying what is to be
learned (task analysis will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4). Conditions of Practice. At least six issues have been studied that
relate to practice and learning. They include active practice, massed versus spaced practice sessions, whole versus part
learning, overlearning, knowledge of results, and task sequencing. Active practice suggests that learners should be given an
opportunity to repeatedly perform the task or use the knowledge being learned.46 For example,if a paramedic is learning how
to operate the “jaws of life” (to extract passengers from vehicles damaged in accidents), the training sessions should include
multiple opportunities for the paramedic to operate the “jaws.” Researchers have also been interested in whether mental
practice, the “cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical movement,” can improve task performance. A meta-
analysis of many studies concluded that mental practice is effective for both cognitive and physical tasks (though more so for
cognitive tasks). This study also showed that the effect of mental practice on performance decreases as the time interval
between practice and performance increases.47 These findings suggest that trainees should be encouraged to mentally
rehearse the tasks they are learning to perform outside of the training environment as one way to enhance their performance.
Massed versus spaced practice sessions involve whether to conduct training in one session or divide it into segments separated
by a period of time. For example, is it better to study for an examination over a period of several days (spaced practice) or in
one cram session (massed practice)? In general, information and skills can be learned either way, but spaced practice sessions
with a reasonable rest period between them lead to better performance and longer retention of what is learned than a massed
practice session.48 Daniel Willingham reviewed 100 years of research, and concluded that massed practice or “cramming” was
the least effective strategy for learning and retention.49 As one recent example, students taking an introductory statistics
course were compared. Some students took six exams during the semester, plus a cumulative final exam, whereas students in
other sections took two exams during the semester, plus the identical final exam. Students taking the bi-weekly exams
outperformed students who took the two midterm exams, both in final exam performance, as well as in their overall course
grade.50 For difficult, complex tasks, an initial massed session followed by spaced practice sessions has led to improved
performance.51 Using a massed rather than a spaced practice session is often a matter of practicality winning out over science.
Time and resource constraints may influence organizational decision-makers to schedule a single training session, even though
a series of spaced sessions would be more effective. However, HRD professionals should realize that under these conditions
retention can suffer. It may be necessary to schedule follow-up sessions to boost retention. Furthermore, the effectiveness of
approaches used to motivate trainees during training may be affected by whether massed or spaced sessions are used. One
research study found that trainees assigned specific, difficult goals in massed practice performed more poorly than those told
simply to do their best, whereas those in spaced sessions assigned specific, difficult goals performed slightly better than those
told to do their best.52 Whole versus part learning concerns the size of the unit to be learned, that is, should trainees practice
an entire task (or study certain material as a whole), or should the task or material be learned in separate parts or chunks?
Gagné argued that procedural material (material organized into a series of steps) should be analyzed and divided into subunits,
with the trainees mastering each subunit before performing the entire procedure.Actually, the answer to which method is most
effective appears to depend on the nature of the task to be learned. When the subtasks are relatively easy to perform and are
well organized (interrelated), the whole method is superior. Otherwise, the part method has proven to be more effective.54 For
example, operating a chain saw involves adding fuel, holding it properly, starting it, making various cuts, and turning it off.
Given that these subtasks are interrelated, it makes sense that they be learned together. The task of supervising others,
however, includes subtasks such as scheduling, evaluating employee performance, disciplining, planning, and delegating work.
These subtasks are less closely related and would best be learned by focusing on each subtask separately. To teach someone
how to drive a stick shift automobile, which approach would you use? Overlearning is defined as practice beyond the point at
which the material or task is mastered.55 For example, an instructor teaching cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in a first-aid
course would be using overlearning if trainees were required to repeatedly practice the CPR procedure even after they had
successfully “revived” a training dummy. The rationale in favor of overlearning is threefold. First, overlearning may improve
performance in a variety of different situations. By developing stronger associations between the parts of a task (or unit of
knowledge), it is less likely that situational changes will interfere with learning. Second, overlearning provides additional
practice in using a skill or knowledge when there is little opportunity for doing so in the job setting.56 For example,
overlearning the procedure to handle an engine flameout would be useful in pilot training because pilots don’t often face this
situation when flying. Third, overlearning should make what is learned more automatic, thereby improving performance in
stressful or emergency situations.57 For instance, soldiers repeatedly practice their maneuvers and tasks, so when orders come
to attack, these tasks will be second nature and can be performed quickly and correctly. Research indicates that overlearning
does, in fact, increase retention of what is learned.58 As stated by Daniel Willingham, “Practice makes perfect—But only if you
practice beyond the point of perfection.”59 Quite obviously, its major drawback is that overlearning can increase the time and
expense of training. Knowledge of results, or feedback, provides objective information regarding the adequacy of one’s
performance, and it can come from observers, the performer, or the task itself. A sizable body of research suggests that
feedback enhances learning and retention.60 Trainers and educators generally agree that feedback improves learning.
However, a meta-analysis of research on feedback interventions found that feedback actually decreased performance in one-
third of the studies examined.61 Avraham Kluger and Angelo DeNisi theorize that this has to do with the level of control
individuals go through when learning and performing tasks. They argue that individuals proceed through three hierarchical
levels of control (task learning, task motivation, and metatasks or self-regulatory actions), and that feedback changes the
individual’s locus of attention to a particular level of control. They suggest that the effectiveness of feedback decreases as the
individual moves through the levels from task learning to task motivation to metatasks. Kluger and DeNisi’s theory supports the
use of feedback during skill and harm performance) when individuals perform back on the job. Other researchers suggest that
feedback is both informational—when it helps learners determine whether they’ve performed something correctly, and
motivational—when it is valued by the learner or indicates valued outcomes.62 The effectiveness of feedback also seems to
depend on how it is provided, especially in regard to timing and specificity. To ensure that the learner clearly understands the
relationship between the feedback and the behavior, it should be provided as soon as possible after the behavior occurs.
Furthermore, the judgments individuals make about feedback (whether it is connected to factors inside or outside the trainee’s
control) can affect efficacy beliefs, with feedback attributed to factors within the trainee’s control increasing perceptions of
efficacy. In addition, recall the research cited earlier that found that the impact of feedback may be moderated by elements of
the individual’s personality (i.e., cognitive playfulness).63 Finally, task sequencing suggests that tasks and knowledge can be
learned more effectively if what is to be learned is divided into subtasks that are arranged and taught in an appropriate
sequence. Gagné and colleagues provide guidelines for how task sequencing can help in learning intellectual skills, motor skills,
and attitudes. 64 The success of an intelligent medical diagnosis-tutoring program called GUIDON supports this approach, as
does the research of Philip Decker and others on behavior-modeling training.65 However, more research is needed before
definitive conclusions are reached about the effectiveness of task sequencing.66 To summarize, research on the various
conditions of practice offers some practical guidelines for designing more effective HRD interventions. In general, overlearning,
feedback, and practice sessions spaced over time tend to increase learning. harm performance) when individuals perform back
on the job. Other researchers suggest that feedback is both informational—when it helps learners determine whether they’ve
performed something correctly, and motivational—when it is valued by the learner or indicates valued outcomes.62 The
effectiveness of feedback also seems to depend on how it is provided, especially in regard to timing and specificity. To ensure
that the learner clearly understands the relationship between the feedback and the behavior, it should be provided as soon as
possible after the behavior occurs. Furthermore, the judgments individuals make about feedback (whether it is connected to
factors inside or outside the trainee’s control) can affect efficacy beliefs, with feedback attributed to factors within the trainee’s
control increasing perceptions of efficacy. In addition, recall the research cited earlier that found that the impact of feedback
may be moderated by elements of the individual’s personality (i.e., cognitive playfulness). Finally, task sequencing suggests that
tasks and knowledge can be learned more effectively if what is to be learned is divided into subtasks that are arranged and
taught in an appropriate sequence. Gagné and colleagues provide guidelines for how task sequencing can help in learning
intellectual skills, motor skills, and attitudes. 64 The success of an intelligent medical diagnosis-tutoring program called GUIDON
supports this approach, as does the research of Philip Decker and others on behavior-modeling training.65 However, more
research is needed before definitive conclusions are reached about the effectiveness of task sequencing.66 To summarize,
research on the various conditions of practice offers some practical guidelines for designing more effective HRD interventions.
In general, overlearning, feedback, and practice sessions spaced over time tend to increase learning.course content as a whole.
Using examples and terminology familiar to trainees and mnemonic devices (such as creating a word out of the first letters of
items in a list) also increase meaningfulness by providing more associations.69 Textbook writers (us included) often seek to use
this principle when introducing and presenting material in each chapter. The degree of original learning also influences learning
retention.70 The more effectively information is initially learned, the more likely it will be retained—after all, you can’t retain
something you never had to begin with. Though this is not surprising, it does reinforce the research on overlearning, massed
versus spaced practice, and whole versus part learning as ways to ensure initial learning. Interference can also affect the extent
to which learning is retained. Interference can be of two types.71 First, material or skills learned before the training session can
inhibit recall of the newly learned material. For example, an accountant who is an expert on the New York tax code may have
difficulty remembering recent instruction regarding the tax code and procedures for Florida. The accountant’s prior knowledge
is so well learned that he or she may automatically follow New York procedures when helping a client who must file in Florida.
Second, information learned after a training session may also interfere with retention. For example, a firefighter trained to
operate the power ladder on the city’s older fire trucks may have difficulty retaining that knowledge if a different sequence of
steps must be learned for the same operation on a newer fire truck. Both types of interference are similar in that the learner is
required to make different responses to the same situation. The more responses one learns, the greater the chances for
interference in learning to occur. Transfer of Training Transfer of training is an important and recurring theme in the HRD
literature. 72 A main goal of HRD is to ensure that employees perform their jobs effectively. In addition to learning and
retaining new material, employees must also use it on the job to improve performance. The transfer of training to the job
situation is critically important to the success of HRD efforts. Transfer can take different forms. Positive transfer occurs when job
performance improves as a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when there is no change in job performance as a result of
training. Negative transfer occurs when job performance worsens as a result of training. Negative transfer may seem unlikely,
but recall the detrimental effects interference can have on learning and performance. Tennis players, for example, may find that
their tennis shots become less accurate after learning how to play racquetball. Although the two sports seem similar, an
accurate tennis shot requires a locked wrist, yet racquetball players use their wrists during the swing. Therefore, the player’s
tennis stroke may become more “wristy” after learning racquetball, leading to less accurate shots in tennis. Another distinction
that should be made is near transfer versus far transfer. Near transfer involves the ability to directly apply on the job what has
been learned in training, with little adjustment or modification; far transfer has to do with expanding upon or using what was
learned in training in new or creative ways.73 Other writers have referred to this as a distinction between skill reproduction and
skill generalization.74 For example, in a study of assertiveness training, a negative relationship was observed between near and
far transfer: trainees who had done well demonstrating their mastery of the training content did less well in a surprise test of
their ability to demonstrate transfer outside of training, and vice versa.75 Context obviously plays a part in whether an
organization should be more concerned with near transfer, far transfer, or both, but in most cases, far transfer is the best
indicator that training has been successful. Timothy Baldwin and Kevin Ford developed a model of the training transfer
process.76 The model suggests that training inputs—including trainee characteristics, training design, and the work
environment—affect learning, retention, and transfer, with trainee characteristics and the work environment affecting transfer
directly. Baldwin and Ford were critical of the lack of a strong theoretical framework and the limited number of research studies
in this area, because this limited their ability to generalize findings from studies of transfer of training to organizational settings.
Despite these concerns, these principles and the results of recent research offer many ideas for maximizing training transfer.
These include the use of identical elements, general principles, stimulus variability, and the degree of support for transfer in the
work environment. Identical Elements. The principle of identical elements, first proposed by Thorndike and Woodworth in
1901, suggests that the more similar the training and the performance situations are in terms of the stimuli present and
responses required, the more likely it is that training transfer will occur.77 For example, if customer service representatives are
expected to handle complaints from angry, impatient customers, practice with such customers (possibly via role playing) can
improve the transfer of training. But if the only examples used in training are customers who are polite, reasonable, and
patient, training transfer to the job is less likely. Similarity has two dimensions: physical and psychological fidelity. Physical
fidelity is the extent to which the conditions of the training program, such as equipment, tasks, and surroundings, mirror those
in the performance situation. Building a highly realistic airline cockpit simulator, with the same controls, appearance, and
physical sensations as experienced in true flight, would be an attempt to achieve a high level of physical fidelity. Psychological
fidelity is the extent to which trainees attach similar meanings to both the training and performance situations. Psychological
fidelity is encouraged in a learning experience that imposes training task time limits that are similar to those on the job. There
is some evidence that psychological fidelity is more important to training transfer than physical fidelity, but more research is
needed to support this claim.78 The principle of identical elements is particularly relevant to simulation training, such as with
the use of case studies, business games, or role plays. However, increasing fidelity often involves increasing complexity and
costs, which can strain HRD budgets. So, once again, there are frequently trade-offs between what is desired and what can
actually be carried out in terms of fidelity and identical elements. General Principles. Rather than focusing on identical
elements, the general principles theory suggests that learning fundamental elements of a task will ensure transfer from
training. This is demonstrated in a project that taught trainees to accurately hit an underwater target by learning the principle
of refraction of light.79 Since light bends when crossing the air-water boundary, the target is not exactly where it visually
appears to be. Understanding this principle allowed trainees to correctly judge where the target really was and adjust their aim
accordingly. However, it is often difficult to identify and include in training those principles that maximize positive transfer. It is
still not clear whether training programs that apply the general principles theory will result in skilled performance on specific
tasks, though recent research in higher education suggests that general principles should be valuable in training settings.80
Stimulus Variability. Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a variety of stimuli, such as using multiple examples of a
concept or involving the trainee in several different practice situations.81 For example, stimulus variability is increased when
clothing trainees are required to practice making buttonholes in a variety of fabrics, rather than in only one or two types of
fabric. Stimulus variability has been found to increase training transfer. Support in the Work Environment. The extent to which
trainees perceive support for using newly learned behavior or knowledge on the job affects transfer of training. For example, if
a supervisor who is trying to become more participative is ridiculed by peers and receives the cold shoulder from subordinates,
it is unlikely that this person will continue to use these skills. Supervisory support is an important aspect of work environment
support. Supervisory support is a multidimensional concept. Components such as encouragement to attend training, goal
setting, reinforcement, and behavior modeling have all been shown to increase transfer.83 Support at the organizational level is
also important. Janice Rouiller and Irwin Goldstein studied employee perceptions of the transfer of training climate, which is
defined as “those situations and consequences which either inhibit or help to facilitate the transfer of what has been learned in
training into the job situation.”84 Climate perceptions affected learning and behavior back on the job. Bruce Tracey and
colleagues investigated the effect of both transfer of training climate and the presence of a continuous-learning work
environment (where “organizational members share perceptions and expectations that learning is an important part of
everyday work life” p. 241) on employee behavior after training. They found that the presence of both transfer of training
climate and a continuous-learning work environment affected behavior after training. This research suggests that the
organizational climate should be examined to determine the supportiveness of the work environment during needs
assessment, and that areas found wanting should be modified to increase the chances training will transfer back to the
workplace. Also, organizations that promote a continuous-learning environment stand a better chance of having what is
learned transfer back to the job.85 Recently, Martin found that peer support was an important determinant of whether or not
training transferred in a corporate field setting.86 Robert Marx proposed a model of improving training transfer based on
counseling techniques used to prevent relapse by substance abusers. The approach teaches trainees and supervisors to
anticipate and prevent regressions to old behavior patterns. By developing strategies to cope with and overcome foreseen
obstacles, the trainee will feel a greater sense of control and selfefficacy, thereby reducing the chances of relapse.87 A field
study of research scientists who went through a coaching skills training program found that relapse prevention tactics had the
greatest effect when individual scientists also reported a strong transfer climate in their department.88 A review of eight
studies of relapse prevention strategies by Holly Hutchins and Lisa Burke found only partial support for this approach to
promoting positive transfer.89 However, these authors argue that a number of methodological issues in these studies have
prevented relapse prevention from getting a fair shake in the studies done to date. Overall, supervisory support can increase
transfer by clarifying the manager’s and trainee’s expectations prior to training, and by making managers aware of their role in
the transfer process so they can develop ways to encourage transfer.90 The opportunity to perform what has been learned
back on the job is an important element of the work environment. Work by Kevin Ford and colleagues is useful here. They
define the opportunity to perform as “the extent to which a trainee is provided with or actively obtains work experiences
relevant to tasks for which he or she was trained.”91 The opportunity to perform is influenced by both the organization and the
individual. Ford and colleagues investigated the effects of three groups of variables (organizational level, work level, and
individual characteristics) on the opportunity to perform. They found that subjects did have different opportunities to perform
trained tasks on the job and that the variables that most influenced their opportunities to do so included supervisors’ attitudes
toward training, work group support, and the trainees’ self-efficacy and cognitive ability. A study by Lim and Johnson asked
trainees to list reasons for the lack of transfer from an organizational training program. The number one reason cited for low
transfer (listed by over 64 percent of trainees!) was “lack of opportunity to apply on the job.”92 More research is needed to
specify the factors that influence the opportunity to perform. However, it is clear that effective strategies should ensure that
trainees have opportunities to use their new knowledge and skills if real organizational benefit is to be expected from HRD
interventions. Overall, research supports the transfer of training model proposed by Baldwin and Ford. That is, trainee
characteristics, training design principles, and aspects of the work environment all impact trainee learning and retention which
in turn impacts training transfer. Cumulatively, research on transfer of training offers a number of recommendations for
designing, training, and HRD programs, nine of which are listed in Table 3-2. We view these as practical lessons learned from
our discussion of training transfer. A recent review by Andreas Gegenfurtner and colleagues highlights the importance of
motivation to transfer, which links back to our discussion earlier in this chapter concerning trainability.93 Holly Hutchins and
colleagues provide practical recommendations concerning how to increase trainer competencies that will support training
transfer in the work environment.94 Drewitt advocates the use of bi-weekly “progress reports” or updates, where trainers
meet with trainees to determine the extent to which trainee implementation goals have been met back in the workplace.