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Aula 5-Cont

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14 views29 pages

Aula 5-Cont

Instrumentação

Uploaded by

picasso544
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Transducer and Sensor Classication

Passive Sensors
Active Sensors

Sensors for Biomedical Applications

Miguel Velhote Correia


FEUP-DEEC

February 2018

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors
Active Sensors

Summary
1 Transducer and Sensor Classication
Mensurand vs Output
Operating mode
Transduction principle
2 Passive Sensors
Resistive sensors
Potentiometers
Strain gauges
Inductive sensors
Capacitive sensors
3 Active Sensors
Thermoelectric sensors
Piezoelectric sensors
Photoelectric sensors
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication Mensurand vs Output
Passive Sensors Operating mode
Active Sensors Transduction principle

Transducer and sensor classication

Transducers and sensors can be classied in dierent categories according to:


the input mensurand
the output electrical property
the operating mode
the transduction principle or physical eect

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication Mensurand vs Output
Passive Sensors Operating mode
Active Sensors Transduction principle

Mensurand vs Electrical output


Comercially available sensors

Mensurand Electrical property (output)


(input) resistance inductance capacitance charge current voltage
displacement x x x
velocity x x x
acceleration x x x
ow x x x
force x x x
pressure x x x
temperature x x x
light x x
humidity x x
...

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication Mensurand vs Output
Passive Sensors Operating mode
Active Sensors Transduction principle

Operating Mode

Signal modulators (or passive): require an energy source in addition to the mensurand
input
resistive
inductive
capacitive
Signal generators (or active): output an electrical signal directly from the mensurand
without any other energy source
thermoelectric
piezoelectric
photoelectric
magnetic
...
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication Mensurand vs Output
Passive Sensors Operating mode
Active Sensors Transduction principle

Transduction principle and Physical eect


thermoelectric conversion of temperature dierences to electric voltage; Seebeck (1821)
pyroelectric certain materials generate a temporary electric voltage when they are
heated or cooled; Brewster (1824)
piezoelectric certain solids materials accumulate electric charge in response to applied
mechanical stress; Jacques and Pierre Curie (1880)
ferroelectric certain materials have a spontaneous electric polarization; Valasek (1920)
photoelectric emission of electrons or other free carriers when light shines on a
material; Einstein (1921); other phenomena include the photoconductive,
the photovoltaic, and the photoelectrochemical
Hall eect production of a voltage dierence across an electrical conductor,
transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied
magnetic eld perpendicular to the current
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Resistive principle

Consider a homogeneous electrical conductive wire; the l


resistance R of the wire depends on the resistivity of the
material ρ and the geometric factors of the wire, length i

l and cross section A v _


+
A
In resistive sensors, the mensurand directly or indirectly
causes either a change in the resistivity or in at least one l
of the geometric factors R≡ρ
A
Since resistance is related to electrical voltage and
current by Ohm's law, it is possible to evaluate the v(t) = R(t) I
resistance variation by measuring one of these i(t) = V /R(t)
quantities, keeping the other constant:
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Potentiometers

A potentiometer consists of a piece of resistive material


(metallic wire, metallic lm, conductive plastic or
ceramic material), usually linear or circular, with two
contacts at the ends and a third sliding contact along
the length
Used as a position or displacement sensor, the i=0
V +
_
potentiometer is subjected to a constant electrical a
b
+

voltage between the end terminals and the voltage at vout


_
the sliding contact is measured, proportional to its
position: vout = V RRab = V ab ∝ b

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Construction details

Potentiometric sensors can measure translational or rotational displacements


M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Practical limitations

The resolution of these sensors depends on the construction; a continuous variation of


the resistance may be obtained with resistive lms, but in cases where the resistance is
obtained by coiled metal wire the variation becomes discontinuous, the resolution being
dependent on the spacing between the turns of the winding

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Real potentiometers

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Basic Interface Circuit

Reading the output voltage with any real device


will introduce a load resistor, such that:
R2 kRL
vL = R1 +R2 kRL VS
vL =  R2  VS
R
R1 1+ R 2 +R2
L
if RL  R2 then
R2
vL ≈ R1 +R2 Vs
To satisfy the above condition, usually RL is
the very high input resistance of an operational
amplier, making the current I negligible

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Strain Gauges
Most common type consists of a resistive material (metal wire or deposited lm or
semiconductor bar) bonded to a matrix and to which two terminals are attached
When it undergoes a compression or a tensile stress within the limits of elasticity its
resistance varies due to variations in length, cross-section and resistivity of the wire
When glued to the material to be studied, it can detect very small displacements
(nanometers)

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Example of Strain Gauges

Strain gauges with nominal resistance values of 30 Ω to 3000 Ω are commercially


available, with 120 Ω, 350 Ω, and 1000 Ω being the most common values

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Common assemblies of strain gauges

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Resistance variation in straing gauges


We have already seen that the resistance is related to the resistivity of the material
and its length and cross section: R ≡ ρ Al
Applying logarithms and dierentiating, the equation of relative changes becomes:
dR dl dA dρ
= − +
R l A ρ
where dA/A = 2dD/D, D being the diameter of the cross section A;
The Poisson coecient µ relates variation in diameter with variation in length
dD/D = −µdl/l; thus relative variation of resistance is:

dR dl dρ
= (1 + 2µ) +
R l ρ
having a dimensional eect and a piezoresistive eect.
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Gauge factor

G is the ratio of the relative Material Composition Gauge factor


resistance variation ∆R/R to Constantan Ni,Cu 2.1
the strain  = ∆l/l: Isoelastic Ni,Cr,Fe,(Mn,Si,Mo)4 3.52 to 3.6
∆R/R ∆R/R
G = ∆l/l =  = Karma Ni,Cr,Fe,Cu 2.1
∆ρ/ρ
= (1 + 2µ) + ∆l/l
Alloy 479 Pt,W 3.6 to 4.4
Nickel Pure -12 to -20
The G factor for most metals, Silicon Type p 100 to 170
where µ = 0.3, is greater than Silicon Type n -100 to -140
1.6, with the geometric eect Germanium Type p 102
being the most important Germanium Type n -150

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Semiconductor strain gauges

most important eect is piezoresistive and G is 50


to 70 times higher than in metals; this advantage is
hampered by the high dependence on temperature
can be made of silicon or germanium, type n or p;
uniformly doped (a), integrated with a material of a
given type diused into a substrate of the opposite
type (b); a pressure sensor consisting of a n-type
silicon membrane with 8 diused p-type strain
gauges (c) a displacement sensor with 4 p-type
strain gauges mounted on a cantilever on a n-type
substrate (d)

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Measurements with Strain gauges


To measure a strain of the order of 10µm/m using a metal strain gauge of nominal
resistance 120Ω and gauge factor G = 2.0.
∆R = GR = 2.0 × 120 × 10 × 10−6 = 2.4mΩ

This resistance variation corresponds to: 0.0024


120 × 100% = 0.002% of the gauge
resistor's nominal value!
How can we measure such a small variation?
Measurement bridges + Amplication of the bridge output signal

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Measurements with Strain gauges


To measure a strain of the order of 10µm/m using a metal strain gauge of nominal
resistance 120Ω and gauge factor G = 2.0.
∆R = GR = 2.0 × 120 × 10 × 10−6 = 2.4mΩ

This resistance variation corresponds to: 0.0024


120 × 100% = 0.002% of the gauge
resistor's nominal value!
How can we measure such a small variation?
Measurement bridges + Amplication of the bridge output signal

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Measurements with Strain gauges


To measure a strain of the order of 10µm/m using a metal strain gauge of nominal
resistance 120Ω and gauge factor G = 2.0.
∆R = GR = 2.0 × 120 × 10 × 10−6 = 2.4mΩ

This resistance variation corresponds to: 0.0024


120 × 100% = 0.002% of the gauge
resistor's nominal value!
How can we measure such a small variation?
Measurement bridges + Amplication of the bridge output signal

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Interface circuit: Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone brigde Output voltage


vout = vB − vA
= i1 R4 − i2 R3
i1 = VS/(R1 +R4 )
i2 = VS/(R2 +R3 )
vout R4 R3
VS = R1 +R4 − R2 +R3
R2 R4 −R1 R3
= (R1 +R4 )(R2 +R3 )

Balance condition
vout = 0 if R1 R3 = R2 R4

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Wheatstone bridge with One, Two or Four strain gauges

Four gauges
Two gauges
One gauge

G
vo = Vs 2+G vo = Vs G2  vo = Vs G

Exercise: verify the measurement equation presented for each case


M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Oset of the bridge output voltage

The equations we write for the output voltage of the


Wheatstone bridge assume that this voltage is zero
(balanced bridge) when the gauges are not subject
to deformation. In practice the tolerances of the
resistances and some deformation induced by the
application of the gauges lead to a non-zero initial
oset voltage. This voltage is usually eliminated in
two ways: by using a circuit that rebalances the
bridge in the initial conditions or alternatively by
measuring the oset initially and then correcting the
measured values by software.

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Eect of connection wires

The equations for the output voltage of the


bridge assume that the resistances of the
connection wires of the strain gauges are
negligible, which taking into account the small
variation of resistance that we wish to detect
can lead to an appreciable error. This error can
be minimized by using 3-wire connections, as
shown in the gure.
Exercise: derive the measurement equation for
both cases

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Bridge Calibration

To provide a way to calibrate the measuring bridge,


a known shunting resistance is used to unbalance
the bridge and the measurement is made to verify
that the value coincides with that expected.
For example, a strain gauge bridge with nominal
resistance of 350 Ω and sensitivity of 2 mV/V
provides an output voltage of 20 mV when one of
the arms varies 0.8, i.e. changes to 347.2 Ω
When a resistance of 43.75 kΩ is placed in parallel
with one of the arms of the bridge, which is initially
balanced, the output should vary from 0 to 20 mV
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Biomedical Applications: blood pressure


Some strain gauges used in biomedicine, as shown in the gure, are not of the cast
type; a diaphragm is directly connected through an armature to a Wheatstone
bridge gauge system A, B, C and D, as shown in b) wherein R1 = B , R2 = A,
R3 = D and R4 = C . When the pressure in the diaphragm increases the strain on
the pair of gauges B and C increases, decreasing in pair A and D and vice versa.
This type of sensor can be used to convert blood pressure into diaphragm
movement, variation of the resistance of the strain gauges and therefore change in
the output voltage of the bridge.

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors


Transducer and Sensor Classication
Passive Sensors Resistive sensors
Active Sensors

Biomedical Applications: pletismography

Assess volumetric changes in limbs arising from cardiac pulsations (systolic pressure)

Mercury-in-rubber strain-gauge plethysmography (a) Four-lead gauge applied to human


calf. (b) Bridge output for venous-occlusion plethysmography. (c) Bridge output for
arterial-pulse plethysmography. [Part (a) is based on D. E. Hokanson, D. S. Sumner,
and D. E. Strandness, Jr., "An electrically calibrated plethysmograph for direct
measurement of limb blood ow." 1975, BME-22, 25-29
M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors
Bibliography Further reading

Further reading

John G. Webster, Medical Instrumentation Application and Design , John Wiley


and Sons; 4 edition (February 3, 2009); ISBN: 0471676004. Chapter 2
R. Khandpur, Biomedical Instrumentation: Technology and Applications,
McGraw-Hill Professional; 1 edition (November 5, 2004); ISBN: 0071447849.
Chapter 3

M. V. Correia INSB  EBE0179, Biomedical Sensors

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