2024-2025

NAME : Digvijay Singh Rathore

SCHOOL : Euro International
TOPIC:- FATTY MATERIALS AND
DIFFERENT SOAP SAMPLES
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Digvijay Singh Rathore, a student

of class XII has successfully completed the the below
mentioned project during the year 2024-25.

This project was undertaken as part of the

requirements for the Chemistry practical
examination

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF
EXTERNAL EXAMINER CHEMISTRY TEACHER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many

people have best owned upon me their blessings and the
heart pledged support, this time I am utilizing to thank all
the people who have been concerned with project.
Primarily I would thank god for being able to complete this
project with success. Then I would like to thank my
principal and chemistry teacher
whose valuable guidance has been the ones that helped me
patch this project and make it full proof success.His
suggestions and his instructions have served as the major
contributor towards the completion of the project.
Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who
have helped me with their valuable suggestions and
guidance has been helpful in various phases of the
completion of the project.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my classmates
who have helped me a lot and also P a n k a j M e h r a
Sir.
 -: CONTENTS :-
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EXPERIMENT
3. THEORY
4. CONCLUSION
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 PREPARATION OF SOAP
GENERAL INFORMATION
What Are Oils & Fats?
Alcohol or alkanols may be considered as hydroxyl derivatives of saturated
hydrocarbons or alkanes and represented by general formula R-OH group.
All alcohols contain the hydroxyl group (-OH) as the functional group,
which determine the general properties of the family. The remaining part, i.e.,
other than the (–OH) group is called the hydrocarbon structure.
Alcohols are classified as mono, di- and trihydric alcohols according to the
number of hydroxyl groups contained in their molecules. Thus:
C2H5OH CH2OH C2H4(OH)2
Ethyl Alcohol │ OR

(Monohydric) CH2OH
Glycol (Dihydric)

CH2OH
│
CH2OH OR C3H5(OH)3
│
CH2O
H
Glycerol (Trihydric)

Glycerol is a trihydric alcohol with three hydroxyl groups.

 Carboxylic (or alkanoic) acids are the organic compounds containing
carboxyl (–COOH) group. They are represented by the general formula R–
COOH.
Aliphatic monocarboxylic acids (containing one carboxyl group) are known
as fatty acids because some of their higher members with long hydrocarbon
chains are obtained from oils and fats. Members of family of carboxylic acids in
which R contains 15 or more carbon atoms are known as higher fatty acids. Some
common higher fatty acids are:
C15H31COOH C17H35COOH C17H35COOH
(Palmitic acid) (Oleic acid) (Stearic acid)

Oils and fats are the triesters of glycerol with various long chain organic
acids, both saturated and unsaturated.
These triesters are usually known as glycerides.
Oils are liquids at ordinary temperatures while fats are solids.
The glycerides constituting oils contain a larger proportion of unsaturated
acids, such as oleic acid (C17H33COOH), linoleic acid (C17H31COOH), etc., while
the glycerides forming the fats contain a larger proportion of saturated acids, such
as lauric acid (C11H23COOH), myristic acid (C13H27COOH), palmitic acid
(C15H31COOH) and stearic acid (C17H35COOH).
The glycerides are named according to the acid radical present in them. For
instance, the glyceride containing stearic acid radical is called stearin or tristearin
and the one containing the palmitic acid radical is named as palmitin or
tripalmitin.

CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC15H31
│ │
CHOOCC17H35 CHOOCC15H31
│ │
CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC15H31
(Stearin or triesterin) (Palmitin or tripalmitin)
Usually more than one acid radical is present in the same glyceride. These are
called mixed glycerides. The naturally occurring oils and fats are generally
mixtures of such ‘mixed glycerides’.
For instance:

CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC15H31
│ │
CHOOCC15H31 CHOOCC17H35
│ │
CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC17H35
(Oleo-palmito-stearin) (Palmito-distearin)

CH2OOCC17H35
│
CHOOCC15H3
1

│
CH2OOCC15H3
1

(Stearo-dipalmitin)

WHAT ARE SOAPS?

Soaps are mixtures of sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such
as stearic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid. They are usually obtained by the
hydrolysis of oils and fats with sodium or potassium hydroxide (alkali hydrolysis).
For example,
CH2OOCC15H31 CH2OH 2C15H31COON
a
│ │ (Sodium palmitate)

CHOOCC15H31 + NaOH → CHOH (Soap)

│ │
CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OH C17H35COONa
(Dipalmito-stearin) (Sodium Sterate)
(Oil or fat) (Soap)

The alkali hydrolysis of oil and fat is known as Saponification.

The sodium soaps are generally hard in consistency and are known as Hard
Soaps. The potassium soaps, on the other hand, are comparatively soft and more
soluble and are referred to as Soft Soaps. Shaving creams, vanishing creams,
shampoos, etc., are all potassium soaps

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAPS:

Soaps act as cleansing agent by decreasing the surface tension of water.
Any surface or interface has a surface tension, or surface energy caused by the
unequal attraction, between molecules in opposite sides. A detergent (cleansing
agent) ties together the two surfaces and consequently diminishes the fraction of
dissimilar cohesive forces at the surface and hence decreases the surface energy.
The adsorption of the detergent at the solid surface permits wetting of the surface
by water and rolling up of oil films into small droplets.

Cleansing (or washing) properties of soaps and detergents depend on the lowering they cause in the
surface tension of water. Greater the lowering in the value of surface tension, greater will be the
cleansing capacity of the detergent.

Surface tension of two soap solutions ( 1and 2 ) can be easily compared by

counting the number of drops ( 1 and 2) formed from equal volumes containing
equal weights of the detergents.
 1 / 2 = 1 / 2

STALAGMOMETER OR DROP PIPETTE:

It is an apparatus used for comparing relative surface tension of liquids. It
consists of a capillary tube the end of which is flattened out (in order to give a
large dropping surface) and the surface is ground flat and polished. The capillary
is sealed on to a tube of wider bore on which a bulb is blown and on the stem of
the tube, two marks are etched, one above and another below the bulb.

EXPERIMENT:-
OBJECTIVE:
a) To prepare soap from oils (say Mahuwa oil, ground nut oil and coconut oil).
b) To compare the soap prepared with the market soap by determining their
foaming capacity and cleaning effect.
APPARATUS:
Beakers, Stalagmometer (drop pipette), test tubes, petri dishes, stop watch.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
The washing soap is prepared from the following chemicals:
1. Mahuwa Oil = 100g
2. Caustic Soda = 25g
3. Starch = 25g
4. Water = 150ml
PROCEDURES:
1. Dissolve caustic soda in 150ml of water. This solution is called lye. Let this
soda lye cool.
2. Warm the oil on flame and mix 50g of starch with it. Remove the flame and
allow the oil to cool.
3. When the oil and soda lye are at about the same temperature (which can be
tested by putting a finger in each of them at the same time) . Add soda lye to the oil in a
thin stream.
4. Stir the mass constantly well with a wooden rod till the whole lye has
been added. A creamy pasty mass is obtained.
5. Stir the mass more till a semi-solid mass is obtained. Transfer it into an
iron mould or a wooden frame.
6. Cover the mould or frame with wooden board or a gunny bag and leave it
for few hours.
7. Remove the flame and take out the soda slab. Cut it with the help of a wire
into cakes of desired size.
NOTE: - Soaps from ground nut oil as well as coconut oil are prepared by same procedure.

PRECAUTION:
Caustic soda is very corrosive and should not, therefore, be touched
with bare hands.
COMPARISON OF THE FOAMING CAPACITIES OF THE TWO SOAP
SAMPLES:
1. Take 0.1g of each soap sample in two test tubes numbered as 1 and 2.
2. Add 5ml of distilled water in each test tube and shake them vigorously for
2-3
minutes preferably in a shaker.
3. Place the test tubes in a test tube stand and start the stop watch.
4. Note the time when the foam in each of the tubes disappears.
Foaming capacity of that soap sample will be greater in which case it takes longer time to
disappear.

FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT SOAPS

INTRODUCTION:
Soaps and detergents are used for removing grease and dirt from our clothes.
But all soaps are not equally effective in their cleansing action.
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as palmitic
acid (C15H31COOH), stearic acid (C17H35COOH), oleic acid (C17H35COOH) etc.,their
general formula being RCOONa or RCOOK where R is the longer chain alkyl
group i.e. C15H31, C17H33 etc., thus, each soap molecule consists of two parts – a
lipophilic (oil soluble) part R and a hydrophilic (water soluble) part COONa
or
COOK. The cleansing action of the soap depends upon the solubility of the
long alkyl are in grease or oil droplets and that of –COONa or –COOK part
in water.
The dirt is held on the surface of the cloth by grease or oil droplets.
Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet cloth, the non-polar alkyl group
dissolves in grease (non-polar) while the polar –COONa group dissolves in water
(polar). In this way an emulsion is formed between grease and water which
appears as foam. The dirt along with the emulsion is washed away when the
cloth is treated with excess of water.
Thus, the washing capacity of soap depends upon its foaming capacity, i.e.
the extent to which it produces foam with water. The foaming capacity also
depends upon the quality of water used. If soft water is used, soaps easily produce
lot of lather. On the other hand, if hard water is used, even good quality soaps will
not produce lather. The reason being that hard water contains magnesium and
calcium ions which form insoluble magnesium and calcium salts of carboxylic
acids which in turn, precipitate out in the form of a scum.
2C17H35COONa + Ca2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Ca ↓ + 2Na+
(Water Soluble) (ppt.)

2C17H35COONa + Mg2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Mg ↓ + 2Na+

(Water Soluble) (ppt.)
However, if hard water is first treated with Na2CO3, magnesium and
calcium ions present in it and precipitate as their insoluble carbonates. The
filtrate can be used for washing purposes since it is now rendered soft.
In contrast, detergents can be used for washing purposes even in hard water.
The reasons being that detergents are sodium or potassium salts of aliphatic or
aromatic sulphonic acids and even their calcium and magnesium salts are
soluble in water and thus do not form scum but form foam when treated with
hard water.
 EXPERIMENT:-
OBJECTIVE:
To compare the foaming capacity of different soaps.
APPARATUS:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five 20ml test tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder,
test tube stand, weight box and stop watch.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
Five different samples of soap, distilled water.
THEORY:
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the soap and its
concentration. This may be compared by shaking equal volumes of the solutions
of the different samples of soaps having the same concentration with the same
force and for same period of time. The solutions are then allowed to stand when
the foam produced during shaking disappears gradually. The time taken for the
foam to disappear in each sample is determined. The longer the time taken for the
disappearance of foam in the given sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing
capacity.

PREOCEDURE:
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Put 50ml of
distilled water in each of conical flasks and add 5gm of soap shavings or granules
of different soap samples to each flask.
2. Warm the contents of each flask to get a clear solution.
3. Take five 20ml test tubes and add 10ml of distilled water to each one of them and
label them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Now add 1ml of soap solution from each conical
flask to the corresponding test tube.
4. Close the mouth of the test tube number 1 with your thumb and shake its contents
vigorously for one minute. Place test tube in the test tube stand and start the stop
watch immediately. Note the time taken for disappearance of the foam produced.
5. Repeat the same procedure for test tubes 2, 3, 4 and 5 shaking each time with the
same force and for the same time (one minute). Note the time taken for
disappearance of foam in each case and record the observations in a tabular form.
OBSERVATIONS:

Amount of each soap sample taken = 5.0gm

Volume of distilled water added to each soap sample = 50.0ml
Test Tube Name of the Soap Volume of Soap Volume of Time of disappearance
Number Sample Solution Added Water Added of foam(aprox)
1. Dove 1.0ml 10.0ml 120 seconds
2. Lifebuoy 1.0ml 10.0ml 180 seconds
3. Dettol 1.0ml 10.0ml 150 seconds
4. Lux 1.0ml 10.0ml 140 seconds
5. Liril 1.0ml 10.0ml 10 seconds
6. Medimix 1.0ml 10.0ml 130 seconds
RESULT:
The foaming capacity and hence the cleansing capacity of different samples of
soaps is in the order:
Lifebuoy > Dettol > Liril > Lux > Medimix > Dove
PRECAUTION:
Each test tube containing the soap solution must be shaken with the
same force and for the same period of time.
Bibliography
 TEXT BOOK OF CLASS 12th CHEMISTRY
 http://www.google.co.in
 http://www.wikipedia.org
 http://www.youtube.com
 Chatgpt.com
 Help from Subject Teacher and Lab Attender.