CIT /CSC 101

UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1. . WHAT ISCOMPUTER?
 The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO COMPUTE” meansto
calculate.
 A computer is normally considered to be a calculation device which canperform
the arithmetic operations veryspeedily.
 A computer may be defined as a device which operates upon thedata.
 Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc. And it comesin
various shapes & sizes depending upon the type of computerapplication.
 A computer can store, process & retrieve data as and when wedesired.
 The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that many peoplehave
started calling as “DataProcessor”.
 A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and thenproduces
Information.

DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

 DEFINATION OFCOMPUTER
o A computer is an electronic device which takes input from theuser,
processes it and gives the output as per user’srequirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computerare:
 Input
 Process
 Output
2. . WRITE DOWN THE CHARACTERISTICS OFCOMPUTER
Some important characteristics of the computer are as follow:
 DATAutomatic:
o Computers are automatic machines because it works by itselfwithout
humanintervention.
o Once it started on a job they carry on until the job isfinished.
o Computer cannot startthemselves.
 o They can works from the instructions which are stored inside the systemin
the form of programs which specify how a particular job is to bedone.
 Accuracy:
o The accuracy of a computer is veryhigh.
o The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon itsdesign.
o Errors can occur by the computer. But these are due to humanweakness,
due to incorrect data, but not due to the technologicalweakness.
 Speed:
o Computer is a very fact device. It can perform the amount of work infew
seconds for which a human can take an entireyear.
o While talking about computer speed we do not talk in terms ofseconds
and milliseconds but inmicroseconds.
o A powerful computer is capable of performing several billion (109)simple
arithmetic operations persecond.
 Diligence:
o Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness &lack
ofconcentration.
o It can continuously work for hours without creating any error &without
grumbling.
o If you give ten million calculations to performed, it will performwith
exactly the same accuracy & speed as the firstone.
 Versatility:
o It is one of the most wonderful features about thecomputer.
o One moment it is preparing the results of a particular examination, the
next moment it is busy with preparing electricity bills and in between it
may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter inseconds.
 Power ofremembering:
o Computer can store and recall any amount of data because of itshigh
storage capacity of its storagedevices.
o Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by theuser
and can be recalled as and whenrequired.
o Even after several years, if the information recalled, it will be asaccurate
as on the day when it was filled to thecomputers.
 NoI.Q.
o A computer is not a magical device; it processes no intelligence of itsown.
o Its I.Q. iszero.
 o It has to be told what to do & in whatsequence.
o It cannot take its owndecision.

 NoFallings:
o A Computer has no feelings because they aremachines.
o Based on our feelings, task, knowledge and experience we oftenmake
certain judgments in our day todaylife.
o But Computer goes exactly the way which we have given theinstructions .
3. . EXPLAIN THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
OFCOMPUTER.
 The computer Data Processing is any process that a computer program does to
enter data &summarise, analyse or convert data into useable information.
 The process may be automated & run on acomputer.
 It involves recording, analysing, storing, summarising& storing data.
 Because data are most useful when it is well presented &
informative.
The Data Processing Cycle:
 Data Processing cycle described all activities which are common to alldata
processing systems from manual to electronicsystems.
 These activities can be grouped in four functional categories, viz., data input,
data processing, data output and storage, constituting what is known as adata
processingcycle.
 The main aim of data processing cycle is to convert the data intomeaningful
information.
 Data processing system are often referred to as InformationSystem.
 The Information System typically take raw Data as Input to produceInformation
asOutput.

INPUT OUTPUT
DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

STORAGE

 The data processing cycle contains main fourfunctions:

o Datainput
 o Dataprocess
o Datastorage
o Dataoutput
 DATAINPUT
o The term input refers to the activities required to recorddata.
o It’s a process to entered data in to computersystem.
o So before we input any data, it is necessary to check or verify thedata
context.
 DATAPROCESSING
o The term processing includes the activities like classifying,storing,
calculating, comparing or summarising thedata.
o The processing means to use techniques to convert the datainto
meaningfulinformation.
 DATAOUTPUT
o It’s a communication function which transmits the information tothe
outsideworld.
o After completed the process the data are converted into the meaningfulin
o Sometimes the output also includes the decoding activity whichconverts
the electronically generated information into human readableform.
 DATASTORAGE
o It involves the filling of data & information for futureuse.
4. . EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY
DATAPROCESSED
The computers are divided mainly three types on the based on data processed:
1. Analogcomputers
2. Digitalcomputers
3. Hybridcomputers
Analogcomputers:
 In Analog Computers, data is represented as continuously varying voltage and
operate essentially by measuring rathercounting.
 Asthedataiscontinuouslyvariable,theresultsobtainedareestimatedandnot
exactlyrepeatable.
 It can able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously and also capable towork
effectively with the irrational number. E.g. 1/8 = 0.125 and1/6=0.1666
  Voltage, temperature and pressure are measured using analog deviceslike
voltmeters, thermometers andbarometers.
Digital Computers
 The digit computer is a machine based on digital technology whichrepresents
information by numericaldigit.
 InDigitalComputersdataisrepresentedasdiscreteunitsofelectricalpulses.The data
is measured in quantities represented as either the ‘on’ or ‘off’state.
 Therefore, the results obtained from a digital computer areaccurate.
 Virtually all of today’s computers are based on digitalcomputers.
HybridComputers
 It combines the good features of both analog & digitalcomputers.
 It has a speed of analog computer & accuracy of digitalcomputer.
 Hybrid Computers accept data in analog form and present output alsoin
digitally.
 The data however is processeddigitally.
 Therefore, hybrid computers require analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog
converters foroutput.
5. . EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OFTHECOMPUTER BY
DATAPROCESSING:
The computers are classified in four types on the based on data processing.
 Microcomputer
 Minicomputer
 Mainframecomputer
 Super
computerMicroComp
uter:
 Micro computers are the computers with having a microprocessor chip asit
central processingunit.
 Originated in late1970s.
 First micro computer was built with 8 bitprocessor.
 Microcomputer is known as personalcomputer.
 Designed to use by individual whether in the form of pc’s, workstationor
notebookcomputers.
 Small in size and affordable for generalpeople.
 Ex: IBM PC, IBM PC/XT, IBMPC/AT
Micro Computer:
 Mini computers are originated in1960s.
 Small mainframes that perform limitedtasks.
 Less expensive than mainframecomputer.
 Mini computers are Lower mainframe in the terms of processingcapabilities.
 Capable of supporting 10 to 100 userssimultaneously.
 In 1970s it contains 8 bit or 12 bitprocessor.
 Gradually the architecture requirement is grown and 16 and 32bit.
 Minicomputers are invented which are known as superminicomputers.
 Ex: IBM AS400
MainframeComputer:
 A very powerful computer which capable of supporting thousands ofuser
simultaneously.
 It contains powerful data processingsystem.
 It is capable to run multiple operatingsystems.
 It is capable to process 100 million instructions persecond.
 Mainframes are very large & expensive computers with having largerinternal
storage capacity & high processingspeed.
 Mainframes are used in the organization that need to process large numberof
transaction online & required a computer system having massive storage &
processingcapabilities.
 Mainly used to handle bulk of data & information forprocessing.
 Mainframe system is housed in a central location with several userterminal
connected toit.
 Much bigger in size & needs a large rooms with closely humidity&
temperature.
 IBM & DEC are major vendors ofmainframes.
 Ex : MEDHA, SPERRY, IBM, DEC, HP,HCL
Super Computer:
 Most powerful & most expensivecomputer.
 Used for complex scientific application that requires huge processingpower.
 Used multiprocessor technology to perform the calculation veryspeedy.
 They are special purpose computers that are designed to performsome
specifictask.
  The cost of the super computer is depended on its processing capabilities&
configuration.
 The speed of modern computer is measured in gigaflops, teraflopsand
petaflops.
o Gigaflops= 109 arithmetic operation persecond.
o Teraflops=1012 arithmetic operation persecond.
o Petaflops=1015 arithmetic operation persecond.
 Ex: PARAM , EKA, BLUEGENE/P

6. . EXPLAIN THE GENERATION OF THECOMPUTERS.

In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It provides a framework
for the growth of the computer technology. There are totally Five Computer Generations
till today. Discussed as following.
First Generation:
 Duration: 1942-1955
 Technology: vacuumtube
o Used as a calculatingdevice.
o Performed calculations inmilliseconds.
o To bulky in size & complexdesign.
o Required large room to placeit.
o Generates too much heat &burnt.
o Required continuously hardwaremaintenance.
o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms arerequired.
o Commercial production is difficult &costly.
o Difficult toconfigure.
o Limited commercialuse.
o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generationcomputer.

Second Generation:
 Duration: 1955-1964
 Technology: transistor
o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generationsystem.
o Less heat than 1st generationcomputers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generationsystem.
o Computers were done calculations inmicroseconds.
o Air-conditioner is alsorequired.
o Easy to configure than 1st generationcomputers.
 o More reliable ininformation.
o Wider commercialuse.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generationcomputers.

ThirdGeneration:
 Duration: 1965-1975
 Technology: ICchip
o Smaller in size than 1st& 2nd generationcomputers.
o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generationsystems.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generationcomputers.
o Air –conditioner isrequired.
o Widely used for commercialapplications.
o General purposecomputers.
o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to writeprograms.
o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generationcomputer.

Fourth Generation:
 Duration: 1975-1989
 Technology: Microprocessorchip
o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessorchip.
o Smaller insize.
o Much faster than previousgenerations.
o Minimum hardware maintenance isrequired.
o Very reliable as computer to previous generationcomputers.
o Totally general purposecomputer.
o Easy toconfigure.
o Possible to use network concept to connect the computertogether.
o NO requirement ofair-conditioners.
o Cheapest inprice.

Fifth Generation:
 Duration: 1989 to Present
 Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip
o Much smaller &handy.
o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electroniccomponents.
o The speed of the operations isincreased.
o Consumed lesspower.
o Air-conditioner is notrequired.
o More user friendly interface with multi-mediafeatures.
o High level languages are allowed to writeprograms.
o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previousgenerations.
 o Notebook computers are the example of 5th generationcomputers.

7. . EXPLAIN THE BLOCK DIAGRAMOFCOMPUTER

OREXPLAIN THE SIMPLE MODELCOMPUTER.
A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input Devices,
CPU(Central Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:


 InputDevices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the computer systemsare
known as inputdevices.
o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of
inputdevices.
o FUNCTION OF INPUTDEVICES
o Accept the data from the outsideworlds.
o Convert that data into computer codedinformation.
o Supply this data to CPU for furtherprocessing.
 OutputDevices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer are knownas
outputdevices.
o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of outputdevices.
FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES
o Accept the result form theCPU.
o Convert that result into human readableform.
o Display the result on the outputdevice.

 MemoryUnit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer before theactual
processingstart.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before passed tothe
output devices. This tasks performed by memoryunit.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY UNIT

o Store data & instruction received from inputdevices.
o Store the intermediate results generated byCPU.
o Store the final result generated byCPU.

 Arithmetical & LogicalUnit:

o The ALU is the place where actual data & instruction areprocessed.
o All the calculations are performed & all comparisons are made inALU.
o Performs all arithmetical & logicaloperations.
o An arithmetic operation contains basic operations like addition,subtraction,
multiplication,division.
o Logical operations contains comparison such as less than, greater than,less
than equal to, greater than equal to, equal to, not equalto.

 ControlUnit:
o It controls the movement of data and program instructions into and outof
the CPU, and to control the operations of theALU.
o In sort, its main function is to manage all the activities within thecomputer
system.
o Controls the internal parts as well as the external parts related withthe
computer.
 CPU:
o The Unit where all the processing is done is called as Central ProcessingUnit.
o It contains many other units underit.
o Main of them are:- Control Unit And ALU (Arithmetic & LogicUnit)
 UNIT: 2 INPUT DEVICES

1. . WHAT ISINPUTDEVICES ?
 The Input devices are the devices which are used to enter the data inthe
computersystem.
 Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone are the example of inputdevices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUTDEVICES:
o Accept the data from the outsideworlds.
o Convert that data into computer codedinformation.
o Supply this data to Central Processing Unit for furtherprocessing.

CLASIFICATION OF INPUT DEVICES:

2. EXPLAIN STANDARD INPUT DEVICE:KEYBOARD.

 Keyboard is most commonly used inputdevice.
 It is similar like a type writer which is used to enter data in thecomputer.
 It contains sets of keys such as alphabets, number & specialsigns.
 There are two types ofkeyboard.
o General purposekeyboard
o Special purposekeyboard
GENERAL PURPOSE KEYBOARD:
 Standard keyboard which are used in personalcomputers.
 It contains enough keys which are used in all types of applications so theyare
known as general purposekeyboard.
 Most popular general purpose keyboard contains 101keys.
 The general purpose keyboard are divided into following parts:
 ALPHANUMERAICKEYPAD
 The centred part of the keyboard is known as alphanumerickeypad.
 It contains alphabets, numbers & special signs such as *,!, @, #, $, %,*etc.
 NUMERAICKEYPAD
 The right most part of the keyboard is known as numerickeypad.
 It contains 0 to 9 numbers & mathematical signs such as +, *, -,/.
 Mainly used for fast data entry in mathematicalapplications.
 ARROWKEYS
 Set of four keys up, down, left &right.
 Used to move the cursor at left & right or up and down on thescreen.
 They are referred as “cursor-control” or “cursor-movement” keys.
 FUNCTION KEYS
 The first line of the keyboard contains a Set of 12 keys with name f1 to f2are
known as functionkeys.
 Used to generate short-cuts in different softwarepackage.
 SPECIALKEYS
 There are lots of keys that are used for some specific task describesfollows:
 TAB: used for gives multiple spaces or move the cursor to next definedposition.
 ENTER: used for generate the output of anycommand.
 SPACE: used to make one blank space between twowords.
 BACKSPACE: used to remove the left-most character at cursorposition.
 DELETE: used to remove the right-most character at cursorposition.
 HOME: moves the cursor at the beginning of theline.
 END: moves cursor at the end of theline.
 PAGE UP: moves or scroll the screen up or previous page of the currentpage.
 PAGE DOWN: moves the screen to the next page from the currentlydisplayed
page.
 PRINT SCREEN: used to print what is currently displayed on thescreen.
 INSERT: used to enter text between twocharacters.
 ESC: used to negate current command or terminate the execution ofthe
program.
 ALT: used to expand the functionality of keyboard. Basically used togenerate
shortcuts in differentapplication.
 CTRL: used to expand the functionality of keyboard. Basically used togenerate
shortcuts in differentapplication.
 NUMLOCK: used to on or off the numerickeypad.
  CAPSLOCK: used to type the all inputted textcapitally.
SPECIAL PURPOSE KEYBOARD
 Special purpose keyboard is used for special purpose applications which required
faster data entry and rapid interaction with the computersystem.
 For example ATM used in banks used special purpose keyboard which containsa
fewkeys.
3. . EXPLAIN POINTINGDEVICES.
1. .MOUSE
 Mouse is Small hand-hold device Input device which is generally usedfor
drawingpurpose.
 It’s a Pointingdevice.
 It contains two or threebuttons
 Left button is used to point out or select any item byclicking.
 Right to generate contextmenu.
 When user moves mouse across flat surface, the graphic cursor moves onscreen.
 Graphic cursor contains verity of symbols such as arrow, wrist, pointingfinger
etc.
 Depending on application text & graphic cursors arechanged.
 The following 5 techniques are used to carry out variousoperations:
 POINT:
o To move the mouse on top oficon
 CLICK:
o To press & release the left button of mouse atonce.
o Used to open any currently selected icon,menu.
 DOUBLECLICK:
o To press & release the left button of mousetwice.
o Used to open any application orprogram.

 SIMULTANEOUS-CLICK:
o Press & release left & right button togather.
o Used in some software package to added somefunctionality.
 DRAG:
o Press the left button down & moved the mouse onscreen.
o Used to move the graphics onscreen.
 Many types of mouse are available such as mechanical mouse, optical mouse,
serial mouse, wireless mouse which are used for differentpurpose.
2. . TRACK BALL

 Trackball is a pointing device which is similar to amouse.

 A ball is placed on the track ball device which is used to move the graphiccursor
on thescreen.
 Italsocontainsbuttonswhichareusedtoselectaparticularitemonthescreen.
 To move the graphic cursor on screen, the ball is rolled with the fingers or
thumb.
 It needs not to move the whole device to move the cursor so it is oftenattached
with somekeyboards.
 Track balls come in various shapes with samefunctionality.
 Commonly three shapes are used: ABALL, A SQUARE, and ASQUARE.
 In case of ball we need to move it with the help offinger.
 In case of button pushed with finger in desired direction of thecursor
movement.
 In case of button press finger to up or down & left or right to movecursor.
Advantages of trackball
 Takes less deskspace.
  Takes less arm movements thanmouse.
 Doesn’t require any mouse pad & large area to move themouse.
 Less strain on thewrist.
 Finger trip control which may offer more accuracy thanmouse.

3. .JOYSTICK

 Joystick is a pointing device which is works on the same principle of trackball.

 It contains a stick which is placed on the sphericalball.
 The stick is used to move the cursor at desired position left or right orbackward
orforward.
 It also contain button that is clicked to make selection of currently pointeditem.
 A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that with a mouse the cursorstops
moving as soon as you stop moving themouse.
 With a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the direction the joystick is
pointing.
 To stop the pointer, you must return the joystick to its uprightposition.
 Some of the systems using joysticksare
o Aircrafts, UAVs for flightcontrol
o Motorized Wheelchairs as inputdevice
o Microscopes
o Submarines
o SecuritySystems
o VideoGames
 Joysticks are widely used for videogames
 Advantages ofjoystick
 It is very easy to learn touse.
  Very simple design so they can beinexpensive.
 It has a big analogue stick in the middle so it’s easier tocontrol.

4. . LIGHT PEN

 Light pen is a pointing device which is used to draw directly draw on thescreen.
 It is called light pen because it is similar to a pen & senseslight.
 It’s an input device in the form of light-sensitive stick used in conjunction witha
CRTdisplay.
 The light pen allows the user to point out or draw any object on thescreen.
 The user brings the pen to the desired point on screen and presses thepen
button to makecontact.
 It has a switch on its top which allows the user to make contact withscreen.
 It is useful for drawing or graphics in the program such as CAD (computeraided
design).
 An engineer, architect or fashion designer can draw directly onscreen.
 Used in application such as gaming, graphic arts, healthcare applicationsetc.
 Light pen cannot scratch or damage ascreen.
Advantages of light pen;
o Less expensive than touchscreen.
o give the user the full range of mouse capabilities, without the use of apad
or any horizontalsurface
o Cannot scratch or damagescreen.
o Works on any sizescreen.

5. . TOUCH SCREEN
 Touch screen is a pointingdevice.
 It is most simple & easiest to learn of all inputdevices.
 It allows the user to choose from available options by simply touching withtheir
figure to the desired icon or menu item displayed on the computerscreen.
 A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presenceand
location of a touch within the displayarea.
 The term generally refers to touching the display of the device with a fingeror
hand.
 Touch screens are common in devices such as computers, tablet computers&
Smartphone.
 The touch screen has two mainattributes::
o First, it enables one to interact directly with what isdisplayed.
o Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any intermediate devicethat
would need to be held in thehand
 It’s a very easy to operate device which users can use the system withoutany
formaltraining.
 Uses optical sensors that detect the touch of the finger onscreen.
 Sensors communicate the position of touch to the computer which interpretsthe
input made by theusers.
 It contains pressure sensitive monitors which are placed inside the baseof
computerscreen.
 Pressure sensitive monitors contain sensors to measure the monitor’s weightat
manypoints.
 When user touches the screen, the changes on weights & forcestransferred
down to sensor which allows the device to detect the location of thetouch.
 This type of monitors required little pressure to transmit the desiredinput.
 Touch screen are commonly used in followingplaces.
o An airport or railwaystation.
o Large departmentalstores.
o In large museums or zoos to guide visitors to the locations ofvarious
attractions.
o Self service checkout
o In ATMmachines
o In I-phones orPDA’s
o Computer basedtraining
 Any type of touch screen contains Three maincomponents:
A touch screen sensorpanel:
 o Which sits above the display & generate appropriate voltage accordingto
where precisely it istouched?
A touch screen controller:
o Processes the signal received from the sensor & translates this touchevent
data & passed to pc’s processor via serial or USBinterface.
A soft waredriver:
o Provides an interface to the pc’s operating system & which translates the
touch event data into mouseevent.
6. .DIGITIZER

 An inputdevice.
 Used for converting pictures, map & drawing into digitalform.
 Allows one to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way onedraws
images with a pencil andpaper.
 Also be used to capture data or handwrittensignatures.
 The device consists of a flat surface upon which the user may "draw" animage
using an attached stylus, a pen-like drawingtool.
 These devices are usually connected via a Serialport.
 Placed on the desk n connected with thecomputer.
 Digitizer consists of graphic tablets which are associated with astylus.
 The stylus is like a pen with abutton.
 Stylus connected with a tablet and can press down at a point on the tabletto
input (x, y) co-ordinates ofpoint.
 It contains hundreds of copper wires forming a grid that receives electricpulsed.
 When stylus moves on tables the cursor on screen movesssimultaneously.
 Allows the user to draw sketchesdirectly.
 Commonly used in CAD by architects &engineers.
  Used in GIS (geographical information system) for digitizingmaps.

7. .MICROPHONE
 It’s an inputdevice.
 Used to stores the voice data into the computersystem.
 Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which converts energy fromone
form toanother.
 Microphones convert sound waves into electricalenergy.
 Different types of microphone have different ways of convertingenergy.

 All the microphones share one common thing: Thediaphragm.

 Thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates when
it is struck by soundwaves.
 When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphoneto
vibrate.
 These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomesthe
audiosignal.
 The microphones are divided in mainly two types
The type of conversion technology theyuse
o This refers to the technical method the mike uses to convert soundinto
electricity.
o The most common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbonand
crystal.
The type of application they are designed for
o Some mikes are designed for general use and others are muchspecialised
purpose.
8. . WEBCAMERA
 It’s an inputdevice.
 Used to feeds the image to a computer or computer network often via USBor
Wi-Fi.
  Web camera is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows
everyone to connect to internet to view either pictures or motionvideo.
 Most Web cameras are embedded to display with laptop computer orconnected
with USB or Wi-Fi with acomputer.
 Simple web cam. Consists a digital camera attached to your computertypically
throughUSB.
 The camera part of web camera is just a digitalcamera.
 Web camera comes with software which preset interval & transfer it toanother
location ofviewing.
 Web camera system allows you to using video also for that you have webcamera
with high framerate.
 Web camera is a digital camera which taking picture over & over & againone
afteranother.
 These images are stored image into the physical memory of camera in builtin.
 After capture image & stored in memory it reduced the amount of data needto
transmit.
 Web camera software takes image & converts data in jpeg (compressingformat).

9. . EXPLAIN SCANNER &ITSTYPES.

 Scanners are inputdevices.
 They are capable of entering information directly into thecomputer.
 The main advantage of direct entry of information is that users do not haveto
key theinformation.
 And another advantage is that through Scanners you can input GraphicalData
into the computer.This
 Provides faster and more accurate data entry.
Important types ofscanners
Image scanner:
 It’s an input device, which translates paper documents into an electronicformat
which can b stored in acomputer.
 The input document may be typed text, pictures, graphics or even handwritten
material.
 There are two types of imagescanner:
Flatbedscanner
 o It’s like a zerox machine which consist of box having a glass plate on itstop
and a lid to covers the glassplate.
o The document placed inside the glass plate & light source is situatedblow
glass plate which moves horizontally from left to write & scanning
document line byline.
Handheld scanner
o It contains a set of light emitting diodes encased in small case which can be
conveniently held inhand.
o To scan a document the scanner is slowly dragged on thedocument.
o The scanner has to be dragged carefully & steadily otherwisethe
document cannot scanproperly.
o Used when higher accuracy is notrequired.

10. EXPLAIN THE OPTICALSCANNERS

OMR (OPTICAL MARKREADER)

 OMR is a device that is capable of recognised pre-specified type of mark madeby

pencil orpen.
 The Optical Mark Reader is a device which can detect the presence or absence ofa
mark on apaper.
 The OMR recognise the marks by focusing a light on the paper being scanned&
detect the reflected light pattern frommark.
 The present mark is detected due to intensity of light being reflected from themark.
 Pencil marks made with soft lead pencil reflect the light which allowing the OMRto
determine which response aremark.
 OMR is used in reading answers sheets,questionnaires.
 ADVANTAGES
 Speedy and accurate to generateresult.
 Cheap
incost.DISADVANTA
GES
 Cannot able to readcharacters.
 Erasing or cancellation is notpossible.
 Good quality expensive paper isrequired.
 OCR (OPTICAL CHARACTER READER) DEVICE
 OCR capable of recognizing alphabets & numbers printed onpaper.
 It can also capable of recognise shape & identify character directly fromsource
document.
 It is always used with character recognizedsoftware.
 It converts bitmap images of character to equivalent ASCIIcode.
 First it create bitmap image of document & OCR software translate into ASCIIcode
which computer interprets letter, symbol ornumber.
 The type of document must be type using OCRfonts.
 The software design to recognised the standard OCR-A(American standard) & OCR-
B(Europeanstandard)
ADVANTAGES
 Speedy entereddata.
 Accept wide range of font using ordinarymark.
DISADVANTAGE
 Expensive
 Scanned properly only if the characters are standardsize.
 Dusty paper cant scannedproperly.

MICR (MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION)

 MICR systems use special ink which can be magnetized, to print characters that can
then be read and decoded by special magneticdevices.
 The common E13B font is used to write these special kinds ofcheques.
 E13B font contains 0-9 numbers & 4symbols.
 Detection of characters is a two stepprocess.
 First MICR Reader-Sorter reads the data on cheques& sorts the chequesfor
distribution for furtherprocessing.
 The reading station is used to sense and identify the magnetic characters asthey
passthrough.
 Magnetized characters are read by the head. E.g. MICR is used in Banks tocheques
the MICR systems use special ink which can be magnetized, to print characters
cheques.
ADVANTAGES
 Speedy dataentry.
 Accurateoutput.
 Folded or roughly handled cheques are also scanned with same accuracy.
DISADVANTAGE
 MICR software isrequired.
 Limited fonts are used so used in banking industriesonly.
BCR (BAR CODE READER) DEVICE
 Data can be coded in the form of small lines which are known as BarCodes.
 Bar codes represent the alphanumeric data by combination of vertical lineswhich
contains different width & spacing betweenthem.
 Bar Code Reader is a device which are used to recognized bar codedata.
 It scanned the barcode image & converted into alphanumeric value & fedto
computer.
 It uses laser-beam technology. Laser stroke across the pattern of bar whichsensed
by light sensitive decoder & their reflection of light pattern are converted into
electrical pulse which converted it into alphanumericvalue.
 Various barcodes are available for differentuse.
 Most common is UPC (UNIVERSAL PRODUCTCODE).
It contain 10 digit first 5 identify the manufacturer name & remaining identify a specific
product.
 UNIT: 3 OUTPUT DEVICES
1. . WHAT IS OUTPUT DEVICE.
 The output devices are the devices which are used to display theresult
generated by the computersystem.
 Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker are the example of outputdevices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUTDEVICES:
o Accept the result from theCPU.
o Convert that result into human readableform.
o Supply this result to outputdevice.
2. . EXPLAIN THE VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT

OR
EXPLAIN CRT (CATHOD RAY TUBE) MONITER.
 The monitor is the common output device mostly used It is a softcopyoutput
device.
 It can be thought of as a high resolution TVset.
 The monitor can also determine if the display will be colour, black and white,or
include graphical objects(pictures).
 Two types of monitors areused.
o CRTmonitors.
o Non CRTmonitors.
 Most computer monitors are based on Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)technology.
 The basic operation of these tubes is similar to that in televisionsets.
 
 In CRT display CRT is a specialised vacuum tube in which images areproduced
when electron beam strikes a phosphorsurface.
 CRT monitor contains cathode, control grid, acceleration anode, deflectionplates
& phosphor coatedscreen.
 Cathode: the cathode is heated by filament and produced high speed & large
amount ofelectrons.
 Control Grid: used to control the brightness of the screen. It controls thenumber
ofelectrons.
 Accelerating anodes: they are with focusing lens are applied withpositive
electrons.
 Horizontal deflection plate: moves electron side byside.
 Vertical deflection: moves electrons up &down.
 Screen: contains millions of tiny red, green, blue phosphor dot that glowwhen
struck by electron beam that travels across screen to create a visibleimage.
ADVANTAGES OF CRT DISPLAY
 Produce morecolours.
 Price is lower than LCD &Plasma.
 High contrastratio.
 Can easily increase brightness of monitor by reflecting thelight.
DISADVANTAGES OF CRTDISPLAY
 High powerconsumed.
 Heavy to pick up andcarry.
 Large spacerequired.

3. . EXPLAIN THE NON CRTDISPLAY.

LCD(LiquidCrystalDisplay)
 In LCD, a liquid crystalline material is sandwiched between two glass or a plastic
plates.
 The front plate is transparent and the back plate isreflective.
 There is a coating of thin film on the frontplate.
 The coating is transparent and conductive. Its sections (segments) are inthe
shape of desiredcharacters.
 LCDs do not emit their own light. Therefore, a light source is to beused.
 LCDs simply change the reflection of available light. Today, most LCDs usedare
of the type that produces dark images on a silverbackground.
Advantages:
 Light weight as compare toCRT.
 Perfectly flatscreen.
 Consumed low electricitypower.
 Able to generate higher brightness inimages.
Disadvantages:
 Fixed resolution that cannot bechanged.
 Expensive than CRTdisplay.
 Limited viewingangle.
 Shortlife.

PDP (Plasma Displays Panel)

 In Plasma Displays, ionized gas is sandwiched between two glassplates.
 A number of parallel wires run horizontally as well asvertically.
 A small amount of current is passed through one horizontal and one verticalwire
to cause the gas to glow at a spot at the intersection of thewires.
 The IBM 581 display employs 960 horizontal and 768 vertical pixel ascompared
to IBM-PC colour graphic adapter which is provided with 320 X 200 pixels in
medium resolution and 640 X 200 in highresolution.
Advantages:
 Large viewingangle.
 Thinner inwidth.
 Free standing or can be easily mounted onwall.
 Clear image, brighter viewing angle, better colour quality & high contrastratio.
Disadvantages:
 The plasma displays screens arecostly.
 These are available on the selected models of portablecomputers.
 More electricity thanLCD.
  As your plasma get older the brightness getdimmer.

4. . WHAT IS PRINTER? EXPLAIN THE TYPES OFPRINTER.

Printer
 The printer is a most commonly used outputdevice.
 It is used to producing the hard copyoutput.
 It prints characters, symbols & graphics on thepaper.
 Printer can be categorised according to the technology used in printer,speed,
and approach of printing, colours, language & the quality ofprinting.
 Mainly printer can be classified in twotypes:
o Impactprinter
o Non impactprinter
IMPACTPRINTER:
 It works on the same mechanism oftype-writer.
 It forms a character or image by striking mechanism such as hammer orwheel
against to ink ribbon, leaving an image onpaper.
 It is oldest technology and still is inused.
 It can capable to print single character or line at the sametime.
 Commonly types of impact printers are dot matrix, daisy wheel, chain,drum
printer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPACT PRINTER:
o Physical contact with paper to produceoutput.
o Lowcost
o Verynoisy
o Very slow inprinting
o Low quality printout
o Stand with dusty or extremeenvironment
NON IMPACTPRINTER:
 Non impact printer forms characters & images on paper without actuallystriking
thepaper.
 Paper & print head come in contact & hence the text or image isformed.
 Ink jet & laser printer are example of non impactprinter.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON IMPACTPRINTER
o Faster than impactprinter.
 o Ability to change type faceautomatically.
o High qualityoutput.
o Supporttransparency.
o More expensive than impactprinter.
o Less maintenance than impactprinter.
5. . EXPLAIN IMPACTPRINTERS.
Dot matrix printer:
 Characterprinter.
 Capable to print single character at the sametime.
 Forms characters & images as a pattern ofdots.
 Contains a print head which moves horizontally acrosspaper.
 Uses 5 × 7 matrix to form acharacter.
 Print by hammering the pins on inked ribbon to leave ink impressions onthe
paper.
 Able to print 30 to 600 characters persecond.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost & easilyavailable.
o Cheap incost.
o Can make carbon copy of printout.
o Low maintenancecost.
o Work with any type ofenvironment.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slow inspeed.
o Verynoisy.
o Cannot work perfectly ingraphics.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTER:

 Characterprinter.
 Able to print a single character at the sametime.
 Contain a metal wheel on which the characters & numbers are raised on theeach
petal.
 The wheel is rotated very fast when the desired characters arrives atcorrect
position a print hammer strike to produceoutput.
 Different type of font face can be used by replacing the daisywheel.
 Able to print bold letter by striking on specific characters twice orthrice.
  Capable to print 10 to 50 characters persecond.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Lowcost.
o Can make carbon copy of printout.
o Low maintenancecost.
o Printing quality is similar to a typewriter.
o Able to print boldcharacters.
o Allows using different font-face in samedocument.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very slow inspeed.
o Verynoisy.
o Cannot printgraphics.
DRUMPRINTER:
 It’s a lineprinter.
 Able to print a line at the sametime.
 Consist of a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed on it incircular
band.
 Each band consists of character set which contains 96characters.
 Drum rotates fastlywhen desired characters arrives an appropriate hammer
stike on ribbon & character is print onpaper.
 Capable to print 300 to 2000 lines perminute.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost than non impactprinter.
o Can make carbon copy of printout.
o Low maintenancecost.
o Faster than other impactprinter.
o Printing quality is similar to a typewriter.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very slow inspeed.
o Verynoisy.
o Large &heavy.
o Cannot printgraphics.
Only prints predefined set ofcharacters.
CHANINPRINTER:
 It’s a lineprinter.
 
 Able to print a line at the sametime.
 Consist of a metallic chain on which all characters of character set areembossed.
 Character set contains 48, 64 or 96characters.
 Characters are embossed severaltimes.
 Chain rotates at high speed when the desired characters in correct positionthe
hammer strikes & the characters are print onpaper.
 Capable to print 400 to 2500 lines perminutes.

 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost than non impactprinter.
o Can make carbon copy of printout.
o Chain can be easilychanged.
o Allowed to print different typefont.
o Printing quality is similar to a typewriter.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slower than non impactprinter.
o Verynoisy.
o Large &heavy.
o Cannot printgraphics.
o Only prints predefined set ofcharacters.
7. . EXPALAIN NON -IMPACT PRINTERS.
INK-JET PRINTER:
 It’s non-impactprinter.
 It’s a characterprinter.
 Forms characters and all kinds of images by spraying drops of ink on tothe
paper.
 Print head contains 64 tinynozzles.
 To print a character the printer the printer selectively heats the appropriateset
of nozzle as the print head moveshorizontally.
 Inkjet printer can either colour ormonochrome.
 Capable to print 30 to 400 characters perminutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o High qualityoutput.
o Silent during theoperation.
o Able to printgraphics.
o Able to print any characters &graphics.
 o Able to generate colour& monochromeoutput.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slower than dot matrixprinter.
o Cannot make carbon copy of printout.
Expensive than impactprinter.

LASERPRINTER:
 It’s non-impactprinter.
 It’s a pageprinter.
 Three main components laser beam, a multi-sided mirror, aphotoconductive
drum &toner.
 To print page laser beam is focused on drum by spinning multisidedmirror.
 Drum is electriccharged.
 Toner which is composed of oppositely charged ink particles, stick to thedrum.
 Then toner focused on the paper with heat & pressure to generateoutput.
 Low speed laser printer can print 4 to 12 page per minute while high speedlaser
printer Capable to print 500 to 1000 pages perminutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o High qualityoutput.
o Very faster inspeed.
o Silent during theoperation.
o Able to printgraphics.
o Able to print any characters &graphics.
o Able to generate colour& monochromeoutput.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Veryexpensive.
o Cannot make carbon copy of printout.

8. . WRITE DOWN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPACT &

NON -IMPACT PRINTER .
Impact printer Non impact printer
Printing character by striking hammer Printing characters or graphics by spraying
against ink ribbon to produce output ink on paper.
Slow in speed Faster than impact printer
Work with any environment Can’t work with all environment
Less expensive than non impact printer More expensive than impact printer
Noisy during printing Silent during printing
Able to produced carbon copy output Cant able to produced carbon copy output
e.g.: e.g.:
daisy wheel, drum, chain, dot matrix inkjet, laser

9. . WHAT IS PLOTTER? EXPLAIN ITSTYPE.

Plotter:
 Plotter is an output device which is capable to producing hardcopy outputof
graphics.
 Used to producing wide formatprinting.
 It is an ideal output device for architects, engineers, city planners and otherwho
need to generate hardcopy output of widely varying insizes.
 Woks on the same mechanism of human holding pen & moving onpaper.
 Contains multiple pens & pencil which can be easily changed out in orderto
create drawing of differentcolours.
 Normally generate output veryslowly.
 Mainly two types of plotters areused:
o Drumplotter
o Flatbed

Drum plotter:
 In the case design has to be made is placed over adrum.
 It consist one or more than penholders which are mounted to the drumsurface.
 The drum plotter both the paper and the penmove.
 The paper is contained on two rollers and passes over adrum.
 The pen is driven along fixed arm set across the length of thedrum.
 It is especially useful for plotting continuous linegraph.
 The accuracy of the drum type depends on the paper transport mechanism,
which in turn is dependent on the width of the paper and it can alsoproduce
largerdrawings.

Flatbed Plotter
 The Flatbed Plotter is generally more expensive and can produce verydetailed
and accuratedrawings.
 The paper is mounted on a stationaryflatbed.

32
 The pen is mounted on a moveablearm.
 Colour drawing can be produced by some plotters through interchangeable
pens.
 Able to draw output in small size as A4 size or can able to generate verylarge
size can be up to 20ft by50ft.
 Specially used in the design of cars, ships, aircrafts, buildings, highwaysetc.

9. . WRITE A BRIEF NOTE ONSPEAKER.

 The speaker is output device which is connected to computer’ssoundcard.
 The speaker output the sound generated by the soundcard.
 Audio data is generated by computer is send to audio card which islocated
inside extensionslot.
 It can translate data into audio signal which are sending tospeaker.
 The speaker can able to produced series of differenttones.
 UNIT: 4 INTERNAL/EXTERNAL PARTS
WITHCOMPUTER CABINATE
1. EXPLAIN TYPES OFPROCESSORS.
DUAL CORE

 Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution coresper

physical processor.
 It has combined two processors and their caches and cache controllers onto a
single integrated circuit (silicon chip)
 Multi-core is similar to dual-core in that it is an expansion to the dual-core
technology which allows for more than two separateprocessors.
 Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution coresper
physicalprocessor.
 It combines two processors and their caches and cache controllers onto asingle
integrated circuit (siliconchip).

 It is basically two processors, in most cases, rsesiding reside side-by-side

onthe samedie.
 Dual-core processors are well-suited for multitasking environmentsbecause
there are two complete execution cores instead ofone.
 Each with an independent interface to the front sidebus.
 Since each core has its own cache, the operating system has sufficientresources
to handle most compute intensive tasks inparallel.

ADVANTAGES:
 Performance is faster than single-coreprocessors.
 Able to divide information for processing by multipleunits.
 Core processor uses slightly less power than two coupled single-coreprocessors
  Multi-core chips also allow higher performance at lowerenergy.

CORE 2DUO
 Core 2 Duo is the name given by Intel to its second batch of dual coreprocessors.
 Desktop PCs with the Intel® Core™2 processor family deliver fasterperformance,
greater energy efficiency, and more responsivemultitasking.
 Intel’s dual core processors were simply 2 Pentium 3 processors thatwere
fabricated in a singlechip.
 Astheyrefinedtheirproductmore,theydecidedtodifferentiatetheirsecondset of
processors from the Core Duo and decided to call it Core 2Duo.
 The difference between dual core processors and the Core 2 Duo processorsis
just in the semantics as Core 2 Duo is simply a name given to a more recent
family of dual coreprocessors.
 If we translate this to the single core processors, we can say that Core Duois
Pentium 1 while Core 2 Duo is Pentium 2. But all these are still single core
processors.
 We can therefore say that Core 2 Duo is simply a subset of all the dualcore
processors that are out in the markettoday.

Features and benefits

 With an Intel® Core™2 Duo processor you will get performance-richtechnologies,
 Intel® multi-core processing provides greater multitasking performanceby
combining two independent processor cores in one physicalpackage.
 Execution improves execution time and energy efficiency with moreinstructions
per clockcycle.
 Power Capability enables smarter, more energy-efficientperformance.
 Intel® Smart Memory Access improves system performance by optimizingthe
use of the available databandwidth
 Intel® Advanced Smart Cache enables higher performance and moreefficient
cache subsystem by optimizing for multi-coreprocessors.

2. EXPLAIN PRIMORY STORAGE DEVICE.

 It’s a temporarystorage.
 It consists of somechips.
 The data & instruction are resided in this memory when the CPUexecuting
programs.
 This memory can capable to store & retrieved data veryquickly.
 Primary memory is only the memory that is directly access to theCPU.
35
 RAM
 The complete name of RAM is random access memory which is also knownas
Primarymemory.
 It is called read/write memory because data can be read as well as write inRAM.
 It is called random access because you can directly access any data from RAMif
you know row & columncell.
 The RAM chip is fixed on the mother board & the mother board is designed in
such a way that its memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more RAMchip.
 RAM is a VOLETILEmemory.
 RAM chips are of twotypes:
DRAM:
 Dynamic Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that allows fast accessto
data and is ideal for use as the primary store of computersystems.
 However, the information is stored as electrical charges and the charges need to
be constantly refreshed in order for the data to bemaintained.

SRAM:
 Static Random Access Memory is also a volatilememory.
 Once data is written into the chip, it is maintained as long as power is suppliedto
it; it does not needrefreshing.
 However, SRAM is slower than DRAM and it is also moreexpensive.
ROM
 The complete name of ROM is read onlymemory.
 The data stored permanently & can’t be altered by theprogrammer.
 Data stored in RAM chip can be read & used but cannot bechanged.
 This memory also known a field storage permanent storage or deadstorage.
 It is basically used to store manufacturer programmed & userprogram.
 Most of the basic operations are carried out by electronic circuits whichare
known as microprograms.
 These programs are stored in ROM. For ex. System BootLoader.
PROM
 Programmable Read Only Memory is a non-volatile memory which allowsthe
user to program the chip with a PROMwriter.
  The chip can be programmed once, thereafter, it cannot bealtered.
EPROM &EEPROM
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory and Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory chips can be electricallyprogrammed.
 Unlike ROM and PROM chips, EPROM chips can be erased andreprogrammed.
3. .
EXPLAINFOLLOWING PORTS
SERIAL PORT
 Known as asynchronous port or RS-232-Cport.
 This type of port is sends & receives data using only twoline.
 Therefore this type of port is ideal for connection to the phone circuitswhich
uses 2 datalines.
 The communication process of data transfer isslower.
 Due to this reason it is not used forprinter.
 It has high signal travellingcapacity.

PARALLEL PORT
 Known as centronics or printerport.
 It’s a type of socket found on personal computer for connecting various typesof
computerdevices.
 Normally it is reserved forprinter.
 They carry 8 bits at the same time so that communication becomes veryfaster.
 Due to the faster data communication capability it is used in input &output
devices.
 The signal travel capacity is less than serialport.
 USB PORT
 It’s a new interface technology which are used to connect computerperipherals
such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, joysticks, printer, web cameraetc.
 USB operate at two speeds 1.5 mbps & 12mbps.
 The speed is depending upon the devices which are attached with theport.
 For example the devices such as mouse, keyboard Use the law band while digital
camera use high speedchannel/
 Main advantage is that when devices are attached the appropriate driversare
loadedautomatically.
PS/2 PORT
 Developed by IBM for connecting mouse or keyboard toPC.
 It supports the plug that contains 6pins.
 Also called mouseport.

4. EXPLAIN FOLLOWING CABLES

Serial Cable
  Serial Cables are typically used for RS-232communication.
 A serial cable is a cable that can be used to transfer information betweentwo
devices using serialcommunication.
 The form of connectors depends on the particular serial portused.
 The maximum working length of a cable varies depending on thecharacteristics
of the transmitters andreceivers.
 This cable has short transmission distance because of noise limiting the
transmission of high numbers of bits per second when the cable is more than15
meterslong.
 It is cheap to purchase and is simple to join andconnect.
 It is suitable for unbalanced datastandards.
 Only one device can be connected to thecable.

Parallel Cabl e

 On many legacy peripherals, the parallel cable utilized both the 25 pin Sub-D
connector and the 36 pin Centronicsconnector.
 This was a common printer interface and is still in service in greatnumbers.
 With the advent of "intelligent" laser and ink jet printers, the IEEE-1284bi-
directional printer cable wasintroduced.
 This parallel interface allows for bi-directional communication resulting inspeeds
up to 10 times faster than conventionalcables.

USB Cable

 To Connecting a USB device to a computer is simple -- you find the USB

connector on the back of your machine and plug the USB connector intoit.
 If it's a new device, the operating system auto-detects it and asks for the driver
disk.
 If the device has already been installed, the computer activates it andstarts
talking toit.
 USB devices can be connected and disconnected at anytime.

5. .SHORT NOTE: GRAPHIC CARDS.

 A graphics card is the component in your computer that handles generating the
signals that are sent to the monitor or"graphics".
 It is responsible for generating all the text and pictures that are displayedon
yourscreen.
 The images you see on your monitor are made of tiny dots calledpixels.
 At most common resolution settings, a screen displays over a million pixels,and
the computer has to decide what to do with everyone in order to create an
image.
 To do this, it needs a translator -- something to take binary data from the CPU
and turn it into a picture you cansee.
 This task is performed by Graphic Card which is built intomotherboard.
 A graphics card's job is complex, but its principles and components are easyto
understand.
 The CPU, working in conjunction with software applications, sendsinformation
about the image to the graphicscard.
 The graphics card decides how to use the pixels on the screen to createthe
image.
 It then sends that information to the monitor through acable.
 To make a 3-D image, the graphics card first creates a wire frame out ofstraight
lines. Then, it rasterizes theimage.
 It also adds lighting, texture andcolour.
 The graphics card accomplishes this task using four maincomponents:
o A motherboard connection for data andpower
o A processor to decide what to do with each pixel on thescreen
o Memory to hold information about each pixel and to temporarilystore
completedpictures
o A monitor connection so you can see the finalresult
 UNIT: 5 DATA STORAGE
1. NOTE ON MAGNETICTAPE
 Sequentially access storagedevice.
 Most popular storage medium for storage largedata.
 Its plastic ribbon which is ½ or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feetlong.
 It is coated with a magnetisable recordingmaterial.
 In a magnetic tape data are recordedserially.
 Information is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetizedand
non magnetizedspots.
 The tape ribbon is itself stored in reels or smallcassette.
 Whenever we stored new data on the tape that contains old data the olddata
are automatically erased and new data are recorded in the samearea.
 In older tape contains 7 tracks and they used 6-bit BCD code format fordata
recording.
 Morden magnetic tape contains 9 tracks & used 8-bit EBCDIC code formatfor
datarecording.
 There are various types of magnetic tape are used. Most commonlyare:
o ½ inch tapereel
o ½ inch tapecartridge
o ¼ inch streamertape
o 4 mm digital audiotape

Advantages:
 Large or unlimited storagecapacity.
 Lowcost.
 Light weight and compact insize.
  Copying of data is easy andfast.
 Possible to erase older data n store newdata.
Disadvantages:
 Cannot be accessed directly because it’s a Sequential accessdevice.
 Must be located in dust free environment otherwise it causeerrors.
 Data are stored in coded form so cannot interpret or verifydirectly.

2. . WRITE A NOTE ON MAGNETIC TAPE

 Directly access storagedevice.
 It’s a thin circular plate that is made up with plasticmaterial.
 Plate is coated both side with magnetic material such as ironoxide.
 Information is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetizedand
non magnetizedspots.
 8-bit EBCDIC code is used for datarecording.
 Like magnetic tapes, magnetic disks are also erased &reuse.
 The disk is divided into number of circles calledtracks.
 The tracks are further divided intosectors.
 A sector typically contains 512bytes.

storage capacity of disk =number of recording surface * number of track per surface *
number of sector per tracks * number of bytes per sectors

TRACK
  Two common types of magnetic disks are usedwidely.
o Floppydisks
o Harddisks

3. SHORT NOTE: FLOPPYDISK

 Floppy disks were introduced by IBM in1972.
 floppy disk is a round, flat piece of flexible plastic which is coatedwith
magneticoxide.
 It is encased in square plastic cover that gives protection to thedisk.
 They are also referred asdiskettes.
 The data is read and write in floppy disk is using a device called FLOPPYDISC
DRIVE.
 The long lit is provided for the read / writes head to access thedisk.
 A hub in the centre is used for mounting the diskdrive.
 A hole is used to sense indexmarking.
 The floppy disks are available in twosizes.
o 5 ¼ inch (1.2MB)
o 3 ½ inch (1.44MB)

Advantages:
 Cheap incost.
 Convenient offline storage for small computerusers.

Disadvantages;
 Low storagecapacity.
 A floppy disk drive device is required to use read/writedata.

A DETAIL NOTE ONHARD DISK

 Hard disks are most popular secondary storagedevice.
 It supports the direct access of thedata.
 It’s a thin magnetic plate which is made of metal n both side coatedwith
magneticmaterial.
 The disk is divided in many tracks & the data is store in both side of thedisk.
 The disk pack consists of multiple diskplates.
 The disk drive pack has a separate read/write head for each disksurface.
 The disk drive consists of motor to rotate the disk pack about its axis at aspeed
of about 5400 revolution perminute.
  The drive also has a set of magnetic heads mounted onarms.
 The arm assembly is capable of moving in & out in radialdirection.
 The hard disk drive has become the most indispensable secondary storage device
inmicro-computers.
 It is fast and speeds of less than 10 (ms) milliseconds areachievable.
 Storage capacity is large and it is not uncommon formicro-computers.

4. . SHORT NOTE : CD-ROM

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) is a non-erasable backing store
which can hold large amounts ofdata.
 It’s a shiny silver colour metal disk of 5 ¼ inch and the storage capacity about650
megabytes.
 Large volume production is achieved by automated processes similar to thatof
audio compactdisks.
 Many of today’s micro-computers come with CD-ROM readers and as a result,
CD-ROM is popularly used for distribution of software, digitized graphicimages
as well as Multi-Mediamaterial.
 Information is written on the disk surface by shining a laserbeam.
 As a disk rotates the laser beam traces out a continuousspiral.
 It’s known as WORM (Write Once Read Many) disktechnology.
 The data can be read time and again but, once the data is stored, it cannotbe
erased orchanged.
Advantages:
 Cost per bit isLow.
 Need not have any mechanical read/write heads to read/writedata.
 Compact insize.
 Light
weightDisadva
ntages:
 Read only storagemedium.
 Slower access speed than magneticdisk.

5. . EXPLAIN INBRIEF: DVD

 DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) is optical diskstorage.
 Basically it is used for storing large amount of data including movies withhigh
video & soundquality.
 Work on the same principle ofCDROM.
 Data is recorded on each layer so that the storage capacity is becomelarge.
 Total capacity of DVD is 8.5 GB
Advantages
 Larger capacity thanCD.
 Disadvantages:
 Expensive thanCD.
 Damaged if not handledproperly.

6. .EXPLAIN INBRIEF: ZIP DISK

 It’s a high capacity, removable magnetic disk which can be read or write byZIP
drive.
 It is similar to floppy disk except that much faster & largercapacity.
 Zip disks are available in two size namely 100 megabytes & 250megabytes.

Advantages:
 Easy touse and carry
 Large capacity than floppydisk.
 Faster than floppydisk
Disadvantages:
 Expensive
 Data transfer between drive & computer isslow.

7. SHORT NOTE: PENDRIVE

 It consists of a small printed circuit board encased in a robust plastic ormetal
casing.
 It is easy to carry inpocket.
 It uses standard-A type connection which allows it to directly connect withthe
computer.
 It contains followingcomponents:
o Male type-A USB connector-provides an interface tocomputer.
o USB mass storage controller- provides liner interface to blockoriented
serial flashdevice.
o NAND flash memory chip- storesdata.
o Crystal oscillator- controls devicedata.
ADVANTAGES:
 Portable insize.
 Can easily work with all new operatingsystem.
 More reliable than floppydisk
DISADVANTAGES:
 Expensive than opticaldisk
 Do not provide protectmechanism.
8. . SHORT NOTE: BLUE RAYDISK

 Blue-Ray disk is an optical disc storage mediaformat.

 It was developed by blue-ray discassociations.
 It is mainly used to store high definition video anddata.
 It has same dimensions as CD orDVD.
 The violet coloured laser is used to read and write thedata.
 Because of its shorter wavelength more data can be stored than DVDformat.
 Its storage capacity is 50GB.
 UNIT: 6 NUMBER SYSTEM
Introduction
 All digital computers store numbers, letters, and other characters incoded
form.
 The code used to represent characters is the Binary Code – i.e. a code made
up of bits called BinaryDigits.
 Every character is represented by a string of “0s” and “1s” – the onlydigits
found in the binary numberingsystem.
“0” or “1” = bit (Binary Digit)
8 bits = 1 Byte (1 Character)
1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilo Bytes)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
1024 GB= 1 TB (Terra Byte)
 When data is typed into a computer, the key board converts each keystroke
into a binary character code. This code is then transmitted to thecomputer.
 When the computer transmits the data to the any device, each individual
character is communicated in binary code. It is then converted back tothe
specific character while displaying or printing thedata.
NumberSystems
 Numbers earlier consisted of symbols like I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 etc.Each
 Symbol represented the same value irrespective of its position in thenumber.
 This approach is called an additive approach. As time passed positional
numbering systems were developed. In such a system the number of symbols
is few and they represent different values depending on the position they
occupy.
 Now we know that numbers can be represented by arranging symbolsin
variouspositions.
Decimal Number System (Base 10)
 In the decimal system the successive positions to the left of the decimalpoint
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands etc. For example if weconsider
 The number 7762, the digit 2 represents the number of units, 6 representsthe
number of tens, 7 the number of hundreds and 7 the number ofthousands.
(7 x 1000) + (7 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (2 x 1) = 7762
 Thus as we move one position to the left, the value of the digit increases by
ten times. We can see that the position of the number affects itsvalue.
  These kinds of number systems are therefore called positionalnumber
systems.
 In other words the number of symbols used to represent numbers in the
system is called the base of that system. In short we can say that the value of
each digit in the number system is determinedby:
 The digititself
 The position of the digit in the numberitself
 The base of thesystem.
 The Roman numbering system uses symbols like I, II, III, IV, V etc.To
represent the decimal numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and5.
 As we can see this follows an additive approach and hence is notconductive
toarithmetic.
Binary Number System (Base 2)
 We now come to a different number system – the Binary numbersystem.
 This binary number system has a base of two, and the symbols used are“0”
And“1”.
 In this number system, as we move to the left the value of the digit will be
two times greater than its predecessor. Thus the values of the places are:
64 32 16 8 4 21
ConvertingDecimalToBinary
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps tobe
followedare:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of2.
o Note the remainder in one column and divide the quotient againwith
the base. Repeat this process until the quotient is reduced to azero.
Example:
2 65 1
2 32 0
2 16 0
2 8 0
2 4 0
2 2 0
1
 The decimal number is65
 The binary number of 65 is1000001
ConvertingBinaryToDecimal
The decimal number of 100001 is
= (1*26)+(0*25)+(0*24)+(0*23)+(0*22)+(0*21)+(1*20)
= (1*64) + (0*32) + (0*16) + (0*8) + (0*4) + (0*2) + (1 * 1)
 = 64 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 65
 The decimal number of 1000001 is65
Octal Number System (Base8)
 A commonly used positional system is the Octal System. The octal systemhas
a base of8.
 The values increase from left to right as 1, 8, 64, 512,4096,….

ConvertingDecimalToOctal
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps tobe
followedare:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of the8.
Example:
 The decimal number is224
8 224 0
8 28 4
8 3 3

 The octal number of 224 is340

ConvertingOctalToDecimal
 The octal number is340
 =(3*82)+(4*81)+(0*80)
 = (3*64) + (4*8) +(0*1)
 = 192 + 32 +0
 =224
 The decimal number of 340 is224
ConvertingBinaryOctal
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5

110 6
111 7
Converting from Binary to Octal
  The binary number must be divided into groups of three from the octalpoint
– to the right in case of the fractional portion and to the left in case of the
integer portion. Each group can then be replaced with their octal equivalent.
 Example
 Binary101010101010100
101 010 101 010 100
5 2 5 2 4
 So, 52524 is the Octal equivalent of binary101010101010100
ConvertingOctaltoBinary
 Each octal digit is replaced with the appropriate ‘triple’ of binarydigits.
e.g. 65
6 5
110 101
 The binary equivalent of the Octal number 65 is110101
Hexadecimal Number System (Base16)
 There is another commonly used positional system, hexadecimalsystem.
 The hexadecimal system has a base of 16, so the value increases from left to
right as 1, 16, 256, 65536,. . ..
 We need to keep a simple table in mind before we attempt anyconversion
from hexadecimal orvice-versa.
ConvertingDecimalToHexaDecimal
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps tobe
followedare:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of16.
Example:
 The decimal number is370
16 370 2
16 23 7
16 1 1
0
 The hexadecimal number of 370 is172
ConvertingHexadecimalToDecimal
The hexadecimal number 172
= (1*162) + (7*161) + (2*160)
= (1*256) + (7*16) + (2*1)
= 256+112+2
= 370
 The decimal number of 172 is370
ConvertingBinarytoHexadecimal
 Each hexadecimal digit is represented by 4 binarydigits.
BinaryHexadecimal
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
 To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent we split the
quantity into groups of four onwards, asbefore.
 Each of this group of four is directly converted into theirhexadecimal
equivalent.
 We may add zeros to the left of the number ifnecessary.
 example
Binary 10101011000010
0010 1010 1100 0010
2 A C 2
 So, the hexadecimal equivalent of binary 10101011000010 will be2AC2
ConvertingHexadecimaltoBinary
 The conversion from hexadecimal to binary consists of writing off thebinary
 Eq 100000 0100 0001 0010 1100
uiv 1 9 0 1 A 0 4 1 2 C
ale  Thus the required binary number can be
nt
writtenas:
of
eac 110010000000110100000010000010010
h 1100
he
xad
eciConvertingHexadecimaltoOctal
ma  Write 4 digit binary numbers for eachhexadecimal.
l  Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 3 bitsection.
dig  If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmostsection.
it  Now write down octal equivalent of each 3 bitsection.
in
 Example:
gro
ups  The hexadecimal
of number is2A35. 2
fou A 35
r. 0010 1010 0011 0101
 e 000010 101000 110 101
. 0 2 5 0 6 5
g
 The octal number is25065
.
HeConvertingOctaltoHexadecimal
xad  Write 3 digit binary number for eachoctal.
eci  Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 4 bitsection.
ma  If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmostsection.
l  Now write down hexadecimal equivalent of each 4 bitsection.
19
 Example:
01
A0  The octal
41 number
2C is25065. 2 5 0
00 65
01 010 101 000 110 101
10 00101010 00110101
01
2 A 3 5
00
00
00
01
10Binary Arithmetic
 

Addition

 All the arithmetic operations are possible in binary numbering systemlike
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division All the Arithmetic
operations are done in binary number system are explained asunder:

 For binary addition the following rules of binary addition are tobe
considered:
o0 + 0 =0
o0 + 1 =1
o1 + 0 =1
o 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next column to theleft)
o 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (carry 1 to the nextcolumn)
 e.g. 1 Add two binary numbers 11011 and111
 Carry 1 1 11
10111
+ 1 11
1 0 0 0 1 0 (Answer)
Subtraction
 Though there are other methods of performing subtraction, we willconsider
the method of subtraction know as complementarysubtraction.
 This is a more efficient method of subtraction while using electroniccircuits.
We will be following three steps to performsubtraction:
o Find the complement of the number you aresubtracting.
o To the complement of the number we obtained in step 1, we addthe
number we are subtractingfrom.
o If there is a carry of 1 add the carry to the result of the addition elsere
complement the sum and attach a negativesign.
 How do we find the complement of a binary number ? We have to invertall
the bits. e.g. NumberComplement
1000110101110010
0010101011010101
 Consider the following example ofsubtraction:
e.g. 1
1010101 – 1001100
 Step-1. Find the complement of1001100
0110011
  Step-2. Add the number you are subtractingfrom
Carry 1 1 1 0 1 11
1 0 1 0 1 01
+ 0 1 1 0 0 11

0 0 0 1 0 00
+ 1 (Continue since there is a carry of 1)

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 (Answer)
e.g. 2
101100 – 11100101
 Step-1. Find the complement of11100101
00011010
 Step-2. Add the number you are subtractingfrom
Carry 0 1 11
0 0 1 0 1 1 00
+ 0 0 0 1 1 0 10
0 1 0 0 0 1 10
 Step-3. Since there is no carry we are complement theresult
10111001
attach a negative sign
 - 10111001 (Answer)
Multiplication
 Multiplication
 Multiplication in binary follows the same rules that are followed inthe
decimal system. The table to be rememberedis:
 0 x 0 =0
 0 x 1 =0
 1 x 0 =0
 1 x 1 =1
 e.g.
1010 * 1001
1010
x1001
 1010
0000
0000
1010

101101 0
 The answer is(1011010)

Division
 Table for binary division is given asunder:
 0 / 1 =1
 1 / 1 =1
 The steps for binary divisionare:
o Start from the left of thedividend.
o Perform subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted fromthe
dividend
o If subtraction is possible put a 1 in the quotient and subtract thedivisor
from the corresponding digits of the dividend else put a 0 in the
quotient
o Bring down the next digit to the right of theremainder.
o Execute step 2 till there are no more digits left to strating downfrom
thedividend.
 e.g.
 100001 / 110
0101 (quotient)
110 100001
110
1000
110
100
110
1001
110
11 (reminder)
Unit Of Information (Codes)
 Most computers do not represent characters as pure binarynumbers.
 They use a coded version of true binary to represent letters and specialsymbols
as well as decimalnumbers.
 Coding of characters has been standardized to enable transfer of data between
computers.
 Codes usedare:
- BCD
- ASCII
- EBCDIC
BCD
 BCD stands for Binary CodedDecimal.
 BCD code is one of the early computercodes.
 It is based on the idea of converting each digit of a decimal number into its
binary equivalent rather than converting the entire decimal into binaryform.
 All decimal digits are represented in BCD by 4bit.
 Each decimal digit is independently converted into a 4 bit binary number &so
the conversion process is veryeasy.
 4 bit BCD can be used to represents only decimal numbers because 4 bitsare
insufficient to represent variouscharacters.
 By using 4 bit BCD only 16 possible characters arerepresented.
 So the BCD code was extended from 6-bit code and it is possible to represent64
characters.

ASCII

 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for InformationInterchange.

 In this form of representation, each character (which includes alphabets,digits
and symbols) is assigned a particular pattern ofbits.
 For example, A is represented as binary 1000012, B as 10000102 and soon.
 The standard ASCII character set uses 7 bits and can be used to represent 128
differentcharacters.
 It uses one extra parity bit for paritycheck.
 Other forms of ASCII codes use an extra bit to extend the representation to256
characters.
 However, characters represented from binary are not universally agreedupon.
 The most popular form is the set used byIBM.
 ASCII is commonly used to exchange data between data processingand
communicationsystems.
EBCDIC

 EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal InterchangeCode.

 It uses 8 bits and can represent 256 distinctcharacters.
 It also uses one extra parity bit for paritycheck.
 The EBCDIC code is used in IBM mainframe models and other similarmachines.
 Electronic Circuits are available to transform characters from ASCII to EBCDIC
and vice-versa and can also be achieved using computerprograms.

UNICODE
 With the onset of globalization through Internet, there emerged a need to
Cater for data interchange of the more common languages of thedifferent
nationalities like Chinese, Korea andJapanese.
 ASCII, EBCDIC and other forms of representation provedinsufficient.
 The Unicode/ISO 10646 standard was devised to overcome thisproblem.
 The 16 bits used by Unicode can represent 65536 symbols, one extra parity bit
for parity check, which is more than enough to represent all the worldswritten
characters.
 Although Unicode solves the problem of multi-language data representation, it is
not the perfect solution as there remain issues to beaddressed.
 Problems include the wastage of storage space, time needed fordata
transmission and the lack of support of current operatingsystems.
 Furthermore, Unicode does not guarantee a particular sortorder.

Parity Check

 A parity check is a technique to detect the correctness of characterstransmitted.

 For each character transmitted, a bit knows as the parity bit isadded.
 In an Even Parity System, a parity bit is added such that the total number of ‘1’s,
inclusive of the parity bit, iseven.
 In an Odd Parity System, the total number of ‘1’ bits transmitted must beodd.
 The parity check is not fool proof. It will fail when an even number of bits were
incorrectlyreceived.
 This cannot be recognized by this system. That if they are incorrectly receivedor
not.
 UNIT:7 LANGUAGES, OPERATING SYSTEM
&SOFTWARE PACKAGES
Introduction
 A computer can only do what a programmer asks it todo.
 To perform a particular task programmer writes a sequence, called theprogram.
 An instruction command given to the computer to perform a certainspecified
operation on the givendata.
 Now as we know only human languages and computer knows only machine
language, we need some media through which we can communicate with the
computer.
 So we can complete our desired task. That media isLanguage.
 Languages are tools human can use to communicate with the hardware ofa
computersystem.
 Each language has a systematic method of using symbols of thatlanguage.
 In English, this method is given by the rules ofgrammar.
 Similarly, the symbols of particular one computer language must also be usedas
per set of rules which are known as the “Syntax” of that language, the language
which you areusing.
 Computer Languages can be classified into three broadcategories:

LANGUAGES

MACHINE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGES HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES

LANGUAGE

1. .WHAT IS MACHINE LANGUAGE?

 Computer programs are written using many different computer Languages but
the language which is understood by the computer without translatingprogram
is called machinelanguage.
 Machine language is normally written as string of binary 1s and0s.
 A machine language instruction has two partformat.
 OPCODE OPERAND
(OPERATION CODE) (ADDRESS)

 The 1st part is the operation code which tells the computer what function tobe
performed.
 The 2nd part is the operand which tells the computer where to find & storedata
to bemanipulated.
 So each instruction tells the computer what operation to perform & the length&
location of the data field which are involved in theoperation.
Advantages
 Programs can be executed immediately upon completion because it doesn’t
require anytranslation.
 Now extra storage space isneeded.
 Programmer has complete control over the performance of thehardware.
Disadvantage
 Tedious toprogram
 Difficult toprogram
 Difficult tomodify
 Time consuming tocode
 Errorprone
 Operation codes have to bememorised
 Assignment of memory is done byprogrammer
 Time consuming fordevelopment
 Programs development are machinedependent
 Preparation of programs was slow andcostly.

2. .EXPLAIN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE.

 Assembly language is a language which allows instruction & storage locationto

be represented by letters & symbols, instead ofnumber.
 A program written in an assembly language is called assembly languageprogram
or symbolicprogram.
 Assembly language was introduced in1952.
 Machine language was tedious to code and errors were expected to arise inbulk.
 To solve these problems mnemonic codes and symbolic addresseswere
developed.
 It allows using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric code forthe
instructions in instruction set. For example using ADD instead of 1110 or 14 to
add.

 The storage locations are to be represented in the form ofalphanumeric

addresses instead of numericaddress.
  Format of assembly language is similar to machinelanguage:

MNEMONIC CODE SYMBOLIC ADDRESS

Example of Assembly language instruction:

 This instruction adds value of NUM1 to the AX (AccumulatorRegister).
 The symbolic language made program writing so much easier for the
Programmers but it must be translated into machine code before being used for
operation.
 The translation is actually done by a special translatingprogram.
Assembler
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates symbolic operation
codes into machine codes, and symbolic address is addressed into an actual
machineaddress.
Advantage
 Easier to use, code andunderstand.
 Easier to correcterror.
 Easier tomodify.
 No worry aboutaddresses.
 Easilyrelocatable.
 Efficiency of machinelanguage.
 Can use Macros (Macro is a bunch of instruction referred as a singlename)
Disadvantage
 Machinedepended.
 Programs have to be translated beforeexecution.
 Translation of programs takes uptime.
 Knowledge of hardware isrequired.
 Additional storage area needed for the source programs and objectcode.
Examples of Assembly Language
 Microsoft Assembly Language (MASM), TurboAssembler

3. .WRITE A NOTE ON HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE.

 The machine language & assembly language requires a good knowledgeof
internal structure ofcomputer.
 The both languages are machine dependent & it is difficult to solveerror.
 To remove this limitation the high level language areintroduced.

 The high level languages machine independent so it can be easily ported&

executed on anycomputer.
 The high level language programs do not require any knowledge of internal
structure of computer so the programmer concentrate on the logic ofproblem
rather than internal structure ofcomputer.
  It enables the programmer to write instructions using English words &familiar
mathematical symbols & expression so the program makes easier to code &
understand.
 It requires a translator program to convert high level program intomachine
language.

Compiler
 Compiler is a special program (translator) which translates high levelprograms
into machinecodes.

Advantages:
 Machineindependent.
 Easier to learn, use andunderstand.
 Easier to correcterror.
 Easier tomaintain.
 Less time &efforts.
 Easilyrelocatable.
 Program preparation cost islow.
Few errors.
Disadvantages:
 Lessflexible.
 Lowerefficiency.
 Require more time & storagespace.
4. .SHORT NOTE: ASSEMBLER
 A computer can directly execute only machine language programs so the
assembly language program must be converted into its equivalentmachine
language program before can beexecuted.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program which is knownas
assembler.
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates symbolic operation
codes into machine codes, and symbolic address is addressed into an actual
machineaddress.

Y LANGUAGE
PROGRAM

A
S
S
E
M
B
L
Input R MACHINE
ASSE
outpu LANGUAGE
MBLE t PROGRAM
 (SourceProgram) ONE TOONECORRESPONDENCE (ObjectProgram)

 As shown in figure that the input to assembler is the assembly language program
(source program) and the output is the machine language program (object
program).
 Assembler translates each assembly language instruction intoequivalent
machine languageinstruction.
 There is one to one correspondence between the assembly language instructions
of source program & the machine language instruction of its equivalent object
program.
 In case of assembly language program the computer not only has to runthe
program but also must first run assembler program to translate the original
assembly language program into machine languageprogram.
 So the computer has to spend more time in getting desiredanswer.

5. WRITE A NOTE ON COMPILER

 A computer can directly execute only machine languageprograms.
 So the high level language program must be converted into itsequivalent
machine language program before can beexecuted.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program which is knownas
compiler.
 A compiler is a translator program which translates a high levellanguage
program into equivalent machine languageprogram.
 The process of translating is shown in belowfigure:

Highlevellanguage Input COMPILER

output machinelanguage
Program program

(SourceProgram) ONE TOMANYCORRESPONDENCE (ObjectProgram)

 As shown in figure that the input to compiler is the high level languageprogram
(source program) and the output is the machine language program (object
program).
 High level language instructions are macroinstructions.
 The compiler translates each high level language instruction into set ofmachine
language instructions rather than a single machine languageinstruction.
 There is one to many correspondence between high level languageinstructions
of source program into equivalent objectprogram.
 During the translation the source program is only translates notexecuted.
  A compiler can translates only those source programs which have written inthe
language for which compiler isdesigned.
 A compiler can also detect & indicates the syntax errors during thecompilation
process butcannot able to detect logicalerrors.

6. WRITE A NOTE ON INTERPRETER.

 Aninterpreterisanothertypeoftranslatorwhichisusedfortranslatingprogram
written using high levellanguages.
 It takes one statement of high level language, translates into machinelanguage
& immediately executesthe resulting machine languageinstructions.
 The main difference between compiler & interpreter is that compilercan
translates the entire code but not involve inexecution.

Highlevellanguage Input INTERPRETER output Result ofprogram

Program (Translates & executes
statement by statement) execution
  As shown in figure that the input to an interpreter is a source program &the
output is the result of an executionprogram.
 Interpreter translates & executes a high level language program statement-by-
statement.
 A program statement is reinterpreted every time it is encounteredduring
programexecution.
 The main advantage of interpreter is that interpreter makes it easier & fasterto
correctprograms.
 The main disadvantage is that interpreter is slower than compilers whenrunning
a finishedprogram.

7. . WHAT IS O PERATING SYSTEM?

 An operating system is a software program that provides an interfacebetween
user & the computer and manages thousands ofapplications.
 It’s a collection of system software that co-ordinates between thehardware,
provides a platform for software to runon.
 An operating system is an integrated set of programs that the resources (the
CPU, memory, I/O devices etc) of computer system & provides an interfaceto
the user to run themachine.

 The main two primary objective of operating systemare:

Making a computer system convenient touse
Managing the resources of a computersystem

FUNCTION OF OPERATINGSYSTEM

1) PROCESSMANAGEMENT
o The process management of OS taking care about the creation &deletion
of user & system process, providing mechanism for process
synchronization & processcommunication.
2) MEMORYMANAGEMENT
o The memory management of OS taking care about the allocation
&deallocation of memory space to the various programs in need
ofthis resource.
3) FILEMANAGEMENT
 o The file management of OS is taking care about the file relatedactivities
such as creation, storing, retrieving, naming, sharing & organization of
files.
4) SECURITY
o The security model of OS protects the resources & information ofa
computer system against destruction & unauthorizedaccess.
5) COMMANDINTERPRETATION
o This model taking care of interpreting user commands & directingthe
system resources to handle therequests.

8. WHAT IS BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM.

 In Batch operating system, data is collected over a period of time andthe

processing of the data is deferred to a latertime.
 This approach was used very commonly in the past when punch cards served as
data storage media and is used as input into the computer system forprocessing.
 In batch processing, the data have first to be captured, normally as a form of
source documents, like time cards, or alternatively, by RJE (Remote Job Entry)
where data is gathered through remoteterminals.
 The data will then be transmitted to the computer or the source document will
be physically transported to the data centre where transcription (conversionof
source document data into machine readable form) isperformed.
 The data is processed by the computer and the resulting output is given tothe
users.
 Batch processing is suitable in application where there are large amounts of data
and when the turnaround times are notcritical.

 As data are transcribed into machine readable form before submitting for
processing, the speed of processing is therefore determined by the computerand
not by theoperator.
 Payroll processing is suitable for batch processing as it is only performed on a
regular basis. ( for example everymonth)

ADVANTAGES:
 Lesscomplicated.
 After input process is over, while processing is going on, user can attendother
jobs.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Long turnaroundtime.
 Access to one is notpossible.
  Difficult to provide priorityscheduling.
 Not convenient for programdevelopment.

9. EXPLAIN REALTIME OPERATIN SYSTEM.

 Real-Time systems are always on-line but on-line systems need not be real-time
systems.
 However, further constraints are placed in terms of response time and
availability of thesystem.
 By definition, a real time system receive data and process it quickly enoughto
produce output which can be used to control or affect the outcome of an
ongoing activity ofprocess.
 In general, real-time systems handle small volumes of data at any one time and
the turnaround time iscritical.
 Feedback is essential in real-time systems so that processing can keep pacewith
externalfactors.
 Most real-time systems are used in mission critical application like process
control and therefore, reliability and availability is of paramountimportance.
 Missile guidance systems are examples of real-timesystems.
 Control signals are sent to the fins of the missile to correct anydeviations.

Advantages
Error messages areimmediate
Source documents are available at the time the erroroccurs.
Faster than on-linesystems.

Disadvantages
 Direct access devices have to beused.
 Elaborate controls and backup procedures to guard against unwarrantedaccess
to thesystem.
 Control checks are difficult since updating occurs at the time ofprocessing.
10 . EXPLAIN TIME SHARING OPERATING SYSTEM
 Time-sharing is a mechanism that allows the many users to use a computer
system in such a way that each user is given the impression that they usetheir
ownsystem.
 It has many user terminals simultaneously connected to the samecomputer.
 Using these terminals multiple users can simultaneously work on thesystem.
 The multiprogramming feature allows multiple programs tosimultaneously
reside in thememory.
 The special scheduling algorithm used in a time-sharingsystem.
 In this very short period of CPU time allocates to each userprocess.
 When the CPU is allocated to user process, the process will use CPU untilthe
allocate time slice is expires or the execution process is over during thistime
period.
Features:
o The processing time is divided among various programs in timeslices.
o Each program is given control of CPU only for time slice turn byturn.
Advantages:
o Reduce CPU idletime
o Provides advantages of quick responsetime.
o Offers good computing facility to smallusers.

11.MULTIPROGRAMMINGOPERATING SYSTEM
 Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of twoor
more different & independent programs by the same computer.
 In this more than one program in main memory at a sametime.
 In multiprogramming operating system two or more programs are resides in the
main memory and it execute themconcurrently.
 In this operating system the CPU can allocate time to several programs insteadof
remaining idle when one program is busy with I/O operations the another
program is ready to utilize theCPU.
ADVANTAGES:
 Many programs can runsimultaneously.
 Time is notwasted.
 Maximum use ofresources.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Required largememory.
 Required memoryprotection.
  Job of resources management & memory managementincreases.

12 . EXPLAIN: MULTIPROCESSING OPERATING SYSTEM

 It is the type of operating system that makes the use of more than oneCPU.
 The term multiprocessing describe interconnected two or more CPUs thathave
an ability to execute several programssimultaneously.
 In such system, instruction from different independent programs can be
processed at same instant of time by differentCPU.

ADVANTAGES:
 It improves the performance ofcomputer.
 Less turnaroundtime.
 In case of failure of one CPU other can take over without anyloss.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Large main memoryrequired.
 Expensive
 Design of the system makes time consumingprocess.
13 . EXPLAIN TYPES OF SOFTWAREPACKAGES
 The software is set of programs, procedure and associated documentswhich
describe the programs and how they areused.
 On the base of task performed by software it can be divided in followingtasks.
 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE:
o It enables you to make use of computer system for creating, editing, and
viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving & printingdocuments.
 SPREAD SHEETSOFTWARE:
o Spreadsheet software is a numeric data analysis tool, which allows usto
create kinds of computerisedledger.
o Provides a predefined sheet which contains rows andcolumns.
 DATABASESOFTWARE
o A database is a collection of related data stored & treated as a unitfor
information retrievalpurpose.
o Database software is a set of one or more programs which enables usto
create a database, maintain it, and organizeit.
 GRAPHICSSOFTWARE:
o Graphic software enables you to use a computer system forcreating,
editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing designs, drawings,
pictures,graphs.
 PERSONAL ASSITANCESOFTWARE:
 o It allows you to use personal computers for storing & retrievingyour
personal information & planning & managing schedules, contacts,
inventory & importantitems.
 PRESENTATIONSOFTWARE:
o It allows you to provide the tools which help you to develop apresentation
on specificsubject.
 ANIMATION/VIDEO/SOUNDPACKAGE:
o Provides the different kinds of application that allows you to generate
animation, watching or creating videos, playing or producing sounddata.

14 . EXPLAIN: ONLINE OPERATING SYSTEM

 In an On-Line system, the terminal used by the operator is connected to the main
computer so that the operator can interact with the computer in a
conversationalmode.
 It is used in applications requiring fast response from thecomputer.
 There are some benefits by allowing users to communicate with the computer
on-line.
 Error checking can be performed by the computer when data entry is carriedout.
 The operator can be informed of the error so that immediate correction can be
made.
 On-Line queries can be performed to allow immediate retrieval ofinformation.
 The nature of on-line systems allows centralization of information, fastdata
retrieval immediate file updates and improved customerservices.
 Limited validation checks at the terminal increases the accuracy ofinput.
 However, the cost of implementation such a system is much more than the batch
system.
 Furthermore, as the terminals may be located remotely from the main computer
site, security aspects of implementation must receive specialconsiderations.
 Aspects which should be incorporatedare
o Security of access tofacilities
o Security of datafiles
o Audit trial – maintaining a record of all actions that have been carried out
to anydata
 UNIT:8 TECHNOLOGIES AND VIRUS

Introduction
 Emerging technologies are contemporary advances and innovation invarious
fields oftechnology.
 Various converging technologies have emerged in the technologicalconvergence
of different systems evolving towards similargoals.
 Convergence can refer to previously separate technologies such as voice(and
telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video that now
share resources and interact with each other, creating newefficiencies.
 Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which represent
progressive developments within a field for competitiveadvantage

1. . SHORT NOTE: GIS

 A GIS (Geographic Information System) is a tool that uses for the answer of the
geographicquestion
 A GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing,
analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referencedinformation.
 GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in
many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, andtrends in the form of maps,
globes, reports, andcharts.
 A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your datain
a way that is quickly understood and easilyshared.
 GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise informationsystem
framework.
 By using GIS tool, user can arrange and display the data about places onthe
earth in variety of ways including maps, charts andtables.
 We can store, analyze and manage the data about places on the earth with the
help of GIStool.
 User can zoom in and out of maps, charts and tables freely and study indetails.
 By using GIS tool, we can create maps, charts and tables and also we can solve
the complicated problems and develop the effectivesolutions.
  GIS allows automatic determination of the relationships between maps &can
create a new map of thoserelationships.
 GIS allows the relating of multiple data bases using commongeographic
locations and allows powerful analyses of widely disparatedata.

COMPONENTS OF GIS
There are 5 types components of a GIS like
o Hardware
o Software
o Data
o People
o Method

GIS IS USED FOR

 Allows to find the geographicallocations
 Maintain an up-to-date planning & environmentalinventory.
 Create a library of regional & community infrastructureresources.
 Plan major facilities andservices
 Facilitiesmanagement.
 Define natural resourceareas.

GIS used in:

o InAgriculture
o InBusiness
o InElectric-Gas
o InEnvironment
o InForestry
o InMilitary
o In LandPlanning
o In SitePlanning
o In WaterIndustry
2. . SHORT NOTE: GPS
 GPS means Global Positioning System and it is a satellite basednavigation
system.
 GIS is a system that can provide a position at any point on the Earth’s surfaceto
a very high degree ofaccuracy.
 GPS provides the position information of theearth.
 GPS is a system that measures the distances from the satellites that are in path
around theEarth.
  By knowing the distance from the satellites, it is possible to calculatethe
position on the Earth’ssurface.
 The satellite sends all the timing and position information to the receiver so the
receiver knows when the message was sent and also the receiver isable
 To calculate the distance from the satellite about theirposition.
 The satellite contains an atomic clock so that the satellite sends thetiming
information to the receiver that is veryaccurate.
 The satellite uses their own power through their solar panels and these extend
to about 17 feet and it provides 700 wattspower.
 Each satellite is in circular orbit around the earth and it sends the data ontwo
frequencies like L1 (1600 MHz) and L2 (1300MHz).
 A GPS (Global Positioning System) is the satellite-based system thatprovides
accurate information about position, speed and time of theearth.
 There are 24 satellites in GPS that orbits the earth at a height of about12000
miles.
 Each of this satellite are constantly moving and making two complete orbits in
less than 24hours.
 The speed of satellite is 7000 miles perhour.
 A GPS contains 3 types of segments like User, Control andSpace.
 User segment changes according to the requirements of applicationbut
 Control and Space segments do not change for allapplications.

GPS APPLICATIONS:
o Navigation
o Agriculture
o SpaceShuttle
o Tourism
o Air TrafficControl
o Surveying andmapping
o Remotesensing
o military

3. . SHORT NOTE: CDMA

 CDMA stands for Code Division MultipleAccesses.
 CDMA is a spread spectrum technology that allows many users to occupythe
same time & frequency allocations in a givenspace.
 CDMA assigns unique codes to each user to differentiate it from other inthe
samespectrum.
 Its platform on which 2G & 3G advanced services arebuilt.
  The foremost application of CDMA technology is digital cellularphone
technology operating in 800MHz and 1.9HZ PCSbands.
 After the speech the codec converts voice into digital, CDMA spread thevoice
stream over the full 1.25MHz bandwidth of the CDMA channel, coding each
stream separately so it can be decoded at the receivingend.’
 The rape of spreading signal is known as the ‘chip rate’ as each bit inthe
spreading single is known as‘chip’.
 All voice conversations use the full bandwidth at the sametime.
 One bit from each conversation is multiplied into 128 bits by thespreading
techniques.

STANDARD OFCDMA:
 There are number of standards that employs CDMA for instance, IS-95A,IS-
95B,CDMA-1etc.
 CDMA-1 describes a complete wirelesssystem.
 It represents the end-to-end wireless system and all the necessaryspecifications
that administer itsoperation.
 CDMA provides a collection of related services including fixed wired,wireless
local loop and cellular within the personal communication servicesfamily

ADVANTAGES:
 Provides good quality & low powerconsumption
 Avoidinterceptions.
 Require fewer cell sites thanGSM
 This technology provides good resistance to fadingproblems.
4. GSM
 GSM stands for Global System For Mobilecommunication.
 GSM is the most popular standard for mobile phones in theworld.
 Its promoter, the GSM association, estimates that 80% of the global mobile
market uses thestandard.
 GSM is used by over 3 billion people across more than 212countries.
 Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone
operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of theworld.
 GSM differs from its predecessors in both signalling& speech channels aredigital
& thus it is considered as 2G mobile phonesystem.
 The GSM standard has been an advantage to the both consumers andalso
networkoperators.
 GSM pioneered a low cost alternative to voice calls, the short message
service(SMS) which is now supported on other mobile standard aswell.
 Another advantage of GSM is that the standard includes oneworldwide
emergency telephone number,112.
 This makes it easier for international travellers to connect to emergencyservices
without knowing the local emergencynumbers.
  There are 5 different cell sizes in a GSM network: macro, micro, pico, femtoand
umbrellacells.
 The coverage area of each cell varies according to theimplementation
environment.
5. NOTE ONFOLLOWINGCOMMUNICATION DEVICES:

MODEM
 Converting digital signal into analog is called modulation and the reverseprocess
that is converting analog signal into digital signals is calleddemodulation.
 The word “MODEM” comes from the termmodulation-demodulation
 Computer can store & transmit data digitally while our telephone linescan
transmit data in analogsignals.
 When an analog facility is used for data communication between twodigital
devices, two modems are required, one near each digitaldevice.
 The analog signal is transmitted through the telephone line which isconverted
into digital bymodem.
 To connect a computer network that are at distant location by usingtelephone
line then modems must be used at both ends to do the modulation &
demodulations.
 The modem is an essential piece of hardware for any application in whichtwo
digital devices want to communicate over an analog transmissionchannel.
 Different capacity modems are available according to different data transfer
rate.

INFRARED
 Infrared are widely used for short-rangecommunications.
 Distance is about to only 1 metersrange.
 Remote controls used on television, VCRs and stereos all used in infrared
communications.
 They are directional, cheap and easy to build but do not pass through solid
objects.
 Infrared is used for indoor wirelessLANs.
 Two types of infrared givenbelow:

o Point topoint
 Point to point systems requires direct alignment betweendevices.
 Many laptop systems and PDAS use point-to-pointtransmission.
o Broadcast
 Broadcast infrared transmissions use a spreadsignal.
 One broadcast in all directions instead of a directbeam.
 This help to reduce the problems of proper alignment&
obstructions.
  It allows multiple receivers of asignal.
BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth is the technology using short range radio links, intended to replacethe
cables connecting portable/fixed electronicdevices.
 By using Bluetooth the users can have all mobile and fixed computer devicescan
be totallycoordinated.
 The standard defines a uniform structure for a wide range of devicesto
communicate with each other and minimal userefforts.
 This technology offers wireless access to LANs, PSTN, the mobile phonenetwork
and theinternet.
 Bluetooth technology use license-free 2.4GHz frequencyband.
 You can connect wireless device up to 10meter.
 The main advantage of Bluetooth is it can able to simultaneously handleboth
data & voicetransmissions.
 Bluetooth is a radio based wireless technology which allows devices toshare
information over a maximum range of 10meters.
 It enables computers, phones and the other peripherals to communicatewith
one another withoutcables.
 Provides more security, flexibility and less powerconsumptions.

ADVANTAGES:
 Less powerconsumptions.
 Enhances user’sexperience.
 Voice conferencing & video clips on cell phone ispossible.
 Connect devices without usingcable.

WI -FI
 Wi-Fi stands for wirelessfidelity.
 It is used to define any of the wireless technology in the IEEE802.11.
 It is useful to get internetaccess.
 It’s a wireless way to handlenetworking.
 It is also known as 802.11 networking or wirelessnetworking.
  It provides the facility to connect computers anywhere in your homeoffice
without need of physicalconnection.
 Wi-Fi allows connecting the computers within up to 100 feetarea.
 Wi-Fi network uses radio technologies called IEEE 802.11 which providesfast,
secure & reliable wirelessconnectivity.
 Wi-Fi setup contains one or more access points & one or moreclients.
 The Wi-Fi standard leaves connection criteria & roaming totally open tothe
client.
 Wi-Fi transmit in the air, it has some properties as a non-switched wired
Ethernet network therefore collisions canoccur.
 Wi-Fi cannot do collisiondetection.
 Wi-Fi network can be used to connect computer to each other to the internet&
wirednetworks.
 Wi-Fi networks operate in the unlicensed 2.4 and 5 GHZ radiobands.

ADVANTAGES:
 Allows LANs to be deployed withoutcabling.
 Allows you to connect any place within up to 100feetarea.
 Contains one more access points and connect with one or moreclients.
 Wi-Fi products are widely available inmarket.

 DISADVANTAGES:
 Limitedrange.
 Power consumption is higher thanBluetooth.
 Wi-Fi devices do not have channels to avoidinterference.

6. COMPUTER VIRUS AND TYPES OF VIRUS

 A computer virus is a program that can copy itself & infect a computerwithout
permission or knowledge of theuser.
 It’s a small piece of software that damages the realprograms.
 A virus can only spread from one computer to another when it host is taken to
the uninfected computer by internet or removable medium such as CD orUSB.
 In computers virus is a program that replicates to another program,computer
boot sector ordocument.
 Virus can be transmitted as attachments to an e-mail or downloaded file orbe
present onCD.
 The virus is classified in main fivetypes.
 FILEINFECTORS
o It infects programfiles.
 o Normally infect executable files such as .COM or .EXTfiles.
o Some virus can infect any program when the program is requested for
execution such as .SYS, .OVL, .PRG and .MNUfiles.
o Many of this virus are memoryresident.
 BOOT SECTORVIRUS
o This virus infects executable code found in certain system areas on adisk.
o They attached to the DOS boot sector or the master boot record on hard
disks.
o Boot sector virus attaches themselves to the boot record informationand
activate when user attempt to start up formdisk.
o This virus are always memoryresident.
 MULTI-PARTITEVIRUSES:
o Known aspolypartite.
o They infect both boot records and programfiles.
o This virus is difficult torepair.
o If the boot area is cleaned, but the files are not than boot areainfected
again.
 MACROVIRUSES:
o These are the most common virus and they tend to do the leastdamage.
o These types of virus infect data files such as it can infect yourword
document and insert unwanted words orphrases.
o Ex. W97M,Melissa
 STEALTHVIRUSES:
o These viruses use certain techniques to avoiddetection.
o They may either redirect disk head to read another sector instead ofthe
one which they are reside or alter the reading of infectedfiles.

7. PROTECTION FROMVIRUS.
 You can protect system against virus with a few simplesteps.
o Write protected your floppy when suing them on the othercomputer.
o Remove floppy whilebooting.
o Install software from original write- protecteddisks.
o Use secure operating system likeUNIX
o Do not install piratedsoftware.
o Scans files downloaded from theinternet.
o Scan your system regularly if you continue usinginternet.
o Use good antivirus program to scan removable devices as well assystem.
o Do not open attachments who contains an executablefiles.
o Do not open spam or junkmails
o Prepare a reuse disk with critical system files. Probably it shouldbootable.