Benha University Electrical Engineering Department

Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Chapter # 6 modeling of physical systems

After completing this chapter, the students will be able to:

• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electrical networks,

• Obtain the transfer function for linear, time-invariant translational mechanical
systems, and draw its mechanical networks,
• Obtain the transfer function for linear, time-invariant rotational mechanical
systems (with gear train and without gear train),
• Obtain the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electromechanical
systems.

1. Introduction
This chapter presents mathematical modeling of mechanical systems, electrical
systems and electromechanical systems.
Mechanical systems can be either translational or rotational. Although the
fundamental relationships for both types are derived from Newton’s law, they are
different enough to warrant separate considerations.

1 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Any physical system consists of mechanical elements. There are three types of basic
elements in such kind of systems:
Translational Motion Rotational Motion
 Mass elements  Moment of Inertia elements
 Linear Spring elements  Torsional Spring elements
 Linear Dampers elements  Torsional Damper elements
Example of physical system that has rotary motion is the Antenna Azimuth Position
Control System shown in Figure below.

(a) Layout of the system

(b) schematic diagram of the system

2 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

(c) Block diagram of the system

2. Mass / Inertia element
Newton’s law (translational motion): If a force (F) is acting on rigid body through the
center of mass (M) in a given direction, the acceleration (a) of the rigid body in the
same direction is directly proportional to the force acting on it and is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body. That is,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎) = 𝑂𝑅 𝐹 =𝑀×𝑎 =𝑀 =𝑀 2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Suppose that there are many forces acting on a body of mass, then

∑𝐹 = 𝑀 × 𝑎

Newton’s law (Rotational motion):

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑇) 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝜃
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝛼 ) = 𝑂𝑅 𝑇 = 𝐽 × 𝛼 = 𝐽 =𝐽 2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 (𝐽) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Suppose that there are many torques acting on a rotating body of inertia, then

∑𝑇 = 𝐽 × 𝛼

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 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

3. Spring / Torsional Spring element

A linear spring is a mechanical element that can be deformed by external force or
torque such that the deformation is directly proportional to the force or torque applied
to the element.
For translational motion shown in Fig. 1, the force that arises in the spring is
proportional to x and is given by:
F=kx
where x is the elongation of the spring and k is a proportionality constant called the
spring constant or (stiffness) and has units of [force/displacement]=[N/m] in SI
units.

Fig. 1, Linear Spring

If the spring is free to move at its 2nd end, then:
F = k x1 – k x2

Consider the torsional spring shown in Fig. 2, where one end is fixed and a torque T
is applied to the other end. The angular displacement of the free end is θ. The torque
T in the torsional spring is:
T=kθ

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 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

where θ is the angular displacement and k is the spring constant or (stiffness) for
torsional spring and has units of [Torque/angular displacement]=[N-m/rad] in SI
units.

Fig. 2, Torsional Spring

If the spring is free to move at its 2nd end, then:
T = k 1 – k 2

4. Damper (Dashpot)
A damper is a mechanical element that dissipates energy in the form of heat instead
of storing it. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of a translational damper, or a
dashpot that consists of a piston and an oil-filled cylinder. Any relative motion
between the piston rod and the cylinder is resisted by oil.

Fig. 4, Translational Damper

In the damper, the damping force F that arises in it is proportional to the velocity,
𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑥̇

5 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Where B relating the damping force F to the velocity and called the viscous friction
coefficient. The dimension of b is [force/Velocity] = [N.s/m] in SI units.
For the torsional damper shown in Fig. 5, the torque T applied to the ends of the
damper is:
𝑇 = 𝐵 𝜃̇
Where B relating the damping torque T to the angular velocity and called the viscous
friction coefficient. The dimension of B is [torque/angular velocity] = [N.m.s/rad] in
SI units.

6 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Example (1):
Write the differential equations describing systems shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: a) parallel springs b) series springs

For system in Fig. 6. a)
𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑥
For system in Fig. 6. b)
𝐹 = 𝑘2 (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) (𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑥)
0 = 𝑘1 𝑦 + 𝑘2 (𝑦 − 𝑥 ) (𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑦)
Example (2):
For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 7, draw the mechanical network and write
the D.E at each node.

Fig. 7, One-mass mechanical system

The mechanical network is:

7 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

At node x1 :
f(t) = k (x1 – x2)
F(s) = k X1(s) – k X2(s)
At node x2 :
0 = k ( x2 − x1 ) + Mx2 + Bx2
0 = k X2(s) – k X1(s) – M S2X2(s) + B SX2(s)
Example (3):
Obtain the transfer functions X1(s)/F(s) of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8, Two-mass mechanical system

Mechanical network
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x1:
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝑏(𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 2 ) + 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
Taking Laplace:
𝐹 (𝑠) = 𝑚1 𝑆 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑆𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑏𝑆𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑘1 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑘2 𝑋2 (𝑠)
𝐹 (𝑠) = 𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ] − 𝑋2 (𝑠)[𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 ] (1)

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 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Writing the D.E. at the displacement x2:

0 = 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 + 𝑏(𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 ) + 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑘3 𝑥2
Taking Laplace:
0 = 𝑚2 𝑆 2 𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑆𝑋2 (𝑠) − 𝑏𝑆𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑘3 𝑋2 (𝑠) − 𝑘2 𝑋1 (𝑠)
0 = 𝑋2 (𝑠)[𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ] − 𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 ] (2)
From Eqn. (2):
𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2
𝑋2 (𝑠) = 𝑋 (𝑠 )
𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 1
Substituting with the value of X2(s) in eqn. (1)
(𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 )2
𝐹 (𝑠) = 𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ] − 𝑋 (𝑠 )
𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 1
(𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )(𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) − (𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 )2
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = 𝑋1 (𝑠)
𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
Then
𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
=
𝐹 (𝑠) (𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )(𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) − (𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 )2
Example (4):
For a car suspension shown in Fig. 8,

9 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Fig.8, Car suspension system

The equation of motion for the suspension system is:

That can be rewrite as:

Taking Laplace:

Then the system T.F. is:

Example (5):
For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 9, write the differential equation at each
displacement then find the dynamic equation of that system. Consider x2 as output.

Fig. 9, Two-mass mechanical system

10 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Let v1, x1, v2 and x2 are the state variables

We know that:
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2
= 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x2:
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀2 𝑥̈ 2 + 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀2 𝑣̇ 2 + 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
1 𝑘 𝑘
𝑣̇ 2 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) − 𝑥2 + 𝑥
𝑀2 𝑀2 𝑀2 1
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x1:
0 = 𝑀1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝐵𝑥̇ 1 + 𝑘 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
𝐵 𝑘 𝑘
𝑣̇ 1 = − 𝑣1 − 𝑥1 + 𝑥
𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 2
0 1 0 0
𝑥̇ 1 𝑘 𝐵 𝑘 0
𝑥1
− − 0 0
𝑣̇ 𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑣1
[ 1] = [𝑥 ] + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥̇ 2 0 0 1 2 1
𝑣̇ 2 𝑘 0 𝑘 𝑣2
0 − 0 [𝑀2 ]
[ 𝑀2 𝑀2 ]
𝑥1
𝑣
[𝑦] = [0 0 1 0] [𝑥1 ]
2
𝑣2
Example (6):
Find the T.F. 2(s)/T(s) for the rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10, Rotational mechanical system

Writing the D.E. at the angular displacement 1:

11 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐽1 𝜃̈1 + 𝐵1 𝜃̇1 + 𝑘(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

Taking Laplace:
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐽1 𝑆 2 𝜃1 (𝑠) + 𝐵1 𝑆𝜃1 (𝑠) + 𝑘𝜃1 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝜃1 (𝑠)[𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘 ] − 𝑘 𝜃2 (𝑠) (1)
Writing the D.E. at the angular displacement 2:
0 = 𝐽2 𝜃̈2 + 𝐵2 𝜃̇2 + 𝑘 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
Taking Laplace:
0 = 𝐽2 𝑆 2 𝜃2 (𝑠) + 𝐵2 𝑆𝜃2 (𝑠) + 𝑘𝜃2 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝜃1 (𝑠)
0 = 𝜃2 (𝑠)[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘 ] − 𝑘 𝜃1 (𝑠) (2)
From Eqn. (2):
[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘 ]
𝜃1 (𝑠) = 𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑘
Substituting with the value of 2(s) in eqn. (1),
[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘 ]
𝑇 (𝑠 ) = [𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘 ]𝜃2 (𝑠) − 𝑘 𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑘
[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘 ][𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘 ] − 𝑘 2
𝑇 (𝑠 ) = 𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑘
Then the system T.F. is:
𝜃2 (𝑠) 𝑘
=
𝑇(𝑠) [𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘 ][𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘 ] − 𝑘 2
Example (7):
Write the D.E’s describe the rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. 11. Then
draw the block diagram and calculate the T.F. 2(s)/T(s).

Fig. 11, Rotational system

Solution at smart board lecture.

12 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Example (8):
For the linear displacement mechanical system shown below, draw the mechanical
network, then write the D.E’s that describe the system and draw the block diagram
where x1(t) is the desired output

The mechanical network for this system is:

13 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Example (9):
For the translational mechanical system shown below, draw the mechanical network,
then write the system differential equations and draw the block diagram. (consider x3
as output)

14 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

5. Mechanical Systems with Gears

Gear is a toothed machine part, such as a wheel or cylinder that meshes with another
toothed part to transmit motion or to change speed or direction.
In industrial applications, generally gears associate to a motor which drives the load.
Gears are used to obtain more speed and less torque or less speed and more torque.
The interaction between two gears is depicted in the Fig. 12. An input gear with
radius r1 and N1 teeth is rotated through angle 1(t) due to a torque, T1(t). An output
gear with radius r2 and N2 teeth responds by rotating through angle 2(t) and
delivering a torque, T2(t).

Fig. 12, Two-Gear transmission system

Also we must note that, if the number of gear is even, the direction of motion is
reversed. But if it is odd, as shown in Fig. 13, the direction of motion is not reversed.

15 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Fig. 13, Three-Gear transmission system

What is the relationship between the input torque, T1 and the delivered torque, T2 ?
Assuming the gears do not absorb or store energy (ideal gear), then the input energy
of Gear 1 equals the energy out of Gear 2.
𝑇1 × 𝜃1 = 𝑇2 × 𝜃2
Therefore,
𝑇1 𝜃2 𝑁1
= =
𝑇2 𝜃1 𝑁2
These relations can be summarized in blocks as:

Example (10):
For the gear train shown in Fig. 14, a load is driven by a motor through the gear train.
Assuming the stiffness of the motor shaft is infinite, draw the block diagram and find
the T.F. 2(s)/Tm(s).

Fig. 14, Gear train system

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 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

At node 1:
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = (𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝜃̈1 + 𝐵𝑚 𝜃̇1 + 𝑇1 (𝑡)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝜃1 (𝑠)[ (𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑆 ] + 𝑇1 (𝑠) (1)
At node 2:
𝑇2 (𝑡) = (𝐽2 + 𝐽𝐿 )𝜃̈2 + 𝐵(𝜃̇2 ) + 𝑘 𝜃2
𝑇2 (𝑠) = 𝜃2 (𝑠)[ (𝐽2 +𝐽𝐿 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑆 + 𝑘 ] (2)
Also we must consider the two relations of the gear train:
𝑇1 𝜃2 𝑁1
= =
𝑇2 𝜃1 𝑁2
From the above eqns., we can draw the block diagram:

Tm(S) + 1 1(S) 𝑁1 2 (S)

_ (𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑆 𝑁2

T1(S) 𝑁1 T2(S)
(𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑆 + 𝑘
𝑁2

So you can easily calculate the system T.F. 2(s)/Tm(s)

Example (11):
For the rotational mechanical system given below,
a) Write the differential equations that represent that system,
b) Draw the block diagram considering T(s) as input and L(s) as an output.

The D.E’s that describe the mechanical system are:

T(s) = 1(s)[50 S2 + 0.1] + T1(s)
17 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

T2(s) = 2(s)[100 S2 +100 S + 100] + T3(s)

T4(s) = L(s)[200 S + 2] - 3(s)[2]
0 = 3(s)[3 S + 2] - L(s)[2]
𝑁1 30 𝑇1 𝜃2
= = =
𝑁2 100 𝑇2 𝜃1
𝑁3 10 𝑇3 𝜃𝐿
= = =
𝑁4 100 𝑇4 𝜃2
The above equations can be represented in block diagram as:

Example (12):
For the rotational mechanical system given below,
a) Write the differential equations that represent that system,
b) Draw the block diagram considering T(s) as input and L(s) as an output.

The D.E’s that describe the mechanical system are:

T(s) = 1(s)[50 S2 + 200S + 0.1] + T1(s)
T2(s) = 2(s)[2] - 3(s)[2]

18 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

0 = 3(s)[ 10 S2 + 3S + 2] - 2(s)[2] + T3(s)

T4(s) = L(s)[ 100 S2 + 200S]
𝑁1 30 𝑇1 𝜃2
= = =
𝑁2 300 𝑇2 𝜃1
𝑁3 10 𝑇3 𝜃𝐿
= = =
𝑁4 100 𝑇4 𝜃3
The above equations can be represented in block diagram as:

6. Modeling of Electrical Systems

A mathematical model of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or both
of Kirchhoff’s laws to it.
RC Circuit: Consider the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 15. The circuit consists of a
resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C (farad).

Fig. 15. RC circuit

The equations of this RC circuit are:

19 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Combining the above two blocks we get the overall block diagram of the RC circuit;

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠
RLC Circuit: Consider the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 16. The circuit consists of
an inductance L (henry), a resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C (farad).

Fig. 16, RLC circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system, we obtain the following equations:

Taking Laplace:
1 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = 𝐼 (𝑠) {𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + } = 𝐼 (𝑠 )
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐼 (𝑠){ }
𝐶𝑠
The block diagram is given below:
From which the T.F. is:

A state-space model of that system may be obtained as follows:

First, note that the differential equation for the system can be obtained from T.F. as

Assuming the state variables as:

20 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Repeated RC circuit: as shown in Fig. 17, we need to obtain the T.F. of this circuit.
Therefore the D.E’s. that describe the circuit are as follows:

Fig. 17. Cascaded RC circuit

Example (13):
Obtain the transfer function Xo(s)/Xi(s) of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 18
(a). Also obtain the transfer function Eo(s)/Ei(s) of the electrical system shown in Fig.
18 (b). Show that these transfer functions of the two systems are of identical form and
thus they are analogous systems.

21 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Fig. 18, (a) Mechanical system (b) analogous electrical system

From mechanical system:

Taking Laplace:

From the electrical system:

7. Modeling of DC Machines:
Direct-current (DC) motors are one of the most widely used prime movers in the
industry. Years ago, the majority of the small servomotors used for control purposes
were ac. In reality, ac motors are more difficult to control, especially for position
22 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

control, and their characteristics are quite nonlinear, which makes the analytical task
more difficult. DC motors, on the other hand, are more expensive, because of their
brushes and commutators, and variable-flux DC motors are suitable only for certain
types of control applications. Before permanent-magnet technology was fully
developed, the torque-per-unit volume or weight of a DC motor with a permanent-
magnet (PM) field was far from desirable. Today, with the development of the rare-
earth magnet, it is possible to achieve very high torque-to-volume PM DC motors at
reasonable cost. Furthermore, the advances made in brush-and-commutator
technology have made these wearable parts practically maintenance-free. The
advancements made in power electronics have made brushless dc motors quite
popular in high-performance control systems. Advanced manufacturing techniques
have also produced dc motors with ironless rotors that have very low inertia, thus
achieving a very high torque-to-inertia ratio. Low-time-constant properties have
opened new applications for dc motors in computer peripheral equipment such as
tape drives, printers, disk drives, and word processors, as well as in the automation
and machine-tool industries.

The dc motor is basically a torque transducer that converts electric energy into
mechanical energy. It consists from Stator that contain the field flux and Rotor (
armature) that contains the windings. DC motor is modeled as a circuit with
resistance Ra connected in series with an inductance La, and a voltage source eb,
representing the back emf (electromotive force) in the armature when the rotor rotates
as shown in Fig. 19.

23 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

The torque developed (Tm) on the motor shaft is directly proportional to the field flux
() and the armature current (Ia).
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑘∅ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
If the flux is kept constant
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑖 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
Also the induced emf eb is directly proportional to the field flux () and the shaft
speed (m).
𝑒𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑘∅ 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)
If the flux is kept constant
𝑒𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑏 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)

Fig. 19, Separately-Excited DC motor circuit

Electrical Equation:
𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑒𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑎 1 𝑅𝑎 1
= 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) − 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) − 𝑒𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑎

24 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Mechanical Equation:
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐽𝑚 𝜃̈𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑚 𝜃̇𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑇𝐿
1 𝐵𝑚 1
𝜃̈𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) − 𝜃̇𝑚 (𝑡) − 𝑇𝐿
𝐽𝑚 𝐽𝑚 𝐽𝑚
The state variables of the system can be defined as ia(t), m(t), and m(t). The state
equations of the dc-motor system are written in vector-matrix form:

The block diagram of dc motor is given below:

At steady-state, the term di/dt is zero, and Eqn (1) can be rewritten as:
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝑒𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑘𝑡
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 (𝑡) = − 𝑇 (𝑡 )
𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑡 𝑚
The above equation represents the torque-speed characteristic of separately-excited
DC motor and shown in figure below.
From this characteristic, at starting: ωm=0 and Tm = Tst
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑠𝑡
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑎 → 𝑘𝑡 = 𝑅𝑎
𝑘𝑡 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡)

25 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

At no load, the speed is no-load speed (ωnL) and the torque is zero, Tm = 0
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡)
𝜔𝑛𝐿 (𝑡) = → 𝑘𝑏 =
𝑘𝑏 𝜔𝑛𝐿
From the above two equations, the electrical constants kt & kb can be determined.

Example (13)
For the separately-excited DC motor with torque-speed characteristic given below,
draw the block diagram then find the transfer function L(S)/Ea(S). Take the armature
resistance and inductance are 0.06  and 0.2 H respectively.

From the torque-Speed characteristic above, ωnL=50 rad/s, Tst=500 N.m at Ea 100V.
Therefore, the motor constants can be obtained as:
𝑇𝑠𝑡 0.06 × 500
𝑘𝑡 = 𝑅𝑎 = = 0.3 𝑁. 𝑚/𝐴
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) 100
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) 100
𝑘𝑏 = = = 2 𝑉. 𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑛𝐿 50
Electrical equation at constant flux (S-domain):
26 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein
 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

𝐸𝑎 (𝑆) = 𝐼𝑎 (𝑆)[𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎 𝑆] + 𝑘𝑏 𝜔(𝑆)

𝐸𝑎 (𝑆) = 𝐼𝑎 (𝑆)[0.06 + 0.2 𝑆] + 2𝑆 𝜃(𝑆)
The electromagnetic torque Tm(S) = kt Ia(S) = 0.3 Ia(S)
Mechanical equation at constant flux (S-domain):
𝑇𝑚 (𝑆) = 𝜃𝑚 (𝑆)[𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆] + 𝑇1
𝑇𝑚 (𝑆) = 𝜃𝑚 (𝑆)[5𝑆 2 + 2𝑆] + 𝑇1
From the gear ratio:
𝜃𝐿 (𝑆) 𝑁1 100 1
= = =
𝜃𝑚 (𝑆) 𝑁2 1000 10
At load:
𝑇2 (𝑆) = 𝜃𝐿 (𝑆)[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆]
𝑇2 (𝑆) = 𝜃𝐿 (𝑆)[700 𝑆 2 + 800 𝑆]
From the gear ratio:
𝑇1 (𝑆) 𝑁1 100 1
= = =
𝑇2 (𝑆) 𝑁2 1000 10
The block diagram is given in figure below.

Example (15):
Consider the speed control system shown in Fig. 20. The armature of the motor is
supplied with a controlled voltage through a DC generator. The generator field
current controls the generated voltage Eg. Draw the block diagram representing this
system and deduce the T.F. m(s)/Ei(s)

27 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Ra
Rf

Ei e If Ia TL
A
_ J
+ G Eg Eb M
Lf Tm m
B

Const.
Speed
Kb

Fig. 20, Motor-Generator system

The D.E’s that describe the motor-generator set are:
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝑏 𝜔𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝑒(𝑠)
𝐴 𝑒(𝑠) = 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)[𝑅𝑓 + 𝑆𝐿𝑓 ]
𝐸𝑔 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑔 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑔 (𝑠) = 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝐸𝑏 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑚 𝜔𝑚 (𝑠)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑚 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = [𝐽𝑆 + 𝐵]𝜔𝑚 (𝑠) + 𝑇𝐿 (𝑠)
By representing the above D.E’s we can draw the block diagram: (refer to smart-
board lrcture.
Example (16):
The mechanical system shown in Fig. 21, is used to measuring the displacement x2
due to the driving force f(t). Write the D.E’s describing this system, then draw the
corresponding block diagram.

28 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

f (t) R1
𝐾 V1 Vo
M1 x1 1 + 𝑇𝑠

C
K1 B

R
M2 L

x2
K2/2 K2/2
E

Fig. 21, Distance-detector system

Solution at the smart-board lectures.
Example (17):
For the electro-mechanical system shown below, the solenoid produces a magnetic
force FC = KC i. Draw the block diagram then find X2(s)/V(s)

29 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

30 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

Sheet 5 (Physical Systems)

1) For the mechanical systems shown below;
• Draw the mechanical network, then write the system D.E’s
• If X2(s) is the system output, draw the block diagram and find X2(s)/F(s)

31 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

2) Find the D.E’s that relates the distance X3 to 1 for the system shown below, then
draw the block diagram considering X3(s) as output. (the radius of the shaft is r).

3) For the mechanical systems shown below;

• Draw the mechanical network, then write the system D.E’s
• If 3(s) is the system output, draw the block diagram and find 3 (s)/T(s)

32 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

4) For the mechanical system shown below, the solenoid produces a magnetic
force fc = Kc i. Draw the block diagram then find X(s)/V(s)

5) The mechanical system shown below is used to measuring the displacement x2

Write the D.E’s describing this system, then draw the block diagram.

6) For the system shown below, determine the closed loop T.F.

33 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

7) For the motor-generator set shown below, the torque constant is KT for the
motor and KV for the generator. If the generator field current is assumed
constant, draw the block diagram then find the T.F. Y(s)/U(s).

8) For the separately-excited DC motor shown below, the torque-speed

characteristic is given by Tm = 200 - 8ωm. Draw the block diagram then find
the transfer function L(S)/Ea(S).

9) For the separately-excited DC motor shown below, the torque-speed

characteristic is given. Draw the block diagram then find the transfer function
L(S)/Ea(S).

34 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

 Benha University Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein

References:
[1] Bosch, R. GmbH. Automotive Electrics and Automotive Electronics, 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons
Ltd., UK, 2007.
[2] Franklin, G. F., Powell, J. D., and Emami-Naeini, A. Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1986.
[3] Dorf, R. C. Modern Control Systems, 5th ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1989.
[4] Nise, N. S. Control System Engineering, 6th ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., UK, 2011.
[5] Ogata, K. Modern Control Engineering, 5th ed ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2010.
[6] Kuo, B. C. Automatic Control Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1987.

35 Chapter six: Modelling of Physical Systems Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein