JUNIOR SECONDARY BIOLOGY

FORM TWO NOTES

CHRISTOPHER KANYIMBO
[1]
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION………………………………… 3

BLOOD DONATION…………………………………………………………… 12

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM…………………………………… 14

THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM………………………………………….. 21

SENSE ORGANS………………………………………………………………… 25

LOCOMOTION…………………………………………………………………… 35

DIARRHOEAL DISEASES……………………………………………………... 44

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS……………………………….. 47

MICROORGANISMS………………………………………………………………… 52

[2]
PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Flowering plants are divided into three main Lamina-where most chloroplasts are
parts. These are stems, roots and leaves. located.

Functions of parts of a plant Petiole: attaches the leaf to the stem. It

exposes the leaf to sunlight for
a. leaves photosynthesis. It also contains vascular
- They make food for the plant during bundles
photosynthesis
- They are a site for gaseous exchange Veins: have phloems and xylems that
- They act as food storage organs transport food substances and water
b. Stems respectively.
- They give support to the upper parts
of the plant Mid rib: holds the lamina in position. Have
- They expose leaves to sunlight for vascular bundles for transport of substances
photosynthesis and flowers for to and from the leaf.
pollination Cross section of a leaf
- They conduct or transport substances
across the plant.
- They act as storage organs
- some are used for vegetative
propagation.
c. Roots
- They anchor or support the plant
firmly into the ground
- They absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil
- They act as storage organs

External parts of a leaf

Cuticle

- This is a thin transparent material

covering the upper and lower
epidermis
- It is thin and transparent to allow
light to penetrate through

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The functions of cuticle are the following: - Palisade cells are closely packed
with no air spaces
a. It is water proof which prevents - Chloroplasts may move towards light
excessive water loss from the leaf
surface by evaporation Functions of palisade mesophyll
b. Protects internal parts of the leaf
from physical damage - This is the main site of
c. Hairy cuticle protects the leaf from photosynthesis
predators Spongy mesophyll
Epidermis (both upper andlower - A layer of cells located between the
epidermis) palisade mesophyll and lower
- Consists of one layer of thin epidermis
flattened cells that have no - The cells are irregular shaped which
chloroplasts are fit loosely
- Outer walls are covered with cuticle - They have a lot of air spaces
a waxy and water proof substance between them which allow air
produced by epidermal cells circulation and gaseous exchange
- Upper and lower epidermises contain between the cells and air surrounding
small pores called stomata them..
surrounded by pairs of guard cells - The spongy mesophyll cells are lined
with moisture to aid gaseous
The epidermis plays the following functions exchange

a. It protects the inner parts of the leaf Functions of spongymesophyll are as

from damage follows:
b. It contains stomata which are entry
and exit for air into and out of the a. It is a site of photosynthesis but has
leaf. fewer chloroplasts than palisade cells
c. Its cells allow light to penetrate since b. It is a site of gaseous exchange in
they have no chlorophyll plants
c. The spongy mesophyll cells store
Palisade mesophyll starch produced during
photosynthesis
- This is a layer of cells located below
the upper epidermis Vascular Bundles
- The cells are elongated and column
shaped - Consist of xylems and phloem.
- Palisade mesophyll cells contains a Functions ofvascular bundles are:
lot of chloroplasts hence is the main
site of photosynthesis

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 a. The xylem vessel conducts water and transport water to the leaves and
mineral salts from the soil to the glucose to other parts of the plant.
leaves. e. The leaf has air spaces in the spongy
b. The phloem transports food mesophyll for exchange of oxygen
substances from the leaf to other and carbon dioxide
parts of the plant. f. It has transparent cuticle to allow
c. Xylem walls are made of lignin and light to pass through and reach cells
cellulose which provide support to for photosynthesis.
the plant. g. It has no chloroplasts in the
epidermis-this is to allow sunlight to
penetrate to mesophyll layers.
Stomata
THE STEMS

The structure of the stem

These are pores located on both the upper

and lower epidermis.
Epidermis: This is the outer single layer of
Adaptations of the Leaf for cells in the stem. It protects the inner
Photosynthesis delicate parts from mechanical damage.
a. The leaf has chloroplasts which Cortex: it is made of three types of cells
contain chlorophyll that absorbs which are
sunlight for photosynthesis
b. The leaf has thin lamina to allow light i. Parenchyma cells which constitute
to penetrate to all cells and to allow the bulk of cortical tissue
faster diffusion of oxygen and carbon ii. Collenchyma cells that strengthen
dioxide the tissues
c. It has stomata which allow gases in iii. Scherenchyma cells that provide
and out of the leaf mechanical support
d. It has branching network of veins
Xylem: It is part of the vascular bundle and
which have vascular bundles to
it performs the following functions

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 i. Transports water and dissolved Vascular bundles: They transport
mineral salts in the plant substances in the plant.
ii. Provides support to the plant because
it contains a tough material called THE PROCESS OF
lignin. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Phloem: This transports organic food Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants
substances in the plant make organic food substances from water
and carbon dioxide in the presence of
NB: In monocot stems vascular bundles are sunlight and chlorophyll.
scattered while in dicots they are arranged in
form of a ring. Water and carbon dioxide are the raw
materials for photosynthesis. Glucose is the
ROOTS main product of photosynthesis while
oxygen is the by-product.
The Cros-section of the root
Word Equation for Photosynthesis

Water +Carbon Dioxide Glucose

+ Oxygen

Chemical Equation for Photosynthesis

6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 +

6O2

Photosynthesis takes place in two stages:

a. Light stage
b. Dark stage of photosynthesis
Epidermis: The outer layer of cells. It
Light Stage
protects inner parts of the root.
- It is the first stage of photosynthesis
Root hairs: They are extensions of the
and depends on light. Light energy
epidermal cells. They are used to absorb
from the sun is absorbed by
water and mineral salts from the soil.
chlorophyll and converted to
Cortex: Part of the root located between the chemical energy (adenosine
epidermis and the endodermis. It is used for triphosphate-ATP) through a process
storage of substances in other plants. called photophosphorylation.
- Light energy splits water molecules
Pericycle: This is a layer of cells into hydrogen and oxygen atoms, a
immediately inside the endodermis. Branch process called photolysis.
roots arise from the pericycle. - Oxygen molecules combine
chemically to form oxygen
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 molecules which are used in  Pluck a leaf from a green
respiration and excess oxygen plant
molecules diffuse outside the leaf  Dip the leaf in boiling water
through stomata. for about 30 seconds. This
- Hydrogen molecules become the raw stops further chemical
material for the second stage (dark reactions by killing leaf cells
stage) and destroying enzymes. It
also makes the leaf more
Products of light stage: hydrogen, oxygen
permeable to iodine.
and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is
 Boil the leaf in ethanol using
an energy rich molecule that stores energy
a water bath. Ethanol
for use in the dark stage of photosynthesis.
dissolves chlorophyll and the
Dark Stage leaf looks white. Ethanol is
not heated directly because it
- It is the second stage of flammable.
photosynthesis and does not depend  Ethanol makes the leaf hard
on light. It uses energy provided by and brittle. To soften the leaf,
ATP molecules that are produced in dip it in warm water. This
the light stage. also removes ethanol from
- In this stage hydrogen atoms react the leaf.
with carbon dioxide to produce  Spread the leaf on a white
glucose through a process called tile. This makes any colour
reduction since oxygen is given out. changes visible.
- Excess glucose molecules combine
 Place few drops of iodine on
chemically with each other to
the leaf to colour changes.
produce starch.
Results
The raw materials for the dark stage are
hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The products - Blue-black colour forms or brown
are glucose and oxygen. colour (colour of iodine)forms

NB: Glucose is the main product of Conclusion

photosynthesis. It is immediately changed to
starch for storage. Glucose cannot be stored If blue-black colour forms then starch is
by the plant because glucose is very present. If brown colour appears then there
reactive-can be involved in reactions where is no starch.
it is not needed and is also soluble in water. IMPORTANCE OF
Starch is insoluble hence easy to store. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A TEST FOR STARCH a. Food production: produces glucose
which is a simple sugar that is used

[7]
 as a food substance by living In the dark, photosynthesis is impossible. If
organisms. Glucose is also used to light intensity is slowly increased, the rate of
form proteins, lipids, starch which photosynthesis increases with increasing
are used by other organisms as food. light intensity. The rate increases to a point
Therefore photosynthesis is the main at which it can go no further. The point is
source of food for the whole called light saturationpoint.
universe.
b. Oxygen production: the process of Carbon dioxide concentration
photosynthesis produces oxygen An increase in carbon dioxide concentration
which is used for respiration in increases the rate of photosynthesis. A
organisms. decrease in carbon dioxide concentration
c. Reduction of carbon dioxide from results in reduction in rate of photosynthesis.
the air: photosynthesis uses carbon The rate of photosynthesis increases up to a
dioxide as a raw material. This point where it does not increase even when
prevents accumulation of carbon carbon dioxide concentration is increased.
dioxide in the atmosphere hence This point is called carbon dioxide
prevents global warming. This saturation point.
means photosynthesis purifies the air
by removing carbon dioxide in the Temperature
air.
The rate of photosynthesis increases with
d. Source of energy stored in fossils:
increasing temperature up to a point. If the
Fossils contain chemical energy. The
temperature is too high photosynthesis stops
chemical energy was initially
because the enzymes involved in
obtained through photosynthesis.
photosynthesis are denatured (destroyed).
e. It makes carbon available to plants
Enzymes become inactive in low
and animals: carbon is needed as a
temperatures. The optimum temperature is
component of chemicals in cells.
35℃. Too high or too low temperatures
Carbon obtained from carbon
lower the rate of photosynthesis since
dioxide is made available when it is
enzymes are affected negatively.
incorporated into the food during
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll concentration
Factors Affecting the Rate of High chlorophyll concentration increases
Photosynthesis rate of photosynthesis. Low chlorophyll
concentration decreases rate of
The rate of photosynthesis is how fast
photosynthesis.
photosynthesis occurs. The factors that
affect the rate of photosynthesis are: EXPERIMENTS ON CONDITIONS
NECESSARY FOR
Light Intensity
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

[8]
Before doing experiments on photosynthesis  Pluck one leaf and test it for starch to
a plant is destarched by placing it in the dark make sure the plant has been
for at least 24 hours. In the dark starch is destarched.
changed to glucose and carried away from  Cover part of both sides of the leaf
the leaf to other parts of the plant, a process using black sello tape or aluminium
called translocation.Destarching is done to foil.
make sure that the presence or absence of  Leave the plant in the sun for about 5
starch is due to set conditions. hours.
 Pluck the leaf and remove the
EXPERIMENT 1: IS LIGHT
aluminium foil and test the leaf for
NECESSARY FOR
starch.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
Results

Areas which received light turn blue-black

with iodine. The part which was covered is
brown.

Conclusion

Light is necessary for photosynthesis.

EXPERIMENT 2: IS CHLOROPHYLL
NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Materials

 Destarched potted plant

 Iodine solution and ethanol
 Test tube and beaker with water
 Piece of black paper or aluminium
foil
 Dropper and white tile
 Bunsen burner

Procedure
- It is not possible to remove
 Take a potted plant and put it in the chlorophyll from a leaf without
dark for 24 hours to destarch it. killing it, a variegated leaf is used. A
variegated leaf is a leaf that has
chlorophyll in patches.

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Materials Materials

 Variegated potted plant  A water plant (such as Elodea).

 Iodine solution  Iodine solution
 Test tube and beaker with water  Glowing splint
 Dropper and white tile  Test tube and beaker with water
 Bunsen burner  Dropper and white tile
 Bunsen burner
Procedure
Procedure
 Destarch the plant by placing it in
the dark for 24 hours  Place a funnel over the water plant in
 Place the plant in the sun for at least a beaker containing sodium
5 hours. hydrogen carbonated water
 Take the variegated leaf from the  Invert the test tube over the funnel
plant and test it for starch. stem. The funnel should be raised to
allow circulation of water
Results
 Place the set up in sunlight
- The part which was green turns blue-  Bubbles of gas appear rising and
black in colour and white part is collecting in the test tube.
stained brown.  After sometime the test tube is
removed and a glowing splint is
Conclusion inserted.
- Since starch is present only in parts Result
which were green then we conclude
that chlorophyll is necessary for - The glowing splint bursts into
photosynthesis. flames.

EXPERIMENT 3: IS OXYGEN Conclusion

PRODUCED DURING
- Oxygen is produced during
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
photosynthesis.

EXPERIMENT 4: IS CARBON
DIOXIDE NEEDED FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS?

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 Potassium hydroxide solution
absorbs or removes carbon dioxide.
Leave the leaf attached to the plant.
 Put another leaf in a flask containing
sodium bicarbonate solution. Sodium
bicarbonate produces extra carbon
dioxide.
 Place the plant in sunlight for 5
hours.
 Pluck the chosen leaves and test
them for starch.
Materials
Results
 Potted plant
- The leaf from a flask containing
 Potassium hydroxide potassium hydroxide remains brown
 Sodium bicarbonate hence no starch is present. The leaf
 Iodine solution from flask containing sodium
 Test tube and beaker with water bicarbonate turns blue-black hence
 Dropper and white tile starch is present.
 Bunsen burner
Conclusion
Procedure
- Carbon dioxide is necessary for
 Leave the plant in the dark for 24 photosynthesis.
hours.
 Choose two leaves on the plant.
 Put one leaf in a flask containing
potassium hydroxide solution.

BLOOD DONATION
Blood donation is a process whereby a healthy - Excessive loss of blood due to an
person gives blood for use in blood transfusion accident or injury
to a patient. - Acute anaemia in children due to
malnutrition and infections
Blood Transfusion: a process whereby a patient
- Excessive loss of blood by patients who
is given blood that has been donated by another
undergo surgery
person
- Patients suffering from diseases such as
The Need for Blood Transfusion malaria that leads to acute anaemia.
NB: The blood collected from donors is stored
- Excessive loss of blood by mothers in hospital stores called blood banks.
during child birth
Types Of Blood Donors

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 a. Family Replacement Donors - The history of the donor’s family to
These are family members of a patient who are know whether there are in family with
requested to donate blood. Family mebers blood diseases
donate blood to replace the blood used by their - Any medication the donor is currently
relative (patient). using
- The health history of the donor
b. Voluntary Non-remunerated Donors
- The places the donor has visited few
These are people who donate blood with desire
weeks to the time of blood donation.
to save lives. Voluntary means the person
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA PROCEDURES
donates blood willingly without being forced or
enticed. Non-remunerated means the person At this stage it is determined whether the donor
donates blood without being paid. is suitable to donate blood or not. The criteria
used for determining a blood donor include:
c. Paid or Remunerated Donors.
These are people who give blood for payment. The age of the donor
These donors are not recognized in blood
transfusion because their aim is not to save lives. - The donor must be aged between 16-65
years. The donor must not be too old or
The Process of Blood Donation too young because their bodies take a
long time to replace the blood donated.
The process of blood donation follows the
Anaemia
following steps:
- Individuals with anaemia are not
i. Pre-donation counselling
allowed to donate blood.
ii. Eligibility criteria procedures
Sexually Trasmitted Infections
iii. Venipuncture
iv. Post-donation counseling - Those infected by sexually transmitted
PRE-DONATION COUNSELLING diseases such as HIV & AIDS, Syphilis
and gonorrhea are not expected to
- Before donation the donors are taken
donate blood.
through a session where they are told
Prostitutes
about importance of blood donation,
requirement for blood donation, they are -Prostitutes are not recommended to
also told their blood would be screened donate blood because they are at high
and they would be given the results of risk of contracting sexually transmitted
the tests. infections.
- Other issues discussed include: VENIPUNCTURE
 How to overcome the fear of
needles - Venipuncture is a procedure where a
needle is inserted into a vein to obtain
 Donors are advised to take a lot
blood.
of fluids before the donation.
They are also advised to take - The donor is sat on a blood donation
chair. The technician identifies a vein on
food rich in iron needed for
blood formation the arm to carry out venipuncture.
- The technician identifies a vein on the
 The donors are also informed on
arm. An antiseptic is used to clear the
the questions to be asked before
area. A needle is inserted directly into
blood is donated such as:
the vein and blood is taken.

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 - An elastic band may be tied on the  To reduce incidences of HIV & AIDS
upper part of the arm to increase blood and other diseases transmissible by
pressure in the veins blood
- a person donates about 450mls of blood  To provide safe and adequate blood
in one location every 3-5 months. supply to all health care facilities
POST DONATION COUNSELLING  To provide adequate supplies of safe
blood and blood products to meet the
- After donation the blood is taken to a
need of all patients in all hospitals in
blood transfusion laboratory where
Malawi.
blood is screened. Screening means
Activities of MBTS
carrying out tests on the donated blood
to determine its suitability for donation. a. Carrying out district campaigns
The blood is tested for HIV, Hepatitis, b. collecting blood from donors
pathogens (germs) and Rhesus factor c. Testing and screening the collected
- The results of the tests are confidential. blood
If the blood has no problem then the d. Supplying safe and adequate blood
donor is counselled on how to remain and blood products to authorized
healthy. hospitals.
- if the blood has infections such as HIV, e. encouraging blood donations among
syphilis and hepatitis the person is students, the youth and communities
counselled on how to live positively in f. Encouraging establishment of club
case of HIV and to seek medication in 25. Its members commit to donate
case of other infection. blood at least 25 times during their
MALAWI BLOOD TRANSFUSION lifetime. They also assist the MBTS
SERVICE (MBTS) to encourage others to donate blood.
g. operating three static clinics in all
MBTS was established by government with help
the three regions of Malawi
of European Union in 2003.
h. operating mobile clinics
Objectives of MBTS

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration is the breakdown of organic Breathing: the taking in of oxygen and
food substances to release energy. release of carbon dioxide by animals.
Respiration takes place in cell organelles
called mitochondria. Gaseous exchange: the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide across a membrane.
Mitochondria are found in almost all cells
but they are abundant in cells that need a lot Importance of Breathing
of energy such as sperms and muscle cells.

[13]
 a. Allows organisms to get oxygen for Glucose Lactic acid + energy
respiration in cells
b. Enables organisms to get rid of C6H12O6 2CH3CHOHCOOH +
carbon dioxide produced by 150Kj
respiration In animals, anaerobic respiration produces
There are two types of respiration energy as a main product and lactic acid
a. Aerobic respiration as a by-product.
b. Anaerobic respiration Uses of Energy Produced by Respiration
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
a. Energy is used for growth e.g. in
This type of respiration takes place in the protein synthesis.
presence of oxygen. Glucose reacts with b. Heat energy is used to warm up the
oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, water, body- to maintain body temperature.
and energy. Energy is the main product; c. Is used in active transport to move
water and carbon dioxide are by-products. molecules against concentration
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide gradient.
+ Water + Energy d. Movement-contraction of muscles
requires energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Properties of Efficient Gaseous Exchange
2898Kj Structures

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION a. They are permeable to oxygen and

carbon dioxide
The release of energy from organic food b. They are moist-to dissolve the gases
substances in the absence of oxygen. In so that they are transported by blood
plants and fungi it is called alcoholic in animals with transport systems
fermentation. Because alcohol or ethanol is c. They are thin for faster diffusion due
produced. to short distance
Glucose ethanol + Carbon d. They are rich in blood capillaries in
dioxide+ Energy animals with transport systems to
transport gases.
C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + e. They have large surface area for
210kJ maximum gaseous exchange
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS
Energy is the main product, and Carbon
dioxide and ethanol are by-products of Gaseous exchange in humans takes place in
anaerobic respiration in plants. the alveolus located in the lungs.

In animals like human muscles anaerobic Structure of the Human Respiratory

respiration is called lactic fermentation System
because acid is produced.

[14]
Twelve pairs of ribs surround and protect A large sheet of muscle (diaphragm)
the lungs and the heart. Intercoastal muscles separates the thorax from the abdomen
are attached to the ribs.
.

The nostrils/nasal cavity: have hairs that further divide into bronchioles that lead to
filter the air. It also warms and moistens the the alveoli.
air.
Alveoli: they are a site of gaseous exchange
The pharynx: it is located behind the nasal in lungs.
cavity and above the larynx. It is a food and
air passage. Diaphragm: a dome shaped sheet of
muscles located at the bottom of the rib
Trachea: made of rings of cartilage that cage. During inhalation it contracts and
keeps the trachea open. Rings of cartilage moves downwards and increases volume of
prevent the collapse of the trachea during chest cavity and air rushes into lungs.
inhalation. During exhalation it relaxes and air is
expelled.
Larynx/Voice box: it is a passage of air. It
has two membranes called vocal cords. The Intercoastal muscles: during inhalation the
vocal cords can be made to vibrate to external intercoastal muscles contract and
produce speech. pull the chest cavity upwards and outwards.
This increases volume of the chest cavity
Bronchi: these are branches of the trachea. and air rushes into the lungs. During
They branch into bronchial tubes which exhalation internal intercoastal muscles

[15]
contract pulling the chest cavity inwards and downwards and air rushes out.
The alveolus

blood hence oxygen diffuses into

capillaries, and more carbon dioxide
in blood capillaries hence oxygen
diffuses into the alveolus.
e. They are numerous: increase surface
area for gaseous exchange.
The lung is surrounded by a pleural cavity.
It is a space lined by pleural membranes,
membranes protect the lungs, stop them
leaking air into the thoracic cavity. In
between the membranes there is pleural
fluid that reduces friction between lungs and
thorax.

Activity: To Demonstrate the Mechanism

This is the site of gaseous exchange in of Breathing Using Lung Model
lungs.
Materials
Oxygen diffuses through a thin epithelium
 Bell jar
of the alveolus and the endothelium of the
 Two balloons
capillaries. It combines with haemoglobin to
 Rubber stopper with a hole
form oxyhaemoglobin. Carbon dioxide
diffuses in reverse direction.  Glass tube
 Rubber band
ADAPTATION OF THE ALVEOLUS Procedure
FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE.
 Assemble the materials as shown in
a. It has a network of blood capillaries the figure below
that carry the gases being
exchanged.
b. Thin walls in between capillaries
and alveolus –gases diffuse faster.
c. It is lined with a thin film of
moisture to dissolve the diffusing
gases.
d. Diffusion gradient: There are
differences in concentrations of
gases in the blood and alveolus,
more oxygen in alveolus than the

[16]
 Breathing is the taking of air into and
outside the lungs.

The following structures help in breathing:

i. Ribs
ii. Diaphragm
iii. Intercostals muscle (both external
and internal)
Breathing takes place in two phases:

i. Breathing in (inspiration)
ii. Breathing out (expiration)
BREATHING IN (INHALATION)

 Study the model and state what the

following parts represent in the
respiratory system
- bell jar (rib cage)
- balloon (lungs)
- rubber sheet (diaphragm)
- air space(chest cavity)
- glass tube (trachea/bronchi)
 Pull the rubber sheet at the bottom of
the bell jar. What happens? Diaphragm contracts and moves downwards
 Now push up the rubber sheet. What (flattens). External intercoastal muscles
do you observe? contract and pull the rib cage upwards and
Discussion outwards. This increases the volume of the
chest cavity. Air pressure inside the chest
Pulling at the rubber sheet causes the cavity and that of the lungs decreases
balloons to inflate while pushing the sheet compared to atmospheric air pressure. Air
causes the balloons to deflate. This rushes into the lungs from the atmosphere.
represents exhalation and inhalation.
BREATHING OUT (EXHALATION)
Limitations of the lung model

- The bell jar which represents the

rib cage does not move to change
the volume of the air space inside
the glass jar.
Breathing mechanism

[17]
 decreases and pressure increases. Air rushes
out.

Regulation/control of Breathing.

Breathing is controlled by the Medulla

oblongata. Medulla oblongata monitors the
levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the
blood stream and adjusts the breathing rate
to maintain balance of the gases. In case of
high carbon dioxide concentration receptors
in the Aorta and carotid arteries detect this.
Receptors send an impulse to the oblongata
which sends messages to the breathing
Diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome structures such as lungs to increase air
shape. External intercoastal muscles relax intake and transport organs such the heart to
but internal contract and pull rib cage speed transport of gases.
downwards and inwards. Lung volume
Comparison of Inhaled and Exhaled Air

% in inhaled air % in exhaled air

Oxygen 21 16

Carbon dioxide 0.03 4

Nitrogen 79 79

Water vapour Varied usually Saturated

less

Heat/Temperature Usually less Body

temperature

Testing for Carbon Dioxide inhaled air

and Exhaled air

Inhaled Air

 Set up the test tube as shown below.

[18]
 The lime water turns milky white faster than
in inhaled air because it contains more
carbon dioxide than inhaled.

Investigating the Presence of water in

Exhaled water

 Take a mirror and place it before

your face
 Take a deep breath and then blow
out air over the mirror several.
 Wait for few minutes. You will see
the mirror becoming cloudy. This
 Suck the through the short tube.
shows that water vapour has
Make sure you are using the tube
condensed on the mirror.
that has not reached the lime water.
 Take cobalt chloride paper onto the
 Suck the air for sometime and
mirror. Observe what happens.
observe what happens.
Result
Results
The cobalt chloride turns pink in presence of
After a long time the lime water turns milky
water. This shows that exhaled air contains
white. This is because inhaled air contains
water.
less carbon dioxide than exhaled air.
Temperature of Exhaled and Inhaled Air
Exhaled Air
a. Using a thermometer
 Set up the test tube as shown below
 Use the ordinary thermometer to take
temperature of the surroundings.
This is the temperature of the inhaled
air.
 Record the readings
 Clean the thermometers with a
disinfected cloth.
 Put the bulb of the clinical
thermometer in the space between
the tongue and the roof of the mouth
to measure temperature of exhaled
 Blow the air through the longer tube
air.
that touches the lime water for some
 Wait for two minutes. Take the
time
temperature readings and record
 Observe what happens
Result

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  Compare the readings of ordinary Procedure for carrying out Artificial
thermometer to those of the clinical Resuscitation
thermometer
 Let the patient lie on his or her back
Result
on a mat or soft material
The ordinary thermometer will record lower  Close the patient’s nose and pull the
temperature than clinical thermometer. This head backwards
shows that exhaled air has higher  Take a deep breath then place your
temperature than the inhaled air. mouth of the patient covering it
completely.
b. The feel Method
 Breathe out heavily forcing the air
 Wave your hand and feel the air
into the lungs of the patient
around
 Remove your mouth and gently press
 Blow the air from your mouth onto
the chest of the patient to force air
your hand. Make sure your hand is
out.
close enough to your mouth.
 Repeat the fourth and fifth
 Compare the difference in feeling
procedures until the patient starts to
Result
breathe without help
The exhaled air feels warmer than the  If the breathing fails after 20 trials,
surrounding air. This means exhaled air has rush the patient to the nearest facility
higher temperature than inhaled air The Debate on the Mouth to Mouth
Method
.
In the past mouth to mouth resuscitation
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION OR used to involve direct contact between
VENTILATION the patient and the first aider. Nowadays,
This is the first aid practice carried out on a a handkerchief is used to cover the
person who is having difficulties in mouth when resuscitating the patient to
breathing due to an accident, fainting or avoid infection. There is still debate on
health complications. It is also called whether mouth to mouth is still safe.
artificial resuscitation.

Artificial ventilation is done by blowing air

using one’s mouth into the mouth of the
patient. The person carrying out the first aid
places their mouth onto the mouth of the
patient and blows air into the patient. This
makes artificial resuscitation to be called
kiss of life.

[20]
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The linking together of various processes These are within the body of an organism.
in an animal is called coordination. In Examples include body temperature, salt
humans and other mammals nervous and and sugar concentration, blood pH and
endocrine systems bring about water levels.
coordination.
Types of Animal Responses to Stimuli
Definition of Terms
i. Chemotaxis: This is animal
Stimulus: the change in the environment responses to chemicals. Animals
of an organism that influence the can move towards or away from
behaviour of an organism. chemicals.

Response: It is a reaction to a stimulus by ii. Phototaxis: This is animal

an organism. responses to light. Animals can
move towards or away from light.
Irritability: the ability of an organism to
respond to a stimulus. iii. Hydrotaxis: This is animal
responses to water or moisture.
Receptors: these are parts of the body that Animals can move towards or
detect stimuli such as eyes, ears, nose and away from water or moisture.
skin and tongue.
iv. Thermotaxis: This is animal
Effectors: these are parts of the body that responses to heat. Animals run
respond to a stimulus. away from strong heat.
Impulse: electrical message or information v. Haptotaxis: This is animal
transmitted by nerve cells or neurones. responses to touch.
Neurone: a specialised cell that conducts
Importance of Animal Responses
impulses.
- They enable animals to locate food
Types of Stimuli such as responses to chemical
There are two types of stimuli: external substances.
and internal stimuli. - Enable organisms to move away
i. External Stimuli from danger.

These are the changes in the external - They enable organisms to move to
environment of an organism which are environments with favourable
perceived by an organism. conditions for their survival.

Examples of external stimuli include - They enable organisms to locate

sound, light, temperature, touch and smell. mates during the breeding seasons.

ii. Internal stimuli THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

[21]
The nervous system of any mammal iii. Transmitting impulses over
consists of: distances.
iv. Interpretation of impulses and
i. The central nervous system (CNS): coordination of responses to
this consists of the brain and the stimuli.
spinal cord
ii. The peripheral nervous system: this THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
consists of a branching system of
nerves linking the brain (cranial The brain is made up of two halves called
nerves) and spinal cord (spinal hemispheres (the right and left
nerves) with all parts of the body. hemispheres). The hemispheres are
iii. The autonomic nervous system interconnected by a group of nerves called
consisting of centres that control corpus callosum. The right hemisphere
life sustaining reflexes such as controls activities of the left side of the
breathing, heartbeat, etc. body while the left hemisphere controls
activities of the right side of the body.
Functions of the nervous system
The outermost part of the brain is grey due
i. Receiving stimuli from the to cell bodies and innermost part is white
environment. due to axons. The brain is covered by two
ii. Converting the stimuli into membranes called meninges.
electrical impulses, a process called
transduction. Functions of the Major Parts of the
Brain

[22]
 blood circulation and blood
pressure.
1. Cerebrum ii. It controls non-vital reflexes that
This is the largest part of the human brain. coordinate swallowing, salivation,
It is divided into right and left cerebral coughing and sneezing.
hemispheres. Its outer layer is called The following are the general functions of
cerebral cortex or grey matter. It is highly the brain
folded hence higher number of neurones.
The large surface area enables humans to i. It receives and interprets impulses
carry out complex activities. from all sensory organs of the
body.
Functions of the Cerebrum ii. It sends off impulses to glands and
i. It is the memory centre. muscles causing them to function
ii. It is involved in learning. as effectors.
iii. It is the intelligence centre. iii. It stores information so that
iv. It is involved in creativity and behaviour can be modified
imagination. according to past experience.
v. Contains centres for all five senses 4. The Hypothalamus
which receive and interpret It performs the following functions:
impulses from sense receptors. i. It controls secretion of hormones
2. Cerebellum by the pituitary glands.
ii. It regulates some homeostatic
The cerebellum is located below the rear processes such as carbon dioxide
part of the cerebellum. It is smaller than concentration and water levels in
the cerebrum. It is also highly folded. the blood.
iii. It controls hunger
Functions of the Cerebellum
iv. It controls sleep
i. Coordination of body movements v. It also controls thirst
(muscular coordination).
THE SPINAL CORD
ii. Maintains balance and posture.
iii. Ensures dexterity in fine The spinal cord is an extension of the brain
movements like playing the guitar, running from the base of the braindown
sewing and typing. the back. It is protected by the vertebrae of
3. Medulla Oblongata the backbone and meninges. The outer
parts of the spinal cord contain the white
This is the hind most and smallest part of
matter and the inner part contains the grey
the brain.
matter.
Functions of the Medulla Oblongata
Cross-section of the Spinal Cord
i. It controls vital reflexes that
regulate heart beat rate, breathing,

[23]
 i. It links nerves of the peripheral
nervous system with the brain.
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves and ii. Coordinates certain automatic or
these divide form two branches, the dorsal reflex responses.
and ventral roots.
DRUGS AND THE CENTRAL
Dorsal root: also known as the sensory
NERVOUS SYSTEM
root is made of sensory neurones that bring
impulses from receptors. A drug is a chemical substance that can
alter the way in which a part of the body
Ventral root: also known as motor root is works. Drug abuse is the use of drugs in a
made of motor neurones that carry way that can cause harm to the person
impulses from the spinal cord to effectors. using them or someone else. Drugs
Ganglion: is a bulge made by cell bodies affecting the brain and spinal cord fall
sensory neurones in the dorsal root. All under the following groups:
cell bodies apart from those of the dorsal Sedatives/depressants: these drugs act by
root are concentrated in the grey matter. reducing brain cell activity hence reduce
The white matter consists of nerve fibres. anxiety and induce sleep. Examples of
White matter: it covers the peripheral sedatives include valium, alcohol and
areas of the grey matter. The white matter opium.
consists of nerve fibres that carry impulses Stimulants: these speed up the action of
up and down the spinal cord. the nervous system. Stimulants make the
Grey matter: this is a butterfly shaped drug user more confident and alert.
that appear grey in fresh tissue. It is grey Examples include caffeine and nicotine.
due to presence of numerous cell bodies. Pain killers (analgesics): they suppress
Central/spinal canal: it is a small clear the part of the brain or spinal cord
space. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. responsible for pain or inhibit formation of
impulse at the site of pain. Examples of
Functions of the Spinal Cord pain killers include aspirin, morphine and
ibuprofen.

[24]
Hallucinogens: these drugs cause hallucinations or illusions. Hallucinations are perceptions of
somebody or something that is not there. Examples of hallucinations include cannabis, lysergic
and diethylamide.

Effects Drugs on the Central Nervous System

a. Drugs can slow down the transmission of impulses which slows down the speed at which
a person can respond to a stimulus.
b. Can damage brain cells.This leads to loss of memory.
c. It increases the feeling of aggression resulting to increased violence.
d. Drugs can also lead to addiction. This means an individual can become drug dependent.
e. It interferes with body balance resulting to unconsciousness or staggering.
f. Drugs can lead to total breakdown of mental coordination leading to madness.
g. Drugs can also damage cells that control emotions. This results to distorted emotional
reactions by an individual. This leads to slow or no emotional reactions in situations
where it is needed and feelings of worry and anxiety even when there is nothing to worry
about.

[25]
 SENSE ORGANS
Sense organs are parts of the body that detect a stimulus. Sense organs are also called receptor organs.

Sense Organ Stimulus

Eye Light

Ear Sound

Tongue Taste

Nose Smell

Skin Temperature, pressure and touch

The sense organs play a very important role in iii. The skin is for detecting heat, pain and
the body of an organism as shown below: cold
iv. The tongue is for taste
i. Eyes help in seeing v. The nose is for smell
ii. Ears for hearing and balance.
THE EYE

It is the sense organ that enables us to see On the outside of the eye there are eyelids that
objects. It consists of the eyeball located in a cover and protect the eye. The edges of the
spherical space or hollow in front of the skull eyelids have hairs called eyelashes. The
called the orbit or eye socket. eyelashes prevent small particles from entering
the eye.
Parts of the Eye and Their Functions

[26]
Tear glands located just above the eyeball c) They contain an enzyme called
secrete tears. Tears perform the following lysozyme that kills and digests germs.
functions:
Excess tears drain away into the nasal cavity
a) They keep the eye moist through a duct called the tear duct.
b) They wash away dust particles

Part of the Eye Description Functions

Sclera (sclerotic The white outer layer of the eyeball. It is It protects the inner delicate parts
coat) inelastic and opaque. of the eyeball.

Cornea The transparent front part of the sclera. Allows light to enter the eye. It
also refracts (bends) the light.

Conjunctiva Thin transparent skin or membrane covering It also protects the eyeball
the cornea.

Choroid The deeply pigmented layer which lines the It prevents reflection of light
inside of the sclerotic coat. It contains cells within the eyeball. It also
that have melanin, arteries and veins. supplies oxygen and nutrients to
the eye due to presence of the
blood vessels

Ciliary body It is a ring of thickened tissue which is It produces the aqueous humour
continuous with the choroid. It also contains that maintains the shape of the
the ciliary muscle. eyeball. The ciliary muscles help
in accommodation

Iris Part of the choroid coat at the front of the It regulates the size of the pupil.
eye. Contains melanin, circular and radial Melanin gives the eye its colour.
muscles.

Pupil Hole at the centre of the iris It regulates the amount of light
entering the eye. It gets wider in
dim light and narrows in bright
light due to contraction and
relaxation of ciliary muscles.

Lens Transparent biconvex disc Focuses (refracts) light rays to

form an image on the retina.
Involved in accommodation by
change in thickness.

Suspensory Fibrous ligament attached to the ciliary body Attaches the lens to the ciliary
muscle or holds the lens in

[27]
ligaments position

Aqueous humour Transparent watery fluid in front of the lens It contains nutrients for the cells
of the eye tissue since the cornea
and lens have no blood supplies.
It also maintains shape of the
eyeball. It also refracts light.

Vitreous humour Transparent jelly behind the lens It fills the eyeball and maintains
its shape. It supplies nutrients to
eye tissue. It also refracts light.

Retina Transparent, contains light sensitive cells Rods sense dim light while cons
(rods and cones) sense colour and bright light.

Fovea light entering the pupil. The light rays pass the
pupil into the aqueous humour which refracts the
It is part of the retina and it’s also called the rays towards the lens. The lens focuses the ray
yellow spot. Sensory nerves are closely packed of light to the retina through the vitreous
at the fovea than in other parts of the retina. humour. The vitreous humour refracts light on
Most cones are in this part. It is the area of the retina. On the retina, an upside down image
clearest vision. is formed. The cons and rods in the retina are
stimulated. An impulse is formed and sent to the
Blind spot
sight centre of the cerebrum through the optic
It is the area at the back of the eye where the nerve. The brain interprets the impulse to an
optic nerve leaves the eyeball. It is not sensitive actual image of what was observed. The image
to light. This is because there are no is seen as an upright one.
photoreceptor cells (rods or cones). Any image
falling here is not seen. This is because it does Defects of the Eye
cause formation of an impulse. The blind spot a. Long sightedness or far-sightedness
has only blood vessels. A long-sighted person sees distant
objects clearly but not near objects. It is
Optic nerve
caused by short eyeballs or weak lens
The optic nerve carries nerve impulses from the which cannot bend light rays
retina to the brain. The brain then interprets what sufficiently. Light from a far object falls
is seen. on the retina but light from a near object
falls behind the retina. The image of a
How the Eye Works near object formed is blurred.
Long-sightedness can be corrected by
An object reflects light rays to the eye. Light
spectacles with convex (converging)
rays enter the eye through the cornea. Cornea
lenses. These lenses converge the light
refracts light to the pupil. The cornea refracts
before it enters the eye. The convex
light to the pupil. Iris regulates the amount of

[28]
 lenses focus the images of near objects This distorts images falling on the
on the retina. retina. Part of the image may be out of
b. Short-sightedness or Myopia focus.
A short-sighted person sees near objects Astigmatism may be corrected by
clearly but not distant objects. It is spectacles that have lenses that are
caused by a too long eyeball. The lens thickened in appropriate places.
fails to focus an image from a distant e. Cataracts
object. Images from distant objects fall Cataracts is a condition in which the eye
in front of the retina. Images from near lens becomes opaque so that light does
objects fall on the retina while those not pass through. This is caused by
from distant objects fall in front of the ageing, exposure to intense heat or
retina. atomic radiation. Cataracts can be
Short-sightedness can be corrected by corrected by surgically the opaque lens
spectacles with concave (diverging) and replacing it with a clear plastic lens.
lenses. These spread out light before it f. Glaucoma
enters the eye, so the lenses focus image Glaucoma is most common in older
of distant objects on the retina. people. It is caused by increased
c. Blindness pressure inside the eye due to buildup of
Blindness occurs in various forms which aqueous humour. This damages the
include colour blindness, night blindness optic nerves causing blindness and great
and total blindness pain. The condition can be corrected by
Colour blindness surgically making an incision in the
This is inability to distinguish between sclera to allow the fluid to filter out.
red, green and yellow colours. It is This ensures that pressure does not build
inherited from parents. It is more up in the eyeball.
common in males. g. Lack of Accommodation or Old Sight
Night blindness or Presbyopia
This is the inability to see properly in It is a defect of the eye caused by loss of
dim light. It is usually caused by lack of elasticity by lenses. In a person with
vitamin A. normal sight the lens changes shape for
Total blindness one to near and distant objects clearly.
This is when there is a total loss of sight. As people grow older, the lenses
This may be caused by diseases such as become hardened and lose their
trachoma, syphilis or gonorrhea or by elasticity and ciliary muscles gradually
physical damage to the eye and its weaken.
nerves.
d. Astigmatism Presbyopia is corrected by use of bifocal
It is caused by uneven or irregular lenses. These are spectacles with two
surface of the lens or cornea. Sometimes different types of lenses that is, concave
the cornea may have rough and uneven and convex lenses. The lower lenses on
surfaces. As a result of this, light the spectacles are concave lenses. They
passing through them are bent at are used for viewing near objects. The
different angles and are scattered and upper lenses on the spectacles are
not all of them are focused on the retina.

[29]
 convex lenses. They are used for continuously or bathe the eye in clean
viewing far objects. water. See a doctor if the particle does
not come out.
Ways of Caring for Eyes o Always wash your eyes with clean
o Avoid reading in very bright light, warm water.
looking directly at the sun or at very o When using a computer take a 40
minute break to take the eyes from the
bright light.
o Avoid reading under poor light as this computer screen. At the same time blink
may strain your eyes. to ensure that the cornea is kept moist.
o Do not hold a book too close to the eyes o Have regular eye check up by an
optician.
when reading. This can make the ciliary
muscles contract continuously. The
muscles weaken and the lenses weaken
lose elasticity.
o Avoid using sunglasses indoors or at
night. Do not use spectacles that have
not been prescribed by a doctor. Such
THE EAR
habits can lead to poor sight.
o If a small particle or insect lands in your
eye, do not rub the eye but blink

The ear has three main parts: the outer ear, the
middle ear and the inner ear.
The ear is the sense organ that allows us to hear
and to maintain our balance. It has sensory cells THE OUTER EAR
that detect sound waves and movements of the
head. The outer ear is made of the earlobe or the
pinna, auditory canal and the eardrum.

[30]
The Pinna This is a tube from the floor of the middle ear
that opens into the back of the mouth or
This is the ear flap on the side of the head. It is pharynx.
made of skin and cartilage. It receives or collects
sound waves and directs them into the auditory It ensures equal pressure on both sides of the
canal or ear tube. eardrum.

The Auditory Canal/tube The oval Window

The tube leads sound waves towards the It is the last part of the middle ear. It passes the
eardrum. It is lined with small hairs that help to sound vibrations to the inner ear.
keep out dust and small insects. It is lined with
cells that secrete wax. This wax keeps the ear THE INNER EAR
drum soft and traps dust and germs. The inner ear consists of cochlea, branches of
The Eardrum the auditory nerve and semi-circular canals.

This is a thin membrane that is stretched over Cochlea

the auditory canal. It separates the outer ear from It is a coiled tube in the inner ear. It is
the middle ear. The eardrum passes sound responsible for hearing.
vibrations from the outer ear to the ossicles in
the middle ear. Branches of the auditory nerve

THE MIDDLE EAR They are to the cochlea. They transmit impulses
from the ear to the brain.
The middle ear is an air filled space chamber. It
is separated from the outer ear by the ear drum. Semi-circular canals
It is also separated from the inner ear by the oval
and round windows. The middle ear consists of These are three canals in the inner ear placed at
the Eustachian tube, hammer, anvil, ossicles right angles to each other. They contain a fluid.
which include stirrup, oval window and round The semi-circular canals are responsible for
window. balance.

The Ossicles Functions of the Ear

The ossicles consist of three small bones called - It is an organ for hearing
hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup - It helps in maintaining or keeping
(stapes). They are suspended by muscles into the balance
middle ear. The functions of the ossicles are:
The Hearing Process
- To receive sound vibrations from the
Sound waves are collected and then travel along
eardrum and pass them to the oval
the auditory canal. The waves cause the eardrum
window.
to vibrate. The vibrations of the eardrum are
- To amplify the sound vibrations before
transmitted through the ossicles. The vibrations
passing them to the oval window.
are transmitted from the ossicles to the
The Eustachian Tube membranes of the oval window. The vibrations
of oval window membranes cause the fluid in

[31]
the cochlea to vibrate. The sensory cells - Use of visual signs during speech
connected to the cochlea are stimulated by these - Learning skills of lip reading
vibrations to produce impulses. These impulses b. Conductive Deafness
are conducted by the auditory nerve to the brain
(cerebrum). The brain interprets these vibrations This is a condition whereby a person is partially
as sound. unable to hear due to of transmission of sound
vibrations to the inner ear. Conductive deafness
Balance may be due to:

When the body changes position the fluid in one - Accumulation of wax in the ear canal
or more of the semi-circular canals moves. The - Damage or rupturing of the by objects,
nerve cells stimulate sensory cells in the canals blows on the head and lound sounds
to produce impulses that are sent to the brain. - Ear infections leading to production of
The brain realizes the position of the body and pus that reduces movement in the ear.
sends an impulse to the muscles concerned to - Too much ossicles growth. This reduces
keep the body in that position or to change their ability to vibrate hence interfering
position. with transmission of sound vibrations.
- Use of certain drugs in some individuals
DEFECTS OF THE EAR such as chloroquine in some individuals.
Deafness is the main defect of the ear. Deafness Correction For Conductive Deafness
is a condition whereby an individual is unable to
hear. - Treatment of ear infection by an ear
specialist (audiologist)
Types of Deafness - Too much bone growth of the ossicles
can be corrected by an operation
a. Absolute or Nerve Deafness
- Hearing aids can be used to correct
This is a condition whereby sound vibrations are conductive deafness
not able to reach the brain. Nerve deafness may - The wax can be removed by a doctor
be due to:
Caring for the Ear
- Damaged auditory nerve
- Damaged cochlea making them unable - Do not poke the ear with sharp objects
to detect stimulus (sound vibrations) such as sticks to avoid damaging the
eardrum
- Damaged brain cells that are involved in
sound reception - Clean the ear canal with soft cloth with
- Heredity-a child may be born with some warm water and soap to prevent
parts of the inner ear missing or not accumulation of wax
functioning - Protect your ears from loud sounds or
- Infection of the inner ear noises
- Avoid use of earphones with amplified
Correction of Nerve Deafness sound to avoid damaging the eardrums
- Infections should be treated early
In most cases nerve deafness cannot be enough to prevent damage to the
corrected. Affected individuals can be assisted to eardrum or cochlea
live normal lives by:

[32]
 - If an insect enters your ear, do not shine insect to go deeper into the ear.
into the ear to look for it. This makes the
THE SKIN

b. The Granular Layer

The skin is the largest organ in the body. It The granular layer is made of living cells which
forms a continuous covering over the surface of eventually form the cornified layer. It is the
the body. It allows us to experience touch, middle layer of cells in the epidermis.
pressure, cold and heat. The skin consists of two
layers: the epidermis and dermis. c. The Malpighian Layer

THE EPIDERMIS This is the innermost layer of cells in the

epidermis. It is made up of actively dividing
The epidermis is the tough, protective outer cells which are responsible for renewal of the
layer. It is the upper part of the skin. It is made epidermis. The cells in this layer contain
of dead cells and is called the horny layer. It is melanin pigment which contribute to the colour
made of three layers: the cornified layer, the of the skin. The more the melanin the darker the
granular layer and the malpighian layer. skin. Melanin protects the skin from dangerous
radiation from the sun.
a. The Cornified Layer
THE DERMIS
It is the outermost part of the epidermis. It is
made of dead cells which form a tough outer It is located below the epidermis. It is thicker
layer that acts as a barrier against entry of than the epidermis. It contains several parts such
germs. It also protects inner cells against as blood vessels, sweat glands and sensory
mechanical or physical damage. It also reduces receptors.
water loss.
a. Sweat Glands
The cells in this layer produce a waterproof
protein called keratin that strengthen them.

[33]
These are coiled tubes which open on the
surface of the skin through sweat pores. They
secrete and release sweat through pores on the g. Fatty layer
skin. Sweat consists of water, mineral salts and It acts as an insulator that prevents excessive
some traces of urea. heat loss from the body.
The liquid that forms sweat is absorbed by sweat
Function of the Skin
glands from blood capillaries supplied to each
gland. - It acts as a sense organ for touch,
temperature, pain and pressure.
b. Blood Capillaries - It protects the body against infection,
These are blood vessels that supply the skin with injury and strong sunshine.
nutrients and oxygen and remove metabolic - It stores food in form of fat
wastes. - It produces vitamin D
- It prevents water loss from the body
c. Hair Follicles - It gets rid of wastes products such as
urea, excess water and mineral salts
These are tiny pits in the dermis. Hair grows - It regulates temperature through
inside the follicle due to addition of cells to it at sweating and changing depth of blood
the bottom of the pit. Hair is made of a protein flow in the skin.
called keratin. - It stores fats which are source of energy.
d. Sebaceous Glands Caring for the Skin
These are small glands that open into the hair - Wash the skin regularly to prevent
follicle. They secrete an oily substance called accumulation of dirt and bad odour on
sebum. The sebum makes the hair repel water; it the skin.
softens the epidermis and kills certain bacteria. - Wear gloves when handling chemicals
that can harm the skin.
e. Hair erector muscle
- Protect your skin from direct radiation
It is attached between the bottom part of the hair by wearing protective clothings
follicle and the epidermis. When it contracts the - Take food rich in vitamin C. Vitamin C
hair follicle stands upright and very small keeps the skin soft and pliable.
pimples or swellings appear on the skin. When it - Dry your skin properly after washing to
relaxes the hair lies flat on the skin. prevent fungal diseases.
- Examine the skin regularly for diseases.
f. Sensory Receptors Seek medical help if you see any signs
of disease.
These detect stimulus related to temperature,
touch, pressure and pain.

[34]
 LOCOMOTION
Locomotion is the movement of the whole
organism from one place to another.

Reasons for Locomotion

- To run away from danger

- To search for mates
- To search for food
SKELETON

A skeleton is a supportive framework in the

body of an organism.

Types of Skeleton

a. Endoskeleton
This is a type of skeleton located inside
the body of an organism.
The hard material is inside the soft
tissue. The skeleton permits growth but
does not offer maximum protection to
soft tissues.
b. Exoskeletons
It is a type of skeleton located on the
outside of the body of an organism.
The soft tissues are inside the hard
material. It offers maximum protection
to soft tissues. However, it hinders
growth in organisms. Growth is possible
after moulting (shedding of the
exoskeleton).
c. Hydrostatic Skeleton
A skeleton provided by a fluid enclosed
in a cavity in the body of an organism.
The fluid is always under high pressure.
THE HUMAN SKELETON
The Axial Skeleton
Main Parts of the Human Skeleton
The word axial comes from the word axis.
The human skeleton is divided into two main
An axis refers to the central line of an
parts which are:
organism or organ.
i. The axial skeleton
The axial skeleton is made up of the skull,
ii. The appendicular skeleton
vertebral column and the rib cage.

[35]
 Part Diagram Function

Skull

 It protects the brain, nasal

organs, eyes, middle and
inner ears

vertebral
column

 It protects the spinal cord

 It supports the head
 It offers points of attachment
to the pelvis and rib cage

Rib cage

 It protects the lungs, heart,

liver and other internal
organs

The Appendicular Skeleton

[36]
The word appendicular comes from the word e. Storage: bones also store minerals such
append which means join to. Appendicular as calcium and phosphorous.
skeleton refers to part of the endoskeleton that Bone Structure
joins the axial skeleton.

The appendicular skeleton consists of the

pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and paired limbs.

Fore limbs are attached to the pectoral girdles.

Hind limbs are attached to the pelvic girdles.

Functions of Parts of the Appendicular

Skeleton

a. The Pectoral Girdle

- It gives attachment to forelimbs.
- It also absorbs stress from forelimbs
Pelvic Girdle

- It gives attachment to hind limbs

- It also absorbs stress from the hind
Paired limbs (legs and arms)
The bone consists of living bone cells called
a. For locomotion and movement osteoblasts. The bone is made of protein called
b. Holding and grasping objects collagen and minerals (calcium and
Functions of Bones phosphorous). Magnesium and fluoride are also
present but in small quantities.
a. Support: the skeleton holds the rest of
the body in position and helps in The bones have blood vessels that provide
maintaining its shape. nutrients and oxygen to bone tissues and carry
b. Protection: the skeleton protects metabolic wastes from bones to excretory
delicate organs. For example the spine organs. The bones also have nerves.
protects the spinal cord and the skull There are two types of bones, that is, compact
protects the brain and eyes. bone and spongy bone.
c. Movement: bones meet at joints which
form levers. Muscles pull on these Compact Bone
levers to move the body
d. Formation of blood cells: blood cells It very dense, heavy and strong. It is mainly
are formed in the bone marrow. Red found in shafts of long bones
blood cells are made in red bone marrow
Spongy Bone
in short and long bones. White blood
cells are made in yellow bone marrow in
shafts of long bones.

[37]
The spongy bone has open structure hence it is
light. It is found where there are large masses of
bone such as the head of femur.

Parts of Bone and Functions

Part Function

Cartilage Acts as shock absorber

 Makes the bone light

because it is very
porous
 It is also a site of blood A joint is a place where two or more bones meet.
Spongy bone cell formation because A typical joint
it has bone marrow
Compact  It is rigid and strong for Parts of a Joint and their Functions
bone support
Part of Joint Function
Hollow shaft  It reduces the weight of Capsule Binds the whole joint and
of the bone the bone without
reducing its strength keeps it intact
Yellow bone  Manufactures white
Synovial membrane Secretes the synovial
marrow (in blood cells
fluid
long shaft of
the bone) Synovial fluid Lubricates the joint

Red bone  Manufactures red blood Cartilage Acts as shock absorber at

marrow (in cells a joint
spongy bone)
Ligaments Hold the bones at a joint
firmly together

NB: Long bones contain yellow bone marrow Types of Joints

where white blood cells are made. The short
bones contain red bone marrow and manufacture There are two main types of joints:
red blood cells.
- Movable or synovial joints and
JOINTS immovable joints
Movable Joints

These are joints that allow free movement of

bones to occur. Examples of movable joints are
hinge joint, ball and socket joint, gliding joint
and peg and socket joint.

a. Hinge joint

[38]
 These allow movement by sliding over each
other such as between bones of the
A hinge joint allows movement in one plane
vertebrae, wrist and ankles.
only. Examples of hinge joints are elbow and
d. Peg and Socket (Pivot Joint)
knee joints. It is able to bear heavy loads.

b. Ball and socket

It is found in the vertebral column in the

neck (the axis). It enables the head to rotate.

Immovable or Fixed Joints

These are joints that do not allow movement

of the bones to occur. They are called
sutures especially cranial joints. Examples
of fixed joints are the cranial (of the skull)
and pelvic joint.

Muscles
A rounded head of one bone fits into a cup-
Muscles form most of the soft tissues of the
shaped socket of another. It allows body. They work by contracting. They are
movement in all planes. made of thousands of small fibres.
It is unable to bear heavy loads. Examples
Types of Muscles
of ball and socket joints are the shoulder and
hip joints. a. Skeletal or Voluntary Muscles

c. Gliding joints

[39]
 - They are under control of the
autonomic nervous system
Functions of Smooth or Involuntary
Muscles

These are muscles that are associated with - They aid in digestion by contracting
the skeleton and are under control of a and relaxing to move food in the gut.
person’s will. - They regulate movement of
substances in tube as such anal
Characteristics of Skeletal or Voluntary sphincter muscles.
Muscles c. Cardiac or Heart Muscles
- They are under control of a person’s
will
- They are attached to the skeleton
- They can contract rapidly and tire
easily
- They are striated or striped These are muscles of the heart.
- They are involved in locomotion
Characteristics of Cardiac Muscles
- They can remain contracted for a
long time. - They are striated
Functions of Skeletal Muscles - They contract and relax without
tiring
- They in locomotion
- They under control of the autonomic
- They help in holding, lifting and
nervous system
grasping things
- They can contract even after the
- They also help in talking, chewing,
heart is removed from the body.
etc.
Function of Cardiac Muscles
b. Smooth or Involuntary Muscles
- They pump blood in the body.
Antagonistic Muscles

These are pairs of skeletal muscles. When

one muscle relaxes the other one relaxes.
These are muscles that occur mostly in One example of antagonistic muscles is
hollow internal organs such as kidneys, biceps and triceps on the inside and backside
blood vessels, intestines and bladder. of the bone of the upper arm the humerus.

Characteristics of Involuntary Muscles

- They contract and tire slowly

- They are not striated or striped

[40]
 In an open fracture the bone remain beneath
and does not protrude or pierce through the
skin.
Muscles that contract and bend limbs are
called flexor muscles. The muscles that Compound fractures
contract and extend limbs are called
extensor limbs.

Stretching the arm

The biceps relax. The triceps contract and

pull at the bones of the lower arm (radius) to
stretch the arm.

Bending the arm

The triceps relax. The biceps contract and

pull at the bones of the lower arm causing In a compound fracture the broken bone
the arm to bend. protrudes or pierces through the skin.

INJURIES TO BONES AND JOINTS Signs of a Fracture

Fractures - A lot of pain at the site of the

fracture.
A fracture is a broken or cracked bone. - swelling and tenderness around the
Fractures occur when a lot of stress is injury
applied or exerted on the bones. - Bruising at the site of fracture
- Deformity-unusual positioning of the
Types of fractures
limb in question.
a. Simple or closed fractures - Punctured or cut skin at the fracture
b. Compound or open fractures in case of compound fracture.
Simple Fractures First Aid for Fractures

[41]
 - The first step is to call for an A dislocation is a displacement of a bone at
emergency as soon as the tragedy a joint. A bone moves out of position at a
occurs. Do not try to move the joint.
patient if you suspect a neck or back
A dislocation usually occurs at the shoulder
or head injury to avoid making the
or knee joints.
injury worse.
- Never try to push the bone back First aid for Dislocations
because it can make the injury worse
- In case of bleeding, apply direct - carefully and skillfully push the
pressure, but never try to elevate the dislocated bone back into position.
affected part for treatment. This is done by a qualified first aider.
- Once the bleeding stops cover the - tie a sling along the affected area to
part with a clean dry cloth or support the weight away from the
dressing joint.
- If the patient is in state of shock SPRAINS
avoid giving them anything to eat or
A sprain is an injury to ligaments and other
drink.
tissues at a joint. It occurs when the joint is
- If the wound is open, apply an
suddenly twisted or pulled.
icepack and cover it with a cloth.
The process of Immobilisation The twisting and pulling causes tear and
injury to ligaments.
- in order to immobilize the fractured
bone, check the extent of the fracture Symptoms of Sprains
- place a padded splint below the
broken bone and wrap the splint in a - pain in the injured area
cloth or towel for padding - swelling in the injured area
- Tie the splint to the limb using ties, - difficulty in using or moving the
belts, pieces of cloth or bandages. injured area
Make sure that you do not bind it - bruising in the injured area
directly over the broken part. - limping if the injury occurs to hip,
DISLOCATION ankle or knee.
First aid for Sprains

- ice or cold water can be applied to

reduce pain, swelling or bleeding
- apply a supporting bandage at the
joint and giving it enough rest so that
the damaged tissue can heal.

[42]
STRAINS

A strain is a stretch or a tear on a muscle or tendon. A tendon is tissue that attaches muscle to
the bone.

Some strains heal by themselves while some require surgery.

NB: The first aid for Strains is similar to that of sprains.

The first aid for sprains and strains can be summarized as RICE which stands for:

a. Rest: injured parts must be rested so that they heal faster

b. Immobilise:Stabilise the patient so that the injured part is not moved to avoid worsening
the injury.
c. Cold: apply cold compress to the injured area for 20-30 minutes for every two to three
hours during the first two days.
d. Elevation: elevate the injured areas to limit internal bleeding and swelling as it reduces
blood flow to the elevated parts.

[43]
 DIARRHOEAL DISEASES
Meaning of Diarrhoea - Watery stools that look like rice
water
A condition whereby an individual passes
- Severe vomiting
out loose watery stools due to infection of
- Dehydration due to loss of water in
the alimentary canal.
the body
Examples of Diarrhoeal Diseases Ways of Preventing Cholera
- Cholera - Correct disposal of faeces
- Dysentery - Wash hands after using the toilet
- Typhoid - Wash hands before eating
CHOLERA - Treating water before drinking such
as boiling or chlorination.
This is an acute (severe) infection of the
- Education awareness campaigns on
intestinal tract. In serious cases a patient dies
hygiene
within 24 hours of catching the disease.
- Covering food to prevent contact
Cause of Cholera with flies
- Wash raw food with clean water
Cholera is caused by a bacterium called
before eating
Vibrio cholerae. Once inside an individual,
Treatment of Cholera
the bacterium has an incubation period of
one to six days. Incubation period is the - Use of antibiotics
period between infection and appearance of - Administering of ORS to the patient
symptoms of a disease. DYSENTERY
The bacterium produces toxins (poisonous This is an intestinal infection that can lead to
substances) called enterotoxins that cause
severe diarrhoea with mucus or blood in the
the symptoms of cholera.
faeces.
Mode of Cholera transmission
Causes of Dysentery
- Faecal contamination
- Food contamination There are two main causes of dysentery:
- Vectors like flies from human faeces
a) A bacterium called shigella. (causes
to food.
bacillary dysentery)
- Through drinking contaminated
b) An amoeba called
water
Entamoebahistolytica. (causes
Signs and Symptoms of Cholera
amoebic dysentery)
- Severe diarrhoea due to toxins NB: the amoeba may begin feeding on the
produced by bacteria bacteria found in the intestines. It may later
- Abdominal pains destroy the intestinal epithelial walls and

[44]
blood capillaries leading to bleeding and Mode of Transmission
formation of ulcers. The parasite starts
- Contaminated food and water
feeding on red blood cells. It may later
- Contaminated objects
spread to the liver causing liver problems. - Vectors-flies or carriers (a carrier is
Mode of Dysentery Transmission an individual who can transmit a
disease but is not showings its signs
- Through eating contaminated food and symptoms)
- By houseflies Signs and Symptoms
- Through drinking contaminated
- Mild fever
water
- Slight abdominal pain
Signs and Symptoms of Dysentery - Ulceration and rupture of the
intestine
- Abdominal pain
- Diarrhoea
- Bloody diarrhoea
- Constipation
- Flatulence
Prevention of Typhoid
- Nausea with or without vomiting
- Anaemia in chronic cases of the - Vaccination
disease - Proper disposal of faeces
Prevention of Dysentery - Treatment of water
- Thorough cooking of food to kill
- Drink treated bacteria
- Wash hands with antibacterial soap - Wash fruits and vegetables before
after toilet, changing diapers and eating them
before preparing food. - Isolation of patient to prevent spread
- Eating properly cooked food of the disease through contact
- Proper waste disposal Treatment of Typhoid
- Control flies
Treatment - Use of antibiotics
Ways of Preventing and Controlling
- Use drugs such as metronidazole to
Diarrhoeal Diseases
treat amoebic dysentery
- Use antibiotics to treat bacillary a. Water treatment: Water treatment
dysentery kills germs such as bacteria and
- Administer oral rehydration solution flukes hence preventing spread of
TYPHOID diseases. There are many methods of
water treatment such as filtration,
It is caused by bacteria called salmonella boiling and using chemicals such
typhi. It affects the alimentary canal leading chlorination.
to ulcers and in extreme situations it breaks b. Proper disposal of human and
down the intestinal walls leading to death. domestic wastes: this includes using
The bacterium has an incubation period of latrines, toilets and sewage treatment
two weeks. and rubbish pits. This helps in

[45]
 prevention of diseases such as enough water which can lead to death.
cholera, typhoid and dysentery. To overcome dehydration, a person with
c. Personal hygiene: this involves diarrhoea is a solution called oral
observing personal cleanliness such rehydration solution (ORS).
as washing hands before eating food
and after using toilet. Personal The solution enhances faster absoption
hygiene reduces risk of diarrhoeal of water into the body. ORS is made by
infection. dissolving salts and sugar into water. It
d. Vector control: control of vectors helps the body to replace fluids lost
such as flies and cockroaches during diarrhoea.
prevents the spread of diarrhoeal
diseases. How to Prepare Home-made ORS
e. Food hygiene: wash fruits and
vegetables with clean running water, Materials
covering food, do not eat food sold
- Clean water
in open places and cooking food
- Sugar
properly. This reduces chances of
- Salt
diarrhoeal infection.
f. Public awareness campaigns: this Procedure
enables people to be aware of 1. Put one litre of water in a jug
various means of preventing 2. Add 10 teaspoons of sugar
diarrhoeal diseases. 3. Add I teaspoon of salt
Home-Made Treatment of Diarrhea 4. Stir the mixture till the salt and sugar
dissolve
A person loses a lot of water with
The solution should be given regularly to the
diarrhoea. The body cells do not get
patient.

[46]
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs)
A sexually transmitted infection is an - Abstaining from sex before marriage
infection that can be transferred from one - Early diagnosis and treatment using
person to another through sexual contact. antibiotics
- Engaging in safe sex through the use
Examples of Sexually Transmitted
of condoms
Infections
- Health education to the community
-HIV & AIDS, Syphilis, gonorrhea, to control the spread
Chancroid, Candidiasis, genital warts SYPHILIS (chindoko)
and genital herpes.
Syphilis is caused by a bacterium called
GONORRHEA (chinzonono)
treponemapallidum. Like gonorrhea, it also
Gonorrhea is caused by a bacterium called affects the urethra and the vagina and is
Neisseira gonorrhea. The bacteria attacks more serious than gonorrhea.
the urethra in males and vagina in females.
Mode of Syphilis Transmission
Mode of Gonorrhea Transmission
- Sexual intercourse with infected
- Sexual intercourse with infected person
persons - At birth for newborn babies by
- At birth for newborn babies if the infected mother
mother is infected Signs and Symptoms of Syphilis
Signs and Symptoms of Gonorrhea
Syphilis occurs in three phases
In Females
First Phase
- Pain in the lower abdomen
- Painful sore appear on the cervix or
- Menstrual problems
tip of the penis (chancre)
- Discharge of pus from the vagina
Second Phase
In Males
- Rashes appear on the skin
- Yellowish discharge from the urethra
- Falling of hair
- Pain while passing out urine
- Mild fever
Effects of Gonorrhea Infections
- Enlarged lymph nodes
- Blockage of sperm ducts or oviduct The patient is highly infectious at this stage.
which leads to sterility
Third Phase
- Destruction of blood cells hence
causing anaemia - The infection reaches the nervous
- Destruction of the liver cells causing system and the heart. It destroys
jaundice (yellowing of skin and them or causes paralysis, blindness
eyes) or madness. Death may eventually
Control and Prevention of Gonorrhea occur.

[47]
Effects of Syphilis Infection Genital warts is caused by Human
Papilloma Virus (HPV). The infection is
- Heart diseases
very common among teens and young
- Blindness or insanity
- Paralysis adults. The virus that causes genital warts is
- Death also linked to cervical cancer.
Control and Prevention of Syphilis
Mode of Transmission
-Engaging in safe sex through the use
of condoms - Sexual intercourse with an infected
- Abstain from sex before marriage person.
- Health education to create awareness Signs and Symptoms of Genital Warts
in the community - Bump-like growths on the genitals
- Treat using antibiotics such and anus
penicillin. - Itching or discomfort around the
CANDIDIASIS genitals
Candidiasis is caused by a fungus called - Bleeding may occur
Candida albicans. Candidiasis are of two Prevention and Control
types: -Removal of genital warts using
i. Oropharyngeal candidiasis-This liquid nitrogen
occurs when a the fungus attacks the - Abstaining from sex before marriage
mouth. It is also known as oral - Practicing protected sex by using
thrush condoms
ii. Vaginal candidiasis-this occurs when HEPATITIS B
the fungi attacks the vagina The disease is caused by the hepatitis virus.
Mode of Transmission of Candidiasis
Mode of Transmission of Hepatitis
- Through sexual intercourse with
infected person - Through sexual intercourse with an
- Oropharyngeal candidiasis is infected person
transmitted though kissing. - Through blood transfusion with
- From mother to child during birth infected blood
Signs and Symptoms of Candidiasis Signs and Symptoms of Hepatitis B

- White patches in the infected area - Production of dark coloured urine

- Red inflamed skin under the patches - Jaundice
- Severe irritation of the vagina - Inflamed liver which swells and
- Vaginal discharge stops functioning
Control and prevention of Candidiasis - Pain in the stomach
- Muscle ache, fatigue, nausea,
- Abstaining from sex before marriage vomiting and diarrhoea.
- Use drugs such clotrimazole Prevention and Control of Hepatitis B
- Practice safe sex
GENITAL WARTS - Abstaining from sex before marriage

[48]
 -
Engaging in protected sex by use of - Through sexual intercourse
condoms - At birth by an infected mother to the
- Treatment using drugs newborn baby
CHANCROID (Mabomu) Signs and Symptoms
This is a disease that is caused by bacteria. It - Sores on the lips
is a disease that can be treated and cured - Painful blisters on the genitals
with no long term effects. - Genital ulcers which may heal and
recur
Mode of Cancroid Transmission
Control and Prevention
- Sexual intercourse with infected
-Abstaining from sex before marriage
person
-Engaging in safe sex by using
Signs and Symptoms
condoms
- Painful ulcers on external genital CHLAMYDIA
organs
The disease is caused by a bacterium called
- Swelling in groin
chlamydia trachomatis. The disease is
In Females
similar to gonorrhea in many ways and it is
- It causes abnormal discharge difficult to differentiate them.
- Painful urination (dysuria)
Mode of Transmission
- Painful sexual intercourse
(dyspareunia) - Through sexual intercourse with
- Painless sores on the cervix infected person
- Several sores around the vagina and Signs and Symptoms
rectum.
- Inflammation of the pelvis
In Males
- Abnormal discharge from genitals
- 1-4 sores may develop on the penis - Pain and discomfort especially
- Buboes appear in half of the male during urinating
patients - Bleeding especially after sex
- The foreskin may swell - Infertility as it affects women’s
Control and Prevention of Cancroids fallopian tubes
Control and Prevention
- Abstain from sex before marriage
- Engaging in safe sex - Abstaining from sex before marriage
- Treat using antibiotics - Treatment using antibiotics such as
GENITAL HERPES penicillin
- Using condoms
The disease is caused by a Herpes virus.
A. AIDS
Mode of Transmission
Meaning of AIDS I: Immune-means the body’s defence or
protection against infections
A: Acquired-means passed from one person
to another

[49]
D: Deficiency-means weakening of the - Abstinence from sex before marriage
body’s defence against diseases - Practicing protected sex
- Being faithful to one partner
S: Syndrome-a group of diseases that come
- Screening blood for HIV before
when the immunity is weak
blood transfusion
AIDS is caused by Human - Avoid sharing piercing objects such
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). The virus as blades, needles and syringes.
destroys the body’s immune system. Treatment
Mode of Transmission of AIDS - Use antiretroviral drugs (ARVs)
which slow down the spread of the
- Through sexual intercourse with an
virus in the body. AIDS has no cure.
infected person
- From infected mother to child during Some misconceptions about HIV & AIDS
birth - AIDS is a result of witchcraft
- Sharing of piercing objects such as - HIV can be spread by mosquito bites
needles, syringes and razor blades - HIV can be spread by sharing
- Blood transfusion with infected utensils
blood - HIV can be spread by kissing,
- Through close contact between hugging
infected and non-infected person - HIV can be cured traditionally
through cuts or open wounds - AIDS is genocide to wipe minority
Signs and Symptoms of AIDS races in USA
- Sudden loss of weight - People under ARVs cannot spread
- Lymphoma (cancer of the lymphatic HIV
system) Effects of Sexually Transmitted Diseases,
- Chronic diarrhoea for more than a HIV and AIDS
month
- Persistent cough 1. On Individuals
- Shingles - Loss of body weight
- Fever - Madness in case of lack of treatment
- Swollen lymph glands or lymph such as syphilis
nodes - Sterility for example due gonorrhea
- Loss of appetite - Blindness in case of syphilis in
Prevention of the Disease babies

- It can lead to death such as AIDS - Loss of income to the family when
- Low productivity because the the infected person is too weak to
persons may be weak to work. work
2. On the Family
- In case of death, children are left 3. On the Nation
orphans and partners are widowed - High cost of medical care because
- Burden to relatives in terms of care, the nation spends a lot of money on
medication, widows, etc. providing health care.

[50]
 - Low productivity of the nation - Loss of manpower to the nation due
because people have reduced to death
productivity.
Ways of Caring for HIV and AIDS Patients
- Physical care such as washing their clothes, feeding them, bathing them and taking them
to hospital.
- Providing emotional and spiritual support such as praying with them, encouraging them
to live positively, accepting them in communities and at work.
- Providing them with nutritious food with balanced diet
- Ensuring that they observe hygiene such as taking a bath every day, washing hands after
visiting the toilet
- Provision of medical care such as taking anti-retro viral drugs

MICRO-ORGANISMS

[51]
 - Micro-organisms are very small or tiny
living things that can only be seen with
the help of a microscope.
- Micro-organisms are also called
microbes.
Main Groups of Micro-organisms
- Algae
- Protozoa
- Bacteria
- Fungi
- Viruses
Bacteria are prokaryotes which means they have
BACTERIA
no nucleus. The body of a bacterium has the
The most basic method used for identifying following structures:
bacteria is based on the bacterium’s shape and
a. cell wall
cell arrangement.
- it is rigid and porous which allows
Structure of a Bacteria substances to pass through.
- it gives a bacterium its shape.
b. outer capsule
- it is made of proteins and complex
carbohydrates
- the capsule enables the bacteria to stick
to surfaces

[52]
 - it also protects the bacteria from harm - contains dissolved substances.
c. Flagella - it is the main site of chemical processes
- these are whip-like structures. in the bacteria.
- some bacteria have one flagellum while e. nuclear material
others have many flagella. - its nuclear material consists of one
- the flagella are used by the bacteria for coiled chromosome.
locomotion or movement. - the chromosome carries the genetic
d. cytoplasm material of the bacteria.
- it is filled with fluid Forms or Shapes of Bacteria

- these occur in chains

BACILLI
There are three types of bacteria based on shape
or form: These are rod-shaped bacteria. These bacteria
may have flagellum or not.
- Cocci (singular-coccus)
- Bacilli (singular-bacillus) Examples of Bacilli include Bacillus anthracis
- Spirilla (singular-spirillum) (causes anthrax) or Bacillus typhi (causes
COCCI typhoid).
These bacteria are spherical or round in shape. Some are rod-shaped but may be curved such as
There are several types of cocci bacteria. vibrio cholerae (causes cholera).
i. crumps SPIRILLA
- these occur in groups clumped together
These are spiral in shape. An example is the
egstaphylococcus aureus that causes
Treponemapallidum that causes syphilis.
boils.
ii. Diplococcus FUNGI
- these occur in pairs but joined together
within a membrane like pneumonococci There are different forms of fungi. Fungi do not
bacteria that causes pneumonia. move and cannot make their own food. Fungi
iii. Streptococcus

[53]
are saprophytic which means they obtain their mycelium. The hyphae is involved in
food from dead organic matter. feeding, gas exchange and reproduction.
Some fungi are parasites, that is, they live inside
The downward hyphae form root-like
or on a host. Examples of fungi are yeast,
structures for feeding. The upright
mushrooms and moulds.
hyphae forms reproductive structures.
Characteristics and Structure of Fungi - They reproduce mainly by means of
spores.
VIRUSES
These are very tiny (small) organisms that can
only reproduce inside the living cells of other
organisms.
Viruses can attack different kinds of organisms
ranging from bacteria to plants and animals.
Structure of a Virus

The body of a virus is made of the following

- some fungi are unicellular such as yeast parts:
while others like mushrooms and a. Nucleic acid: There are two types of
rhizopus are multicellular. nucleic acids which are
- they do not have chlorophyll in their deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
cells ribonucleic acid (RNA). A virus only
- they feed by saprophytic and parasitic has one of the two while most organisms
feeding have both of the nucleic acids.
- they cells walls made a substance called b. Protein coat (Capsid): this is an outer
chitin covering made of protein compounds. It
- they are eukaryotes which means they surrounds the nucleic acids.
have true nucleus surrounded by nuclear c. Some viruses have projections which
membrane. form spikes that are used to attack
- they store sugar in form of glycogen or organisms such as bacteria.
oil droplets d. The virus has no organelles such as
- their bodies are made of thread like cytoplasm to carry out cellular activities.
structures called hyphae. The hyphae PROTOZOA
collects together forming of body called

[54]
Protozoa are unicellular organisms which are An amoeba also uses its pseudopodia to engulf
heterotrophic. Examples of protozoa include and digest a food particle, a process called
amoeba, paramecium, trypanosome, and endocytosis.
plasmodium. All protozoa live in water.
b. Flagellates
Classification of Protozoa These are protozoa that which move using
flagella. An example of flagellates is Giardia.
The protozoa are classified into four based on
The Giardia contains two nuclei.
their method of locomotion:
c. Ciliates
a. Amoebae

These are protozoa that move by extending These are protozoa which use the motion of tiny
finger-like protrusion of their cells called hairs called cilia to move through water. An
pseudopodia. example of ciliates is paramecium. They are
found in large numbers in water and sewage.

[55]
Few species of ciliates are parasites living inside Examining the Distribution of
a host. Microorganisms using Nutrient Agar.
d. Sporozoa Materials
These protozoa move on surfaces by flexing
their bodies. They do not have cilia, flagella and  Petri-dishes
pseudopodia. An example of Sporozoa is  Distilled water
Plasmodium that causes malaria.  Nutrient agar
 Cotton wool
ALGAE  Disinfectant
Procedure

 With the help of your teacher prepare an

agar solution by dissolving the agar and
boiling it to kill any micro-organisms.
 Clean about four petri-dishes with soap
and disinfectant.
 Fill each petri-dish with warm agar
solution.
 Cover the petri dishes and label them A,
B, C and D.
 Allow the solution in each of the petri-
dishes to cool and harden.
Green algae are taken as the origin of green  Keep the petri-dish labelled A tightly
plants. It can be unicellular or multi-cellular. covered in a cupboard. Do not open it at
All types of algae whether green, blue or brown all.
are photosynthetic and share many traits with  Moisten one of your hands and then
other plants. Examples of algae are giant sea move the hand over several surfaces in
weed, spirogyra and diatoms and euglena. your class or laboratory.
Characteristics of Algae  Open petri-dish B and move your
already dirty hand to make a line across
- They are able to make their own food the agar medium. Close the petri-dish.
because they have chlorophyll. Some  Open petri-dish C and place it outside
algae have chlorophyll which is brown the class for few minutes. Close it and
or blue. take it to the laboratory.
- The body of multicellular algae cannot  Take a piece of cotton wool and moisten
be clearly divided into roots, stems and it. Go to the toilet and using cotton wool
leaves hence the body of such algae is wipe some parts of the door or wall of
called a thallus. In some algae the the toilet. Open petri-dish D slightly and
thallus has a base called holdfast which touch the nutrient agar using the moist
has projections that firmly attach to cotton wool and close it.
surfaces for support.  Put the petri-dishes in a warm place in
- Algae are covered in slimy coating the laboratory.
which makes it slippery and protects it  Leave the petri-dishes for 48 hours and
from harmful bacteria. observe the results
Algae reproduce by vegetative propagation Results
where part of the algae breaks off to form new
algae.

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Different colours are going to appear on the
nutrient agar in the petri-dishes B, C, and D. In
Harmful Effects of Micro-organisms
A there is going to be no any colony because the
agar is sterilized. - Micro-organisms cause diseases such
cholera, tuberculosis, influenza, AIDS
Discussion of the results
and ringworm
The different colours on the agar represent - They cause decay of food and materials
different colonies of micro-organisms. The agar such as wood.
with more colours shows that it has more micro- Importance of Micro-organisms
organism. This means micro-organisms are
-They help in cycling of nutrients. For
differently distributed in different places.
example decomposition returns
Culturing Micro-organisms substances such as nitrogen and carbon
to the environment.
Culturing is the process of growing micro-
- Some bacteria such as rhizobium
organisms in a laboratory.
bacteria improve soil fertility by fixing
The growing of micro-organisms calls for the nitrogen.
use of aseptictechniques. Aseptic techniques - Some bacteria are used in treatment of
ensures that the apparatus and the surrounding sewage in urban areas. They break
are free of micro-organisms. The process of human wastes into simpler forms
destroying micro-organisms on apparatus and - Some micro-organisms are used in
the surrounding is called sterilization. medicine. For example bacteria are used
to produce insulin that is used to treat
Materials can be sterilized by heating or by diabetes mellitus and some fungi are
applying chemicals such as disinfectants. used to produce penicillin.
Conditions Necessary for Growth of Micro- - They are used in industries such as
organisms baking and alcohol production using
yeast.
a. Moisture - They are used to produce in production
Most micro-organisms grow well in damp genetically modified organisms.
conditions since it is easier for them to absorb Scientists use genes from bacteria to
food and gases. Water is also needed for change genetic combinations in plants
germination of spores of some micro-organisms. and animals with the aim of producing
desired characteristics.
b. Warm Temperature
FOOD PRESERVATION AND STORAGE
Most micro-organisms are killed by high
OF FOOD.
temperatures and inactivated by low
temperatures. They grow well in warm Micro-organisms cause a lot of damage on
temperature. stored food substances and items such as wood
in buildings.
c. Chemicals or nutrients
Micro-organisms require nutrients for them to There are various ways of preserving food and
grow. Without nutrients micro-organisms cannot other items:
grow.
a. Drying or Dehydration
d. Suitable pH This reduces moisture. In absence of enough
Some micro-organisms grow better in alkaline water some micro-organisms die because water
conditions while others grow better in acidic is essential for their growth. Examples of foods
conditions. preserved by drying include fish and vegetables.

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 b. Smoking e. Refrigerating and Freezing
Smoking dries the food and coats the food with a This involves keeping food at very low
substance that prevents growth of micro- temperatures. Micro-organisms are inactive at
organisms. Examples of food preserved by this low temperature hence cannot cause food
method include meat and fish. spoilage. Foods preserved by freezing include
milk, meat and fish.
c. Salting
Salting stops growth of micro-organisms by f. Boiling
dehydrating the food and dehydrating the Boiling kills micro-organisms and their spores in
microbes which eventually die. Examples of the food. Example of food preserved this way is
foods preserved by this method include meat and milk.
fish.
g. Pasteurisation
d. Canning and Bottling This is mainly suitable for milk. Milk is heated
This involves keeping food materials entirely to a specific temperature and rapidly cooled.
closed in cans and bottles. The cans and bottles This also kills micro-organisms in the milk.
are sealed under carbon dioxide or sealed in a
vacuum to prevent entry and growth of micro-
organisms.

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