Control System 1-1C (EN-

Sem-5)

Control System
UNIT
Concepts

CONTENTS
Part-1: Elements of Control Systems . . . 1-2C to 1-2C

1-2C to
14C
Part-2 Concept of
Open Loop and..
Examples
.
Closed L00p 5ystems,
and Application of Open LoopP
and Closed Loop Systems

Part-3 Mathematical Modelling of . 1-4C to 1-

9C
Physical Systems
(Electro-mechanical)

Part-4 Determination of Transfer.. *********** 1-9C to 1-

23C
Function by block Diagram
Reduetion Techniques and
Signal Flow Method using
Mason's Gain Formula, Basic
Characteristics of Negative
Feedback Control Systems

Part-6 Control Systems Components: . 1-23C to l-

28C
Constructional and Working
Concept of AC and DC Servomotor

Part-6 Synchro's, Stepper Motor.. *****************|

1-28C to 1-
33C
and Tachometer

1-1C(ENSem-5)
1-2C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

PART-1
Elements of Control Systems.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What are the basie elements of control system?

Answer
The various elements of closed loop system are shown in Fig. 1.1.1.

Controlled
Referencee Controlled output
Control
Command input
Input element
element
system
Feedback
element

Fig. 1.1.1.
produced input
and
1. Command : The command is the externally
independent of the feedback control system.
2 Reference input element: This produces the standard signals
command.
proportional to the
The detector receives the measured signal and
3. Error detector: error

The difference of two signals produces

comparesit with reference input.
the error signal.
4 Control element: This regulates the output according to the signal

obtained from error detector.

controlling by
the
5. Controlled system: This represents what we a r e

feedback lo0p.
the output of the
error
6. Feedback element: This element feedback
detector for comparison with the reference input.
 PART-2
Systems, Examples and
Concept of Open Loop and Closed Loop
Application of Open Loop and
Closed Loop Systems.
Control System 1-3 C (EN-Sem-5)

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 12. Explain open loop and closed loop control system with
the help of suitable examples.
Answer

A Open loop control system:

1 T h e open loop control system is also known as control system without
feedback or non-feedback control system.
2. In open loop systems the control action is independent of the desired

output.
3. In this system the output is not compared with the reference input.
4. The component of the open loop systems are controller and controlled
process.
Controlled 0utput
Input Controller process
Fig. 1.2,1.

5. Examples:
Immersion rod
i A field control DC motor
ii. Door lock system
iv. Traffic control system.
B. Closed loop control system:
1. Closed loop control system is also known as feedback controB system.
2. In closed loop control system the control action is dependent on the

desired output.
Error signal

Reference
input
AmplifierControlled process Controlled
output
Feedback

Fig. 1.2.2.
3. Any 8ystem having one or more feedback paths forms a closed loop
the output 18 compared with the
reference
system. In closed loop systems
input and error signal is produced.
1-4C (EN-Sem-5)
Control System Concepts
4. The error signal is fed to the controller to reduce the error and
desired
output is obtained.

5. Examples:
Air conditioners
ii Autopilot aeroplane

ii. Electric iron.

Que 13.Compare the open loop control system and closed loop
control system.

Answer

S. No. Open loop Closed loop

1 Feedback is not present. So Feedback is present. So changes
any change in output has no in out put effects input.
effect on the input.

2.lt is not much accurate. It is very accurate.

3. It is very sensitive to errors Less sensitive to errors and

and disturbances. disturbances.

. It has small bandwidth. It has large bandwidth.

Simple in construction and is Complicated in design and costly.
cheap

PART-3
Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems (Electro-mechanical).

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 14. Derive force-voltage unalogy.

Answer
A Translation mechanical systema
1. Atranslational spring-mass-damper system is shown in Fig. L.4.1.
Control System 1-5 C (EN-Sem-5)

ft) Applied force

K x Displacement
M

Spring Mass Damper

Fig. 14.1. Translational spring-mass-damper system.

Here, M = Mass of system

ft)D Applied
= force
Coefficient of damping
K= Spring deflection constant
3. The equation of motion for the system is obtained by applying
D' Alembert's principle,

4.
-D
Rearranging eq. (1.4.1), we get
- Kx +ft) .(1.4.1)

M DK =
ft) (1.4.2)

B. Force-voltage analogy
1. The analogy of eq. (1.4.2) with the voltage equation of an electrical
circuit can be established by considering electrical circuit shown in
Fig. 1.4.2
ww- 0O000
R

elt)

Fig. 142. Electrical cireuit for foroe-voltege analogy

2. The voltage equations for the circuit is as follows:

...1.4.3)

3 As the current is the rate of flow of electric charge,

i= ...
(1.4.4)

4. Substituting eq.(1.4.4) in eq.(1.4.3),

 4.5)

5.
dt
Comparing eq. (1.4.5) and (1.4.2), we get
1-6C (EN-Sem-5) Control System
Concepts

Table 1.4.1. Force-Voltage Analogy

Mechanical system Electrical system

Force,f Voltage, e

Velocity, v Current,
Displacement, x
Charge,
Mass, M Inductance, L

Damping coefticient, D Resistance,R

Compliance, 1/K (stiffness, K) Capacitance,C

que 1.5. Derive force-current analogy.

Answer

Unit-1.
A Translational mechanical system : Refer Q. 1.4, Page 1-4C,
Equation of spring-mass-damper system

..(1.5.1)
D+Kr =At)
B. Force-Current analog
is
for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.5.1
1. The nodal equation as obtained (1.5.1).
system described by the eq.
analogous to spring-mass-damper

'LY

Fig. 15.1. Electrical

circuit for force-current analogy

2. According to nodal analysis

...(1.5.2)

elements of
the circuit is
voltage across the three parallel
3. The common
obtained
are
denoted as e. The following relations

..(1.5.3)

.(1.5.4)
.(1.5.5)
dt
(1.5.4) and (1.5.5) in eq. (1.5.2),
Substituting eq. (1.5.3),
4
Control System
1-7C
(EN-Sem-5)

edt c
...1.5.6)
5. The voltage is related to flux linkages associated
e
with
inductance Las
follows
e = do
dt
.1.5.7)
6. Putting e = do in
eq. (1.5.6), we
get
dt

1do, 1 i(t)
d2 R dtI
=

...(1.5.8)
7. Comparing eq. (1.5.1) and (1.5.8), we get
Table 1.5.1. Force-Current
Analogy
Mechanical system Electrical system
Force,f Current, i
Velocity, u
Voltage, e
Displacement, x
Flux linkage,
Mass.M Capacitance, C
Damping coefficient, D Conductance, G
Stiffness, K(compliance, 1/K) Inductance, L

Que 1.6.Write down the differential equation governing the

mechanical translation system and find the transfer
function.

2 M f(t)
T
B2
TITTTTTTTTTTTTTTITTTTTT

Fig 1.6.1
AKTU 2020-21, Marks
10
1-8C (EN-Sem-5) Control Byutem
Concepta

Answer
1. Free body diagram of M,

M
M2
-

Fig. 18.2

'y,
. 1.6.1)
M ly, -%1B, -1B
2. Free body diagran of M,:

KIy1-72
-f(t)
Md M
d12
E, dt 71-Y2)
Fig 183

D- M, , - l Kly, -7,l+B,
..(1.6.2)

3. Taking laplace transform of bth nides of eq (1.6.2) and eq (1.6.1,

e 2et
Pls)-M,*Y,)+BlY,ta) -Yjai) + KiY,a)- Yfa'} +B,Yfa)

..1.63)

MYJ0)+ KIY Jn) Y,tan B, o1Y, (n) - Yfa} HpYfa)

-

+
+ = 0

Mp + K+ Bp + BpiYJa)= KY,s) + BsY{)

Y)M K Bs B
4. Putting the vale of Y m) in eq (1.6.3)

Pa)=M Ba +K+Mp) Yn) - g + K»

Yjo)
KB,
KY,n)
Pa)= (M, +
By+K+ b,a) Y,'n) -

M K * H,a Ba)
Ys)
Control System 1-9 C (EN-Sem-6)

Y(s) Ms+K+Bs+ B,s

Fis)M,s* + B,s + K + B,s)(M,s* +K+ B,s + B,s)-(B,s+ K

PART4|
Determination of Transfer Function by Block Diagram Reduction
Techniques and Signal Flow Method using Mason's Gain
Formula, Basic Characteristics of Negative
Feedback Control Systems.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.7.What is transfer function ? Write advantages and

disadvantages of transfer function.

Answer
A Transfer function: Transfer function is defined as the Laplace
transform of output to the Laplace transform of input when all initial
conditions are set to zero.

Tls) Let_C(s)
Lr(t)) R(s)Alli
A l nitinl condition are zero

B. Advantages:
1. Stability analysis of the system can easily be carried out.
2. The use of Laplace transform approach allows converting integral-
differential time domain equations to simple algebraic equations.
C. Disadvantages :
1. It is applied only to linear and time invariant systems.
2. Initial conditions do affect the system performance but these are
neglected while determining transfer function and hence lose their
importance.

gue 18.| Define blocks, summing point and branch point. Explain
the block diagram reduction rules.
OR
Write down various rules involve in block dingram reduction
method.
AKTU 2021-2, Marku 10
1-10 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

Answer
A Blocks:
1. Ablock diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
pertormed by each component and of the flow of signals.
2 A system is represented by using block diagrams. These are easy to
construct even for the complicated system. It is easy to visualize the
function of individual element in the block diagram of a system.

Take-off point
R(s)
Gs) C(s)

Summing point H(s)

Fig 1.8.1. Schematie diagram of closed loop system.
B. Sunming point: The output of control system is feedback to the
summing point where it is compared with the reference input. .
C. Branch point: A branch point or a take off point is a point from which
the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or running
points.
D. Block diagram reduction rules:
1 Series connection:
C(s)
Rs)
G GKG,(e)
2 Parallel connection :

Rls G,s)-s
) Gs
3. Positive feedback connection:
R) G) C8)
R(s) G, 8) Ca)
1-G6)H,(a)
H
4 Negativefeedback connection:
HB G8) Cs)
R(s) G,ts)Cs
H,)
Control System 1-11 C (EN-Sem-
5)

5 Moving the summing point ahead of the block:

(a+I
a G DG
L

b G
Moving the summing point before the block
aG+b
1/G
7. Interchanging input:

& Multiplication by (-1) to

theinput:

9. Moving a take-off point ahead a block:

R R G
R
R 1/G
10. Moving a take-off point before a block:

R G C R

R
Que 1.9.Determine the transfer function of the circuit given
below:

Fig. 1.9.1.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

1-12 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

Answer
Step 1:

G
R1 G,HB

Fig. 1.9.2.

Step 2:Shift summing point a before

G

Fig. 1.9.3.

Step 3:Interchange summing points.

G G,G,| C
1GH 1+GH

Fig. 1.94.

Step4:Shiftsumming point before block.

GGG
G
1.G,H - - C

1G
HG,
Fig. 1.9.5,
Control System 1-13 C (EN-Sem-5)

Step 5: Interchange summing points

R
G1 G,H GG C
G,G,G4
1+G,H
Fig. 1.9.8.

G,G,G+GaG,G,H
1+G,H,G,H,+ G,H,+ G, G, H, H2 + G, G, H, H,
Fig 1.97
For the system shown in the Fig. 1.10.1 find the overall

transfer function of system using block diagram reduction.

Cis)

Fig. 1.10.l.

Answer

R(s) 4 C(s)

Fig. 1.10.2

Rs)

Fig 1.10.3.
1-14 C (EN-Sem-5)
Control System Concepts

Rs)
1GH
H
Fig. 1.10.4.

After
Simplication

G,G ,.G G GG
G2
Fig. 1.10.56.

R(s)
G,G2 /G,+G G
-G04/\,i.G/
Fig. 1.10.6.

GG,G2+ G) L C(s)
1+G,GH,) (1+G, H,
Fig. 1.10.7.

GG,G+ Ga)
Rs) (1+GGHX1 +G,H) C(s)
GG,G,+ G
(1+G,G,H,X1+G,H1
Fig. 1.10.8.

CCs) G,G,G,+G
Rs)1G,G,H, +G, H, +GGGH,H,+G,G,G,+G,)
Que 1.11. Determine the transfer function of the given system

using block diagram reduction.

Control System 1-15 C (EN-Sem-5)

Ys)

Fig. 1.11.1.

AKTU2020-21, Marks 10
Answer
Step1:
YGa
RS6

Fig. 1.11.2.

Step2:

Fig-1.11.3.
Step3:

Ris Y(s)

Fig. 1.11.4
1-16 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

block diagram is
Step 4:Solving feedback loop L, reduced

Rs G,G+ G Y(S)

H,G_
GG G
Fig. 1.11.5.

the reduced block diagram is

Step 5: Solving feedback loop Lo,
isE GGG+G Y(s)
1+(GGG,)H, +H,G,G||
Fig. 1,11.6.

Step 6:Solving feedback loop,

GGG, +G,)
Y(s) 1+G,G+G,)H, +H,G,G
G(G,G +G,) x1
1(G,G, +G,)H, +H,G,G,
Y(s) G,GG+GG
Rs) 1+GG,H, +G,H, +H,G,G+ GG,G, +G,G
reduction method.
Que 1.12. Find out C/R by using block diagram

H+
Fig. 1.12.1.

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Control System 1-17 C (EN-Sem-5)

Answer

R
HH
Fig. 1.12.2

H,H,

Fig. 1.12.3.

G3
GiG.H,a
H
C

Fig. 1.12.4

G
GH,H
H

Fig. 1.12.5.
1-18C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

GG3
C
GG 1GH,H+G,GH
H,HH
Fig. 1.12.6.

(G,G2+ GG3
R 1+G,H,H2+ GGi,H

H,,
Fig. 1.12.7.

(G,G+GGa
|1+GH,H,+ G,G,H1+ (G,G,+ G,G,H,H,H,|
Fig. 1.12.8.

(GG, +G,)G
R 1+G,H,H, +GG,H, (G,G, +G,KG,7,H,H,
+

Que 1.13. Briefly explain Mason's gain

formula.

OR
formula. For the system shown in
State and explain Masson's gain
the Fig. 1.13.1 find the overall transfer function of system using
block diagram reduction.

Cls)

Fig. 1.13.1.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Anuwer
A Masson's gain formula:
1. The overall gain can be determined by Mason's gain formula given

below
Control System 1-19 C
(EN-Sem-5)

where, P, =

Farwardpath gaind k, path from

input node to an output node.
a

specified
A Determinant which involves closed-loop gainn
and mutual interactions between
non-
touching
loops.
1- [Sum
=

of all individual loopP gain|

+[Sum of loop gain products of all possible
pair
of non-touching loops)
-

(Sum of loop gain products of

all possible
triplets of non-touching loops|
+ -L.
A = Path factor associated with the concerned path
and involves all closed loops in the graph
which
are isolated from the forward path under
consideration.
2.
The path factor A for the kh path is equal to the value of the graph
determinant of a signal flow graph which exists after erasing the k
path from the graph.
B. Numerical: Refer Q. 1.10, Page 1-13C, Unit-1.

Que 1.14.Define various terminologies used in signal flow graph.

Answer
1. Source node: The node having only outgoing branches is known as
source or input node. E g., Xg is source node.
2 Sink node: The node having only incoming branches is known as sink
or output node. Bg., X is sink node.

3. Chain node : A node having incoming and outgoing branches is known

as chain node. Eg., X1,Xg and x4
G2
Ga3

o
13
Fig. 1.14.1
4. Forward path: A path from the input to output node is
defined as
forward path. Bg.,
P'irst forward path.
1-20 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System
Concepts

"o*X3-4*s Second forward path.

o**3- Third forward path.

o*1*2**3*5 Fourth forward path.
5 Feedback loop: A path which originates from a partieular node and
terminating at the same node, travelling through at least one other
node, without tracing any node twice is called feedback loop. For example,

6 Self loop: A feedback loop consisting of only one node is calledselfloop

i.e., G33 at xg is self loop.
7. Path gain: The product of branch gains while going through a forward
path known as path gain. i.e. path gain for path x 2
4*5
is, 1 x G2x G2g x G34 x G5. This can be also called forward path gain.
& Dummy node : If there exists incoming and outgoing branches both at
first and last node representing input and output variables, then as per
definition these cannot be called source and sink nodes. In such a case a

separate input and output nodes can be created by adding branches with

gain 1. Such nodes are called dummy nodes.

Eg..

-o

Source
Sink
(a) (b)
Pig. 1.14.2.

9. Non-touching loops: If there is no node common in between the two

or more loops, such loops are said to be non-touching loops.

1 2
Fig. 1.14.3. Three non-touching loops
10. Loop gain: The product of all the gains of the branches forming a loop
is called loop gain. For a self loop, gain indieated along it is its
gain.
Generally such loop gain are denoted by L'e8.L1, L, ete.
J2

- H

Fig. 1.144.

Loopgain,L,=-GH,
Que 1.15. Find the overall guin of the aystem whose signal flow
graph is shown below.
Control System 1-21 C (EN-Sem-5)

G6
Ro C

- H2

Fig 1.15.1
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
1. The gain of the forward paths,
P=G,G,G Pa= G,G,G, Pa= G,G,G,,
2. Individual loops,
P=G09P,--Gi,G,H,G,G,Pa=-G,6}4,G,G,
L, =-G,H, Lz=- GH, L,=G,H,G,H,
3. Two non-touching loops,
LL=GH,G,H.
A=1+GM,+G,H,-G,H,0H,+GA,G,H
A =1+G,H, A, =1+GH, A =A,= Ag =ag=1
R
G, G, G(1+G, H,)+ G, G, G, (1+G, H)+GGG
1G,H +G,H2 -G,H,GaH, +G,G,H,H,
+ GG,G-G,G,G,G,H, -G,G,G,G,H
1+G,H + G,H, - G,H,G,H, +G,G,H,H,
Que 1.16. Define sensitivity.
OR
Explain the effect of sensitivity on feedback system, Determine
sensitivity of negative close loop system where G(«) = 20/ s(s + 4),
H)=0.5 wrt forward path transfer function, feedback path transfer
funetion.
AKTU 2019-20, Marka 07
Answer
A Sensitivity : Sensitivity is the change in variable due to variation in
parameters of control system.
1-22 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

o Change in T
100
S % Change in G aG 100
G

B. Effect ofsensitivity:
* 100
S % Change in T
% Change in G G 100
G

Ga
S TdG
We know
C G
T R 1+GH
G 1+GH)-GH
G 1+GH¥ J
1 GH

S 1+GH'+ GH¥1+GH
So sensitivity of feedback system (with respect to G) is reduced by factor

of 1+GH.
C. Numerical:
1. Sensitivity with respect to forward path:

(Let o = 1.5
rad/sec)

S 1GH
4) s+4
20x+ 0.5s2+ 4s+ 10 s+4s +10
4)

Put s= J,

sT =_Uo+4j -2.25+ j6-2.26+ j6

jo+4(jo)+10 -2.25+10+ j6 7.75+ j6

-2.25+ j6) x(-7.75+ j6)

G6+7.75X j6-7.75)

17.43-j60-36 18.57-j60
-36-60.06 -96..06

yl8.67) +(60)* 0.65

1S 96.06
Control System 1-23 C (EN.Sem-5)

2. Feedback path:

-20 x0.5
GH 1 10
S s(s+ 4)
-

1+GH 1+20 x0.5 s+4s +10

s(s+4)
Put s = ja

10 - 10 -10
S =
jo+4jo+10 (j1.5+j4 x1.5+10 2.25+ j6+10
-106-7.75) -j60+77.5
7.75+ j6 (j6-7.75) j6) (7.75)
-

V-60+ (77.5 = 02
96.06

Que 1.17.What are the characteristics of negative feedback?

Answer
The characteristics of negative feedback are as follows:
Accuracy in tracking steady state value.
2. Rejection of disturbance signals.
3. Lowsensitivity to parameter variations.
4. Reduction in gain at the expense of better stability.

PART-5
Control Systems Components: Constructional and Working
Concept of AC and DC Servomotor.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.18. Explain construction and working of AC servomotor.

Answer
A Construction:
1. Fig. 1.18.1 shows the schematic diagram of a 24 AC servomotor
2. The stator has two distributed windings which are displaced from each
other by 90 electrical degrees.
3. One winding is called the reference or fixed phase and other winding is
called control phase.
1-24 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

B. Working principle:
1. Reference phase is supplied from a constant voltage source V,2 .
The other winding i.e., control phase is supplied with a variable voltage
of the same frequency as the reference phase but its phase is displaced

by 90° (electrically).
2. The control phase is usually supplied from a servo amplifier.
3. The speed and torque of the rotor are controlled by the phase difference
between the control voltage and the reference phase voltages.

4. The direction of rotation of the rotor can be reversed by reversing the

phase difference from leading to lagging between the control phase
voltage and the reterence phase voltage.

Control winding Amplifier From controller

Reference winding

Squirrel-cage rotor Fixed AC voltage

Fig. 1.18.1

Que 1.19. Write a short note on armature-controlled DC servo

motor.

Answer
1. Armature controlled DC servo motor is shown in Fig. 1.19.1.

L,
w O0

0
A Constant
Fig. 1.19.l.
 Control System 1-25 C (EN-
Sem-5)

2. It is assumed that the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction is

neglected, field voltage is constant and magnetic circuit is linear.
. Let R, Armature resistance
Armature inductance
Armature current
E = Induced emfin armature

V= Applied armature voltage

0 = Angular displacement of the motor shaft

T= Torque developed by motor

J= Equivalent moment of inertia of motor shaft
and load referred to the motor
B = Equivalent viscous friction coefficient.

4. Apply KVL in armature circuit

V= dR,i,
dt

+E .1.19.1)
5. In the armature-controlled DC motor, the field current is held constant.
For a constant field current, the flux becomes constant, and the torque
becomes directly proportional to the armature current so that
Ta
T
Ki ..1.19.2)
6. When armature is rotating, an emf is induced

dt

I.19.3)
7. The armature current produces the torque which is applied to the inertial
mass and friction hence the force balance equation is

Jd'e, =T=Kg
dt d t
=7=KI, .1.19.4)
8. Taking the Laplace transform on both sides of eq. (1.19.4) and (1.19.1)
(sl +
Ra) I,(s)+ Els) = Vls) [Initial condition
is zero
Js + Bs) 0s) = T\s) = KI,(s) ..
(1.19.5)
9. The transfer function of this system is obtained as

o) K

1..19.6)
Vls) LJs* (BL, +JR,)s+R,B+ KK,1|
+

10. Block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.19.2.

Vs)- s) K )
sJs+ BT
E(s)

Fig. 1.19.2.
1-26 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

Que 1.20. Write a short note on field controlled DC servomotor.

OR
Explain the working of servomotor with suitable diagram and also
derive the field controlled DC motor transfer function.

AKTU 2018-19,Marks07
OR
Derive block diagram of armature controlled and field controlled
DC motor with proper labeling of circuit diagram.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
A Working of servomotor : ReferQ. 1.18, Page 1-23C, Unit-1.
B. Armature controlled and DC motor: Refer Q. 1.19, Page 1-24C,
Unit-1.
C.
1.
Field controlled DC servomotor (DC motor):
A schematic diagram of a field controlled DC motor (DC servo motor)
shown in Fig. 1.20.1.
R
ww w-
Constant_

)
Fig. 1.20.1
2. Here, R, = Field winding resistance
L,= Field winding inductance
FieldArmature
winding current
resistance
R, =

Armature current
= Angular displacement.
3. The torque T developed by the motor is proportional to product of the
air-gap flux ¢ and armature current i, so we get
T=K,'a .(1.20.1)
where K, is constant.
4. But the air gap fiux ¢ and the field current i, are proportional for the
usual operating range of the motor and 19 assumed to be constant, we
can rewrite the above equation as

T K 'y ..(1.20.2)
where K, is a constant.
5. The equations for this system are
Control System 1-27
C (EN-Sem-5)

di,
L Ri =e
..(1.20.3)

and
Jd0 Bdu -T=K¢
...(1.20.4)
dt2 dt
6. By taking the Laplace transform on both sides of eq. (1.20.3) and (1.20.4)
where all initial conditions are zero, we get
L S + R iAs) = E{s)
..(1.20.5)
(Js2 + Bs) (s) =
Kifs)
..(1.20.6)
7. From the above equations, the transfer function of this system is obtained
As

G(s)
...(1.20.7)
E(s) s(L,s +
R,XJs +B)
8. Block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.20.2.

Es) 1 1s)_K
e(s)
sJ,+B
Fig. 1.20.2.

ue 1.21. What are the characteristics ofservomotors ? Compare

the AC and DC servomotors.

AKTU 2020-21,
Marks 10
Answer
A Characteristics of AC servomotor:
1. The torque-speed characteristics of AC servomotor (two phase) as shown
in Fig. 1.21.1.
2. The negative slope represents a high rotor resistance and provides the
motor with positive damping for better stability.
3. The curve is linear for almost various control voltages.

V =
V=1 pu
V= 0.76 pu
0.5
pu
o 0.0 pu Speed
Fig. 1.21.1. Torque-speed characteristics.
1-28 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

B. Characteristics of DC servomotor :
1. The torque-speed characteristics of DC servomotor as shown in
Fig. 1.21.2.
2. As from the characteristics, it is seen that the slope is negative.
Thus, a negative slope provides viscous damping for the servo drive

system.

VVazVag

Speed
Fig. 1.21.2. Totque-speed characteristics
B. Comparison :

DC Servomotor
S.No. AC Servomotor
It operates with low power. t operates with higher power.
1.

It gives noiseless operation. It gives noisy operation.

2.

|Efficiency is low. Efficiency is high.

More stable. Less stable.

Less maintenance required. More maintenance required.

PART 65
Synchros, Stepper Motor and Tachometer.

Questions-A nswers
Long Answer Type end Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.22.Explain principle of synchros.

Control System 1-29 C (EN-Sem-
5)

Answer
1. t is a rotary transducer that converts angular displacement into an AC
voltage or an AC voltage into an angular displacement.
A synchros system consists of
i A control transmitter (CX) and
i. A control transformer (CT).
The control transmitter consists of a stator and a rotor. The rotor is a
dumb-bell shaped magnetie structure. The supply is given to the rotor
by means of slip rings, which are actually mounted on the stator housing.
The secondaries are in the skewed slot all along the periphery of the
stator and are 120° apart because of their mechanical displacement.
5. The induced secondary voltage will depend upon the angle of the rotor
shaft. For reference the zero degree position of the shaft is defined
when the rotor is in alignment with the coil
S2
6. In this position, the voltage in coil S, is maximum, and similarly the
maximum voltage in coils S, and S, will result at 120° and 240° positions
respectively. The voltage in S, is a function of 6 and so is the voltage in
S, and Sg- Thus,

Os2 A cos 0

Os1A cos (- 120°)

O3 A cos ( - 240°

Stator
Slip rings

AC supply

Fig, 1.22,1. Schematic dingram of aynmchro tranamitter.

7. The connections of the synchro are made between the terminals and
hence

Bl2o-Por2
=A cos (0- 120") - A cos 0
1-30 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

2 sin cos
3
=v3Acos +sin
2

8. Therefore, E2 v3Acossin
.(1.22.1)
v3A cos (0+30)
(1.22.2)
Similarly, Es32 v3A cos.(0+150)
Egsa3Acos (0-270) ..(1.22.3

motor with
Que 123. Explain the working principle of stepper
neat diagram.

Answer
A Stepper motor:
1. A stepper motor is a form of AC motor. The input given to this motor is

in the form of electric pulses.

2. For every input pulse, the motor shaft turns through a specified number
of degrees, called a step.
3. Shaft of stepper motors moves through one angular step for each
input pulse. The range of step size may vary from .72° to 90°.

B. Principle of operation :
1. Stators of stepper motors have salient poles on which concentrated
windings are wound. These windings may be appropriately connected
so as to result in two, three or four phase windings, on the stator.
The rotors of stepper motors carries no winding. The rotors are made
from either permanent-magnet or ferromagnetic material.
A stepper motor is fed through an external drive circuit. The function
of this drive circuit is to receive input voltage pulses and to deliver
appropriate currents to the stator windings of the stepper motor.
4. These currents set up air-gap field which moves through one angular
step for each input pulse. The rotor tollows the axis of air-gap magnetie
field on account of the development of reluctance torque and/or
permanent-magnet torque.
5. Stepper motors vary widely in their designs and configurations, these
can be classified into three main types; variables-reluctance motors,
permanent-magnet motors and hybrid motors.
 Control System
1-31 C (EN-Sem-5)

C.
Operation of variable reluctance stepper
motor:

Rotor

Stator

Fig. 1.23.1l. 40, 4/2 pole variable reluctance

stepper motor.
1. It is 46,
a
4/2-pole (4 poles in stator and 2 in rotor),
single-stack, variable
reluctance stepper motor. Four phases A, B, C, and D are
connected to
DC source and are
energized in the sequence A, B, C, D,
A.
2. When winding A is excited, the rotor aligns
with axis of phase A. The
rotor is stable in this position and cannot move
until

phase A is
de-energized.
3. Next phase B is excited, A is
disconnected. The rotor moves
through 90°
in clockwise direction align with the resultant air-gap
field which now
to
liesalong the axis of phase B.
4 Further, phase C is excited and B is disconnected, the
rotor
moves
further stepaof 90" in the clockwise direction.
'Thus, as the phases
are
excited in the
sequence A, B, C, D, A the rotor moves through a step of
90° at each transition in clockwise
direction.
5. The rotor
completes
one revolution in four steps. The
rotation can be reversed by
direction of
 reversing the sequence
of switching the
windings,ie., A, D, C, B, A.
6. The magnitude of step
angle for any variables
reluctance or
magnet stepper motor is given by
permanent
360°
MN,
where,
Step angle
M= Number of stator
phases
or stacks
N, =
Number of rotor teeth
or rotor poles.
7. The step angle is also expressed as,
p NN, x360°
N,N,
where, N.
Number of stator teeth or stator
=

poles.
By choosing different combinations of number of
exciting coils, any desired step angle can be obtained. teeth or stator
rotor
1-32 C (EN-Sem-5) Control System Concepts

Que 1.24. What is tachometer ? Also explain different types of

tachometer.

Answer
Tachometer:
Tachometer is electromechanical device that convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
2.The device works as a generator with the output voltage proportional to
the magnitude of the angular velocity.
B. Types of tachometer:
DC tachometer:
The most common type of DC tachometer contains an iron-core rotor.
The
2 magnetic field is provided by
supply voltage is necessary.
a permanent magnet, and no external

3. The windings on the rotor (armature) are connected to the commutator

and the output voltage is taken pair of brushes
that
segments
ride on the commutator segments.
across a

4 The DC tachometers provide visual speed readout of a rotating shaft.

Such tachometers are directly connected to a voltmeter which is
calibrated in rpm.

Fig. 124.1.
b. AC tachometer:

Reference
winding V,cos o

Quadrature
winding

Rotor
OOOO0
-Vout
Fig. 1.24.2, AC tachometer.
Control System 1-33 C (EN-Sem-5)

1. It consists of two stator field coils or windings placed 90° electrical apart
or mounted at right angles to each other. These windings are reference
winding and quadrature winding.
2. A rotating element, ie., a rotor, is placed in the air gap between the
magnetic structure. Generally the rotor is a thin aluminium cup to
minimize the losses and low inertia.
3. A sinusoidal voltage of rated value is applied to the primary winding. A
secondary winding is placed at a 90 degree angle mechanically with
respect to the primary winding
When the rotor shaft is rotated, the magnitude of the sinusoidal output
voltage is proportional to the rotor speed.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Followin8 questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. Explain open loop and closed loop control system with the
help of suitable examples.
Ans Refer Q. 1.2, Unit-1.

92. Derive force-current analogy.

Ans Refer Q. 1.5, Unit-1.
3 . Determine the transfer funetion of the circuit given below:

Fig. 1
H
Ans. Refer Q. 1.9, Unit-1
Q.4. Determine the transfer function of the given system using
block diagram reduction.

R(8)

H
Fig. 2.
 UNIT
Time Response Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 Standard Test Signals.
************************* 2-2C to 2-3C

Part-2 Time Response Analysis of.. .

4 to 2-11C
First and Second Order Systems

Part-3 Time Response Specifications.. 2-11C to 2-15C

of Second Order System for
Unit Step Input

Part-4 Location of Roots of. 2-15C to 2-19C

Characteristics Equation and
Corresponding time Response

Part-5 : Steady State Errors and ...

*unsssssssnd 2-19C to 2-27C
Error Constants

Part-6 Basic Modes of Feedback . . 2-27C to 2-33C

Control: Proportional, Derivative,
Integral and PID Controllers

2-1C(EN-Sem-5)
2-2C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response
Analysis
-

PART-1
Standard Test Signals.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Explain various standard test signals, and

also find
relation between them.

Answer
A Standard test signals:
1. Unit step signal:
Signals which start at time t = 0 and have magnitude of unity are called
unit step signals.
i They are represented by a unit step function ut).
ut)

Fig.2.1.1. Unit step.

i. They are defined mathematically as:
1; t20
ult)
o:
=

t<0
2 Unit ramp signal:
i Signals which start from zero and are linear in nature with a constant
slope m are called unit ramp signals.

They are represented by a unit ramp function r(t).

ii. They are defined mathematically as
mt t20
rt)=
0;t<0
r(t)

mt
m = tan

t
0
Fig. 2.1.2.
 Control System 2-3 C (EN-Sem-
5)

3 Unit impulse signal:

i. Signals which act for very small time but have large amplitude are called
unit impulse functions.
i. They
i. They
are
represented
defined
by OE).
are mathematically as,

t) = t:0
8t)= 1 : t=0

Md1
*(t)

o(t)

t
Fig. 21.3.
4 Unit parabolic signal : The continuous-time unit parabolic function
pt), also called acceleration signal starts at t = 0, and is defined as:

pt)=2 for t20

0 for t<0

p(t)=ut)
pt)

0
Fis.2.14. Unit parabolic signal.
B. Relation between standard test signals:
Relation between impulse and step signal :

Öt) =ul0)
dt
2. Relation between step and ramp Signal
ut) = , r()

3. Relation between ramp and parabolic signal:

r)=
2
24C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response Analysis

PART-2
Time Response Analysis of First and Second Order Systems.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

order system with

Que 2.2.Discuss the time response of first
unit step, unit impulse and unit ramp inputs.
OR
Derive the time response of first order system.

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer
1. Consider a first order system with unity feedback.

R(s) 1/sT C(s)

Fig. 22.1.

Cls) 1
Rls) 1 (1+sT)

Cls)= 1+sT ..
(2.2.1)

3 Response to unit step input:

rt) = ult)

Ra)1

Putting in eq. (2.2.1), we get

Cls) (1+ sT)

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have

 Control System 2-5C (EN-Sem-5)

LCs)= et) =L"|;

ct) = 1 - e T
4. Response to unit impulse input :

rt)=ö(t)
R(s) = 1

Putting in eq. (2.2.1),

Cs)= 11
(sT+1)

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have

L-Ca=

c) =e "T

T
5 Response to unit ramp input:
rt)=t
Rls)=
Putting in eq. (2.2.1), we get

Cls)= (T+1) s'sT+1)

1 TT
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have

ct) = t- T+ Te"

Que 23. | The impulse response of unity feedback closed loop

8ystem is, c(t) = - ter" + 2er, find the open loop transfer function.

Answer

Given:r()= 60), ctt) = -tet + 2e,H) =1

To Find: Transfer funetion.
rt)= t )
2. Laplace transforn of rtt) gives,
2-6C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response Analysis

R(s) =
3. ct)= -ter'+ 2er
4 Laplace transform of c(t) gives
2
Cls)ts+1's+1
Cs)=
-1+2(s+1)_ (2s +1) .2.3.1)
(s +1 (s+ 1
5. For unity feedback control system
Cls) Gs)
R(s) G(s)

Cs) =Gs)
G Rs) .
(2.3.2)

6. Putting value of Cls) and R(s) in eq. (2.3.2)

(2s+1 1+Gs) = Gs) x 1

(s+ 1
D]
-
(s+1 G1(+1F
= G(s)+1+ 2s-2s -1]
(s+ 1
7. Open loop transfer function is

s) =
Zs+ 1)

Que 24. Derive the expression for the time response ofa second
order control system subjected to a unit step input.
OR
Derive the expressions for second order system for
underdamped case and when the input is unit step.

AKTU 2018-19,Marks 07
Answer
A Response of a second order system for unit step input :
1. Consider the second order system with unity feedback.
2. The closed loop transfer function is

Cls) o, sts+2Euo,)
Ms) 1+ s(s+2Ew,)
where, E= Dampingfactor or Damping ratio
Cs)
Rs) ( s + 2 , s + 0,
Control System 2-7 C (EN-Sem-
5)

Then output, C (s) = R\s)

s"
-

+2, O,S + O
...
(2.4.1)

R(s)
C(s)
ss+ 2E0,)

Fig. 2.4.1.

3. For unit step input

r (t) = 1

R (s) = 1

Then C (s) ..
(2.4.2)
22E0,s +

In eq. (2.4.2) putting Is2 +2E0,s+ ol = [(s +Eo, + ( 1 - )

and
breaking it into partial fraction

C s)= 8+20, ..
(2.4.3)
$ (s+ Eo,+o ( 1 - 1

Put I-

C(s) = -
s+Z0n2 ...2.4.4.)
5. Rewrite eq. (2.4.4)

Cls)= - 8+ ..
(2.4.5)
s (s+o,¥+oá (s+ o,+ o2
6. Taking inverse Laplace transform of eq. (2.4.5),

clt) = 1-e cos ot-2 sin ot

Put
0)=
1 -5")coso,t+ Esino,41..
(2.4.6)
7. Put sin= 1-
cOs
ct) = 1 Sin cOs@t + cos sino,)
2-8C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response Analysis

e
c(t) = 1- sin(o t t+ ) .(2.4.7)
1-
where
1-5
and tan -2
8. Eq. (2.4.7) is rewritten as

ct)=1- sin ( , y1-g x+ tan1 .(2.4.8)

9. The term o, is called natural frequency of oscillations. Term

o= o,1-5 is called damped frequency of oscillations and the term

is called damping ratio or damping factor.
B. Response of second order systems for different cases :
L
Underdamped case
(0 <E< 1): From eq. (2.4.8), time constant is
o , and the response having damped oscillations with overshoot and
undershoot is known as underdamped response

c(t

<1

Fig- 24.2. Underdanped oncillations.

2. Undamped case ( = 0):

elt)

---f
/-0
Fig. 2.4.3. Undamped oscillations.
Put 0
Eq. (2.4.8) becomes,
cl)= I-Sin (o,t + TU2)
 Control System 2-9
C (EN-Sem-5)

ct) = 1 -

cos
,t
3 Critically damped case ( = 1):

c(t) =
1+e*(l+,t)
ct)

98% =1

4T
Fig. 24.4. Critically damped.

4 Overdamped case (G>1);

C(s) =
s+E, +,VE-1}|s + Eo, -o,vE -1]s
Taking inverse Laplace both side,

c(t) = 1+
-1j
At>1
3-1--D 2-146-V-1D
neglect

Ve-10
ct) =1-
2E-1G-VE-1)
cL

Fig. 24.5. Overdamped.

Que 2.5. Derive the expression for second order system response
when subjected to unit impulse input for damping ratio (G< 1).

Answer
1. For unit impulse function, H{s) = 1 and the output of a second order
system is given by
 ,
C8) 220,5 *
(2.5.
2-10 C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response
Analysis

2 In eq. (2.5.1) rewriting the term

(s+20s+ o)as [(s +Eo, ,41-))
Cis)=
Ks Eo,+o, 1 - )
Cls)= 1- ...
(2.5.2)
o.v1- l(s+ Eo (o, 1-¥1
+

3 Taking inverse Laplace transform on both sides of eq. (2.5.2),

ct) e
sin la, V1-
(2.5.3)

4. For<1

ct)=
e i sin((o,V1-Fx]1
v-

(2.5.4)

<1

Pig 25.1.
5. The time response for< lis decaying exponential oscillations and the
output at times goes negative also.

Que 2.6. The open loop transfer funetion of a unity feedback

control system is given by G(e) =%ets+3). Find the natural frequency
of response, damping ratio, damped frequency and time constant.

A&TU 2020-21, Marks10

Answer
9
Given:
Gs)s+3)
ToFind:@,,Eo1.
Gs)
Hs)=1

1. Transfer function of closed loop system,

Ns)= Cs) Gls)

Rls) 1+G) H(s)
9

ss3) ..
(2.6.1)
Control System 2-11 C (EN-
Sem-5)

2. Comparing eq. (2.6.1) by standard second order characteristic equation,

Ts) 2E0, +

o = 9

3. Natural frequency, », =3 rad/sec

2E», =3

2 xgx3=3
4. Damping ratio, = 0.5
5. Damped frequency,

=V1-5 = 3/1-(0.5 = 2.59

rad/sec

6. Time constant, T=
Eo, = 0.5 x3 0.66 sec

PART-3
Time Response Specifications of Second Order System for
Unit Step Input.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questíons

Que 2.7.Draw time domain response curve of a second order

system and indicate important specifications.
OR
Define the following term:
i. Rise time
ii. Peak time
iii. Peak overshoot

iv. Settling time

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer
1. Delay tine (t): It is the time required for the
response to
reach 50 %
of the final value in first time.

0.75

2 Rise time It is the time

(t): required for the response
to rise from
10% to 9) %
of its final value for overdamped system and 0 to
100 % for
underdamped systems.
2-12 C (EN-Sem-5)
Time Response
Analysis

T-tan 1V1-

,
,V1-3
3 Peak time (1,): The peak time is the time required for the
response to
reach the first
peak of the time
response or first peak
oversho0ot.

' 1-3
4 Maximum overshoot (M,): It is the normalized difference
between
thepeak of the time response and steady output. "The maximum

percent
overshoot is defined as

Maximum percent overshoot 100

c(o)

% M= evi-x 100
5. Settling time (t):The setting time is the time required for the response
to reach and stay within the specified range (2 % to 5 %) of its final value.

cmax

Steady state
p

1.0 - .

}1 toy1-EoVI-?
t
-

Fig. 2.7.1.
 Control System 2-
13 C (EN-Sem-5)

Que 2.8. A unity feedback system has a forward path transfer

function G(s) = .Determine rise time, peak time and settling

s (s + 1)
time (2 o tolerance).

Answer

Given: Gs) = .H(s)=1

s(s++1)
To Find: t,1, and
t,
1. The characteristic equation for unity feedback control system is given
by
1+Gls)Hs) = 0

1 s+
s+1) 0

s2+2s +2 = 0
2. Comparing by standard second order characteristic equation

s+20,s+ o = 0
, 2 rad/sec
" =

0.707

3. Rise time,

tan = 45 =0.7853
(in radian)

4 1- =

v2/1-(0.707
=1

,= 2.3562 sec
4. Peak time, 3.1415 sec
5. Setting time, t, (for 20) =
E (0.707) (2)
48ec.
Que 2.8. | The unity feedback system is characterized by an open
loop transfer function is GIS)= Klota 20). Determine the gain
K, so that the system will have a damping ratio of 0.6. For this value
of
K, determine unit step response, time domain specifications:
settling time (2 % criterion), peak overshoot, rise time, penk time,
delay time for a unit-step input. AKTU 2021-
22, Marks 10
2-14 C (EN-Sem-5) Time
Response Analysis

Answer

Given: Gs) = Kls(s + 20), H(s) = 1, E = 0.6

ToFind:Unit step response, Settling time, Peak overshoot, Rise time,
Peak time, Delay time.

G(s)
R(s) 1+Gls) H(s)
K/s(s +20)
.(2.9.1)
1+K/s(s +20) x 1 s* +
20s +K
2. For second order system
C(s)
.(2.9.2)
R(s) s + 2, 0, + 0,
3. Comparing eq. (2.9.1) and (2.9.2), we get
V K rad/sec
2Eo, = 20

2x0.6 x VK =
20

VK 10/0.6 =16.66
K= 277.55

4. ct)l- e 5 sin (, Vl-5° %+ tan

"|

e06 16.66t
y0.6
Sin (16.66W1-0.6) t
+ tan 1

0.6
1-(0.6)
e
=

1- 0.8
sin |9.99t 53.06° +

5. Settling time (for 2 %),t= 4 = 0.40

sec
G0, 0.6 x 16.66

6. Peak overshoot, M, = e "- * = e o6vyl -06 =

0.095
7. Rise time, ,

tan-= V-0.6 53.06°

=

0.92 (rad)
0.6

, V1 - =
16.66 1-0.6 =

16.66 x

0.8 =13.32
Control System 2-15 C
(EN-Sem-5)

t--0.92 = 0.16 sec

, 13.32

8. Peak time, = 0.23 seec

16.661-0.
9 Delay time,
1+0.7 1+0.7x 0.6 =
0.085
sec
16.66

PART-4]
Location of Roots of Characteristics Equation and
Corresponding time Response.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

equation for
Draw the root locus of characteristics
Que 2.10.
damping ratio varies from-o to+
o

keeping8
secondorder system as

W, constant. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 3.5

OR
Draw the roots of the characteristics equation for second order
time response.
system and corresponding
Answer
The effect of roots of the characteristic equation on the damping ratio

order system is shown in Fig. 2.10.1 and Fig.

2.10.2.
of a second S-plane
jo =0
0>G>-1
0<<1
1 -
- <-1 -
 P0>-1

of the
Fig. 2.10.l. Locus of roots of the characteristic equation
when is held constant while the
prototype second-order system, W,,
ratio is varied from -
o to o,
damping
2-16C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response Analysis

J y(t)
S-plane

o
/>1

JA y(t
S-plane

-plane
yt

O<<1 A

yt
-plane

A
s-plane

0>>- 1

-plane T

< -1

Fig. 2.10.2. Step-response comparison for various

characteristic-equation-root locations in the -plane,

Que 2.11. Explain the effeet of adding poles and zero to transter

function. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 3.6

OR
Control System 2-17 C (EN-Sem-5)

What is the effect of adding pole to a system ? Discu8.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Answer
A Effect of adding poles to transfer funetion:
1. Adding a pole at s= -1/T to the forward-path transfer function of lead

G(s) = -
s(s +2»,)(1 +Ts)
2. We can obtain a qualitative indication on the bandwidth properties by
referring to Pig. 2.ll.l, which shows the plots of |Mya)| versus o 1or
, =1,5= 0.707, and various values of T. Since the system is now of the
third order, it can be unstable for a certain set of system parameters.
| MGo)|

T = 5 G(s) =
s(s+ 1.414X1 + Ts)

T =0.5

o(rad/sec)

Fig. 2.11.1.
The effect of adding a pole to the forward-path transfer function is to
make the closed-loop system less stable, while decreasing the bandwidth.
4 T h e unit-step responses of Pg. 2.11.2 show that for larger values of 7,
T=1 and T=5, the following relations are observed :
The rise time increases with the decrease of the bandwidth,
ii The larger values of M, also correspond to a larger maximum overshoot
in the unit-step responses.
y(t)
T 5

T =0.5/

USs(s+ 1.414 1+ Ts)

Time (sec)
Fig. 2.11.2.
2-18C (EN.Sem-5) Time Response
Analysis

B. Effect of adding a zero to transfer function:

1. Consider unity feedback system having forward path transfer function
8s,

G(s)=
- ...(2.11.1)

s(s+20,
2. Let us add a zero at s = - 1/T to the transfer function so that

eq. (2.11.1) becomes

GCls)=,1+Ts)

s(s + 2E0,)
3. The closed-loop transfer function for unity feedback system is

Cls) (1+Ts)
Rs) +(20, +To )s+,
B.W. -bb4
where b 43 o+4 o+T- 20-
for /= 0.707 and o, =1
B.W

Fig. 2.11.3.
4. The general effect of adding a zero to the forward path transfer function
is to increase the bandwidth of the closed-loop system.

| MG»)| T- 0
T =0.2
For o,1
/ = 0.2
= 0.5

T 1
T=2 T =5
0.707

Fig. 2.11A.
So bandwidth increases as 7-increa5es
5.
Control System 2-19 C (EN-Sem-5)

c(t)
T= 0.2
T =5

T-1

Ta'T2T
Fig. 2.11.5.
ra21
So as Tincreases rise time decreases.

PART-S
Steady State Errors and Error Constants.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.12| Discuss steady state error.

Answer
1. The difference between the steady-state response and desired reference
give steady state error.

2. Ifthe actual output of controlsystem during steady state error deviates

from the reference input, then system possess steady state error.

3 Steady error helps in determining the accuracy, so the steady

state
error should be minimum.
4. The steady state performance of a control system is assessed by the

of the steady state error possCssed by the systenm

and the
magnitude
ystem input can be step or ramp or parabolic.

Rs) Ms)
G(s) Cs)

Bs

Hs)

Fig. 2.12.1. Canonical diagram.

2-20 C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response
Analysis

5. The magnitude of steady state error in a closed loop control system

depends on its open loop control function. i.e., G(s)H(s) of the system.

Els) = R(s)- B(s)

Bls) = Cls)H(s)
But
Els) = R(s) - C(s)H(s)

C(s) = G(s)Els)
Also
Els) = R(s)- Gls)Els)Hs)
Els1 +Gs) H(s)) = R(s)

ElS) R(s)
1+ Gs)H\s)

(2.12.1)

expression will be
If positive feedback is used, the

R(s)
(2.12.2)
ES) 1-Gs)H(s)
(2.12.2)
8. Combining eq. (2.12.1), and
Els) = 1+G(s)H(S) Rls)
.(2.12.3)

For a unity feedback system H(s) = 1 |

Els) = R(s)
..(2.12.4)
9.
Gls)
is the expression of error
valid for all
10. In time domain elt) =
L-"|E(s)). It
time. Steady state error is defined as

e=limelt)
11. Using final value theorem

sR(s)
e= lim et)= m SS 0 1t Gls)H(s)
Que 2.13. Derive an expression for K, K, and K. for type-0, type-1

and type-2 system.

OR

and
 Derive the expression for steady state error and explain
K,, K,
AKTU 2020-21, Marks
10
Answer
A Expression for steady state error: Refer Q. 2.12, Page 2-19C,
Unit-2
B. Expression for K,,K, and K,

Unit step input:

1: t>0
Here 10;1<0
 Control System
2-21 C
(EN-Sem-5)

Rs)=

R(s)
E(s) =
(2.13.1)
1+Gls)H(s)

E's) = s+ sG(8)Hs)
e lim sE(s) = lim s
s+ sG(s)H(s)

1+limGls)H(s) 1+K,
where, K, lim Gs)H(s)
=

K, = Position error constant.

For step input,

1+K
Case 1: For type '0'
Constant
COnstant
Case 2: For type "1|

0
Case 3:For type 2
K, = o

14
i Ramp input :
t 0
Here
r)0: t<0
Rs)=

E(s) sGls)H($)
.
=
lim sEls) =

s+s G(s)H(s)

lim sG(s)H(s)
2-22 C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response Analysis

K, = lim sG(s)H (s)

0
K, Velocity error constant.
=

Case 1: For type

'0
K. =
lim sGs)H(s) = 0

Case 2: For type

esK,
K, Constant

= constant

K
Case 3: Por type 2

ii. Parabolicinput:

Here
J(1/2)t: t>0
t<0

R(s)=

Els) +s'Gls)H
SS s+ sGls)H(s)

lims Gls)H(s) K,

K lim sGs)H(s)
K = Acceleration error constant.
Case 1: For type'0'
0

Case 2: For type '1'

K, =0

Case 3: For type 2'

K Constant

Constant
 Control System 2-23 C (EN-
Sem-5)

Que214. For the unity feedback control system the open loop
transfer function, G(s) = 10 (s +2)/s*(s +4). Find the e,, when the input
is rt) =3-2t +3#. And find
K, K, and R,
AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer

Given:Gs) = Hs)=1, r(t) = 3-2t +3

s(s +
To
Find:e K, K, and K
im G{s) H(s) = lim S t 2
s(s+ 4)
s10(s +2)
K, =
lim sGl:) H(s) =
lim + 4)
3. K. = lim s'Gs) H(s)

lim s?10S + 2=5

s(s + 4)
Now r{) = 3-2t + 3 t

R(s) 2.
R, = 3(Constant)

R =
-2 (Co-efficiency of t)
R =3 (Co-eficiency of f12)

1 0.6
Que 2.15.|Find out various error coefficients:K, K, K, and steady
state
error for standard step, ramp, and parabolic inputs for
system
shown below :

Ris) Es) 500(s+ 2s + 5)

(s + 8Ms + 10Ms + 12)

C(s)

Fig. 2.15.1.

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

2-24 C (EN-Sem-5)

Time Response Analysis

Answer

Given: G(s)= 00 (s +2) (s +5)

(s+8)(8 +10) (s+12)
To
Find:K, K, K, and e
K, = lim G(s) H(s)

500 (s+2) (s +3)-5.20

im
( s +8) (s
10) (s 12),
+ +

R, = inm s G(s) H (s)

8 x 500 s +2) (s + 5)
lim
(s

0
+8) (s + 10) (s +
12)

K, =
lim` * 500 (s +2) (s
+ 5
o (s + 8) (s + 10) (s+12)
Steady state error for step input,
1

5. Steady state error

1K*1+5.20 0.16
tor
ramp input,

6. Steady state for

error
parabolic input,

Que 2.16.| Find the generalized error coefficients for a system

whose Gls) H(«) 1/s(s 2) and also find the
= +

expression for steady

state error for input rtt) = 2 +3t
+2 AKTU2018-
19, Marks 07
Answer
r(t) = 2+ 3t + 2t; re) = 3 +62
 " ) = 12; r"(0)= 12;""(0) =0.
The coefficients Cg, C, C2 and C, need to be determined.

Es)
st2s s+2
Rs) 1+ G(s) 1
s+2s +1
I+
s(s+ 2)

(s +1
s+2
Els)= R(s)E(s) - S +28
(s+ 1
1

C= lim F(s) =lim

0
Control System
2-25 C (EN-Sem-5)

lim
F lim d s
+2s
. C
C ds d s (s+ 1)
s+1(2s +2)-(s+2s) (2) (s
+1M1)
lim- (S+1

= lim = 2
( s +1)

C2 dF(s)_1im d dF(8)
0im ds 0 d s |
ds

=lim 2
*" ds
[(s +1"J
lim+10)- 23) (s
+ 1*(1)
= lim
(s++1"

= lm e+1 =-6
0 S-

1 C3 lim ",S)=lim
ds ds |
ds2

= lim -

ds | (s + 1"J

s+1) (0)-6 x4s +1)"

(1)|
(s +1"

= lim 24 = 24
(s+ 1"

The close loop transfer function

is given by
Que 2.17.
Tls) = k (s+ z/s*+4s +8, Where k, z is adjustable.
i If r(t)t finds k and z s o that steady e r r o r is zero.
=

ii. For the value of k, z obtain in part (i) find e(») for input
 r(t)=A2 AKTU
2019-20, Marks 07
Answer

1. Given,
Cls) +2)
4s 8
Rs)8 + +

and,
2. We know l i m sCls)

0= lim sEs)
2-26 C (EN-Sem-5)

Time Response Analysis

but Els) = R(s) C(s)
then O
lim R(s) -

Cls)
Rls) = CCs)

R(s) = RS+
s* +4s +8
s+4s+8 kls + z2)
3.
Compare the coefficients of s in the both sides.
s coefficient
s" coefficient 8 = k2
or, z = 2
il.

1.
2.
Given, = t/2
Taking Laplace transform, R(s) = -

1/s3
3. We know
lim sE(s)
E's) = R(s) - C(s) = R(s)-
+2)

- kls

R(s)

(s+4s +8)
4. Putting the value of k and z then we get,
E(s) = Rs) -
4(s+2 R(s)
8+4s+8) s

Els) (s+4s+8-48-8)
s*+4s+8
Rs)
e S 4s+8
x-
0.125
Que 2.18.Explain steady state error due to step input for type 0,
1 and 2 systems. Find steady stage error for
Gs) = 10 (1+4s)/s* (1+s), H(«) = 1, input r(t) = 1+t+ 2 .

AKTU
2019-20,Marks 07
Answer
A Steady state error : Refer Q. 2.13, Page 2-200, Unit-2.
B. Numerical: Gs) = 0 4
s (1+ 8)
Hs) = 1

, = lim G(s) H(s) =

lim
d t 4s) =
30
8 ( 1 + 8)

K.
, ==lim H\8) = lim s00+ 48)
Gls> H(s)
lim G(s* 0
s2(1+ 8)

K, = lim s Gls» H(s) = lim

= 10

0 (1+ s)
Control System 2-27 C (EN-Sem-5)

r= 1
Steady state error is given by,
R(s)
s 0 1+Gs) H(s)

=0.05
.

PART-65
Basic Modes of Feedback Control: Proportional, Derivative,
ntegral and PlD Controllers.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

proportional control. Also

write
Que 2.19. Write a short note on

its advantages and disadvantages.

Answer
A Proportional control:
1. In proportional control the actuating signal for the control action in a
control system is proportional to the error signal.
2 The error signal being the difference between the reference input signal
and the feedback signal obtained from the output.
3. For the system considered as shown in Fig. 2.19.1. the actuating signal
is proportional to the error signal; therefore, the system is called
proportional control system.

Consider a second order system where controller input is error itself

and proportional constant is K=1 as shown in Fig. 2.19.1.

Error signal Actuating

SIgnal C(s)
R(s) A Output
Input ss+20n

H(s)

Fig, 2.18.1.
2-28 C (EN-Sem-5) Time
Response Analysis

Gls)Hs) =

s(s +2 o)
C(s)
R(s) s+2 o,s +
Forthis system damping ratio is and natural frequency o,
5. And for steady state error

K, =

lim G(s)H{s) =

and , l i m s G(s)H(s)
=

2
B. Advantages:
1. Steady state error is reduced hence the system becomes more stable.
2. Easy to implement.
3. Relative stability is improved.
C. Disadvantages
1. Due to the presence of these controllers, we get some offsets in the
system.
2. Proportional controllers also increase the maximum overshoot of the
system.

eue 2.20. Explain derivative and integral control.

Answer
A Derivative control action:
In a controller with derivative control action the output of the
controller
depends on the rate of change of actuating error signal et).
2 A closed loop control system with derivative controller is shown in
Fig. 2.20.1.

E(s)
R) K, delt) Y(8)
Input , dt Gs)
C(s)
Derivative System
C(s) controller

Fig. 2.20.1.
3 Mathematically, the output of a derivative controller is given a8

yt)= K, delt)
.(2.20.1
dt
Here in known derivative gain.
K as
Control System
2-29 C
(EN-Sem-5)

4 By taking Laplace transtorm on both sides of eq. (2.20.1) while assuming

zero initial conditions, we get
Ys)= K sEs)
5. Putting the value of E(s) = R(s) -

C(8) in eq. (2.20.2), we

get
Y(s) = Ks [R(s) - C(s))

.(2.20.2)
Also Cls)= Y(s) G(s)
Cs)= Gs).Ks|R(s)-Cs)

Thus Cls) sG(s)R_

R(s) 1+ sK,G(s)
B. Integral control action:
1. In a controller with integral control action, the output of controller is
changed at a rate which is proportional to the actuating error signal e(t).
2. Mathematically,

Kelt)
dt

...(2.20.3)

or y)= K.Jelt dt
.(2.20.4)

3. Taking Laplace transform on both sides of eq. (2.20.4), we get

Ys)=,Els)

or Y(s)K
.(2.20.5)
Es)
Controller
Rs)

C(s)
Input :

Unity feedback

Fig. 2.20.2. Integral control action.

4. Block diagram representation of integral control action is shown in
Fig. 2.20.2. Integral control action is also known as "Reset control".

Que 2.21. Discuss about proportional derivative (PD) controller.

 Answer
1. A controller in the forward path, which changes the controller output
corresponding to proportional plus derivative of error signal is called PD
controller.
2-30 C (EN-Sem-5)
Time Response Analysis

Output ofcontroller delt)

2. = K elt)+ T dt
Taking Laplace transform
= K E(s) +
sT4 Els) =
Els) IK + sT
3. Assume, K = 1, we can write,

GAs) = t s7,)o?
s{s +
2, ,
C(s) (1+ s T ) o
Rts) +
s|2go, + T,]+o
Rs) s (s+20n

C(s)

Fig. 2.21.1
4. Comparing denominator with standard form,

25 o, =
25 o, +o 7

2
5. Because of this controller, damping ratio increased by factor

2
K lim Gs)H(s) = *

R, = lim s G(s)H(s)=
2E
without PD controller,

Gs) Hs)
K
s(s+ ZE0,

K = lim sGs)H(s)=
2t
As there is no change in coefficients, error also will remain same

Que 2.22. Explain P, PI, PID controllers and also give their

advantages. AKTU 2018-

10, Marks 07
 Answer
A. Proprtional control : Refer Q.2.19, Page 2-27C, Unit-2.
Control System 2-31
C (EN-Sem-5)

B. Proportional integral controller (PI)

1. A controller in the forward
path, which changes the controller output
corresponding to the proportional plus integral of the error signal is
called PI controller.

2. Output of controller = Kelt) + K, Jelt) dt

Taking Laplace =K E(s) + Els) = E(s)K

S

R(s)
C(s)
s(s+2E0)

Fig. 2.22.1.
3. Assume, K = 1, we can write,

Gs) =
1+ K+s)
s(s +
2 »,) s(s+2 , )
ie., system becomes TYPE 2 in nature.

C(s) (K+s)
R(s) s +2 o, s* + so, K, o +

ie, it becomes third order.

4. Now as order increases by one, system relatively becomes less stable as
K, must be designed in such a way that system will remain in stable
condition. Second order system is always stable.
0
while , lim G(s)H(s) =
n, e, =

K,= lim s Gls)H(s) =

o, e. =0
5. Hence as type is increased by one, error becomes zero for ramp type of
input ie., steady state of system gets improved and system becomes
more accurate in nature.

6 Advantages:
i. Good transient response
i. Helps in stabilizing the controller gain.
ii. Eliminates the offset error.
iv. Provides better stability.
C. PID controller (Proportional, integral and derivative
 controller):
1. It is a close loop system which has feedback control system and it
compares the process variable (leedback variable) wilh set point and
 2-32 C (EN-Sem-5) Time Response Analysis

generates an error signal and according to that it adjusts the output of

sy'stem.
2 t is the combination of proportional, integral and derivative controller.
3. A PD Proportional derivative) type of controller improves transient
part without affecting the steady state part.
4 While PI (Proportional integral type of controller improves steady state
part without affecting the transient part.
5. In PID, both Pl and PD effects are incorporated. Hence both transient
as well as steady state part of the response can be improved.
6. This can be realized as shown in the Fig. 2.22.2.

Plant and
R(s) C(s)
controller

Fig. 2.22.2.

7. The output of PID controller is time domain is,

Controller output = Kelt)+ K, Selt) dt + T, e

dt
8. Taking the Laplace transform, controller output in s-domain is,

Controller output = Etw) K+ s T

9. Advantages:
i Improving the stability of the system.

i. Reduces the steady-state error.

i. Feasible and easy to implement
iv. Makes the system faster by reducing the time constant

que 2.23. Compare Proportional (P) control uction with Integral

) control action and prove that by using proportional integral (PH)
controller steady 8tate error become zero in a system.

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Control System 2-33 C (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
A Comparison :

S.No. Proportional Integral

control control
In proportional control the In a controller with integral
actuating signal for the control action, the output of
control action in a control controller is changed at a rate
system is proportional to the which is proportional to the

error signal. actuating error

signal elt).

Mathematically, it is written Mathematically, it is written as

as yt) = K, et).
yt) = Reltidt

B. Proof: Refer Q. 2.22, Page 2-30A, Unit-2.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONSs

Following questions are very important. These questions

may be asked in your SESSIONALS a s well as

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. Explain various standard test signals, and also find

relation between them.
Ans Refer Q. 2.1, Unit-2.

Q.2. Derive the time response of first order system.

Ane Refer Q. 2.2, Unit-2.

for
Q.3. Derive the expressions for second order system
underdamped case and when the input is unit step.
Anc Refer Q. 2.4, Unit-2.

feedback control
The open loop transfer function ofa unity
Q4. system is given by G(a) = Ds(s + 3). Find the natural frequeney
frequency and
time
of reponse, damping ratio, damped
constant.
Ans Refer Q. 2.6, Unit-2.
Q5. Define the following term:
i. Rise time
ii. Peak time
3 UNIT
Stability and
Algebraic Criteria

CONTENTS
Part-1 Concept of Stability and its...
******** 3-2C to 3-5C
Necessary Conditions

Part-2 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

and..*********** 3-5C to 3-11C
its Limitations

Part-3 Root Locus Technique : Salient. 3-11C to 3-11C

Features of Root Locus Plot

Part-4 Procedure for Plotting Root.*************

.3-12C to 3-26C
Locus, Root Contours

3-1C (EN-Sem-5)
3-2 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and Algebraic Criteria

PART-1
Concept of Stability and its Necessary Conditions.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer 1ype Questions

Que 3.1. Define stability. Also write the necessary conditions for
stability ?

Answer

A Stability:
A system is stable if its response (i.e., the transfer function) approaches
zero as time approaches infinity.

2. In other words, a system is stable if every bounded input produces a

bounded output.
B. Types of stability
1. Absolute stability : Ifa system output is stablefor all variations of its
parameters, then the system is called absolutely stable system. It gives
the information about whether system is stable or unstable.
2 Relative stability: The system is said to be relatively more stable or
unstable on the basis of settling time. System is said to be relatively
more stable if settling time for the system is less than that of the other
system. Relative stability gives degree of stability or how close it to
instability.
Necessary conditions for stability:
1. All the coefficients of characteristics equation must have same sign.
2. There should be no missing term.
3. All poles of transfer function should be in left half of s-plane.
The degree of denominator polynomial of transfer function is greater or
equal to that of numerator polynom.al.

Que 3.2. Explain stability on basis of location of poles and zeros.

Answer
1. The linear system is stable if the rightmost pole(s) is/are on the left-
hand half plane (LHHP) on the s-plane
2. The linear system is marginally stable if the rightmost polels)
is/are simple order (first-order) on the jo axis, including the origin on
the s-plane
Control System

S3C(ENSem-5)
3. The linear
system is unstable if the
rightmost poleis
s'ae on the
right-hand half plane (RHHP) of the s-piane if the
is/are
or

rightmns poieis
multiple-order on the jo axis on the s-plae
4. Zeros do not affect system Stabihty.
Que 33.Explain the effect
of pole location an

stabiity ofa system

by suitable diagram.
Answer
Effect of pole location on stability:
a Poles on
negative real axis:
Consider a simple pole at s =-a in Fig. 3.3.1, the
corresponng mpas
response 15 given by

ct)
=gt)=L-]Gs)} =l
2
Ke
831
As the time t increases, the
is stable. The
response appraches zerD
Hi ihe sysiEn
response is shown in Fig .3.1(61
4J

(a) Simple pole on negative real axis

)espE
Fig. 3.3.1.
b Pole on positive real aris
1 Consider a system having simple pole on positrve real as = t h
corresponding impuise response 15 grven y

ct) =gt) = L-' Ke

B.82
6-a
The response increases exponentially with time, hence the system
unstable. The simple pole and response are sihown in Fg 3.8.2
(a) Simple poie on positrve real uxs Resppotse
Fig. 182
Criteria
Stability and
Algebraic
3-4 C (EN Sem-5)

at origin,
c. Pole at the origin: Consider a pole

(3.3.3)
stt=L |=K
stable. If there
the system is marginally
This is constant value; hence
would be
are two poles at
the origin, the time response

(3.3.4)
stt)=L- Kt
ACCt)

(6) Response due to single pole

(a) Single pole at origin

Fig. 3.3.3.

d Complex pole in the left half of s-plane:

1. Let the transfer function has a complex conjugate poles at s=-a+Ja.
is given by
response due to the complex conjugate poles
The impulse
K
et)=g)=L- Ls * a J @ S * a t J O J

L-12ls +a|=2Ke-cosot.(3.3.5)
(s +a)+ a
and the system is stable. The
increases g{t) approachestime response is shown in Fig.
zero
2. Whent

3.3.4Ma)
complex poles and corresponding
and Fig. 3.3.446) respectively.
c(t)
-a+jo)X...

--J)
(a) (6)
 Pig. 3.34.
in the vight half of s-plane :
e. Complex poles
1. Suppose the system has complex conjugate poles at s=a tjo. The time
response 15 given by

ct) =g(t) = L A
8-aJ0 8 J
Control System 3-5 C (EN-Sem-5)

2A(s-a) i e " cos

øt ..3.3.6)
(s a +0
-

2. Hence, the response increases exponentially sinusoid with time and

therefore the response is unstable. The poles and time response is

shown in Fig. 3.3.5ka) and Fig. 3.3.5(6) respectively.

c(t)
JO

(a) Fig. 3.3.5. b)

f
1.
Poles on jo-axis
If the system having the complex poles on jo-axis the corresponding

time response would be

=L-124s 2A cos ot ..
(3.3.7)

2. The response 1s marginally stable. Equation (3.3.7) shOws the sustained

Oscillations of constant amplitude. This situation will also be considered

unstable.
c(t)

(a) Poles on imaginary axis (6) Time response

Fig. 3.3.6.

PART-2
Routh-Huruwitz Criteria and its Limitations
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
36C (EN-Sem-5)
Stability and Algebraic
Criteria

Que 34. What is Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion

? Explain
briefly.
OR
What are the limitations and
criterion ? applications of
Routh-Hurwitz
Answer
A The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is a mathematical
test that is a
necessary and sufficient condition for the
stability of
system.
B. Routh's criterion:
The necessary and sufficient condition for
the system
to be stable is
that all the terms in the first column
d , ) must have same sign.
of Routh s array
(i.e., Gg. G1, b1Cy
2 There should not be any sign
change in the first column of
Routh's
array
If there is any
sign change then
System is unstable.
Number of sign changes is equal to the number of poles
lying in the
right half of the s-plane.
C. Method of forming a Routh array:

6
**

1 2 3
C1 2

1. Coefficients for first two rows are written directly from

characteristics
equation,

b, = *G, a,

b
2 From 20 and 30 row, 4t" row can be obtained as

C2
b
Control System 3-7C
(EN-Sem-5)

3. This process is to be continued till the coeficient for s is obtained which

will be a, From this array stability of a system can be predicated.
D. Special cases :
1. When the 1st term in a row is zero, but all other terms are non-zero then
substitute a small positive number : for zero & proceed to evaluate the
rest of the elements. When the 1st column term is zero, it means that
there is an imaginary root.
2 All zero row: In this case, write auxiliary equation from preceding
row, differentiate this equation & substitute all zero row by the coetficient
obtained by differentiating the auxiliary equation. This case occurs when
the roots are in pairs. The system is said to be limitedly stable.
E Application : Routh's criterion can be applied to determine range of
certain parameters of a system to ensure stability. It is usually to find
the range of the open loop gain K for closed loop stability.

F. Limitations:
1. It is valid only if the characteristics equation is algebraie.
2. If any coefficient of the characteristics equation is complex or contain

power ofe then this criterion cannot applied. be

3. It gives information about how many roots are lying in the RHS of the
s-plane but values of the roots are not available. Also it cannot distinguish
between real and complex roots.

Que 35. Explain stability o n basis of location

of
poles and zeros.

system Gs) =k/s(s + 1) (1+2)

(1+3s).
For a unity feedback
of k for stability, value of k for frequency of
sustain
Determine range

oscillation. AKTU 2019-20,

Marks 07
Answer
A Stability on basis of location : Refer Q. 3.2, Page 3-2C, Unit-3.
B. Numerical:

1
1)(1+29) 1+3s)7lg)=
Given: Gs) =

. s
s +
of gustain oscillation.
To Find:Range of k, Value of k for frequency

1. Characteristics equation,
1+ Gls) H(s) = 0
 k
s(s + 1)(1+ 28)(1 + 38)

1) (1 +2s) (1+ 3s)+ h

= 0
s(s +

6s+ 11s+ 6is*+ 8 +k= 0

3-8C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and
Algebraic Criteria

-11k

60

2. For system to be stable there should not be sign change in the first column.
k 0 for s and 60 121 k>0
60>121R
0.49> k, k < 0.49
3. So the range of k is 0 < k < 0.49
mar0.49
4. To find frequency, find out roots of auxiliary equation at marginal
value of *

Als) = s + k =0

60 s2 +11 k= 0
60s+11x 0.49 = 0
60s+5.39 0 =

60s*=-5.39/
s 5.39 60 = 0.089

s -0.089 j0.298
5. Comparing with s = + j o

So, 0 =
Frequency of oscillations= 0.298 rad/sec.

Que 38. Determine the stability of a closed loop control system

whose characteristic equation i s s + s + 2 s + 2 s + 1 1 s + 10 = 0

Answer
Given: Characteristic equation is s +s+2s3+2s3+ 11s+10 0

To Find:Stability.
1. Routh array is :
1 2 11
s 1 2 10
0 1
 3-9C (EN-Sem-5)
Control System

2. Putting ctvery small positive value) in place of 0 in the first column

Routh array
2 11
2 10
+ ve) 10

28-L(-ve) 10

-10 -(+ ve) 0

2-1

3. Since there is two sign change in the first column of Routh array,
therefore system is unstable.
Que 3.7. Determine the Routh's stability of given characteristics

equation st +
18 s*+ 18s+ 16s+ 5 0.
AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer

Given:Gs)=s+18+182 16s+5 0
ToFind:Stability.
1 Routh array,
8 5

8 16 0
s2 16 5

13.5

2. Here no sign changes hence given system is stable.

Que 38. Explain the effect of pole location on stability of a system

by suitable diagram, Determine range of K and frequeney of
sustained oscillations for a given unity feedback system.

Rl) K
s(1+0.6sX1 +0.4s)
C(8)

Fig 3.81
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
3-10 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and
Algebraic Criteria

Answer
A Effect of pole location on stability: Refer Q. 3.3, Page 3-3C, Unit-3.

B. Numerical:

K
Given: Gs) = H(s)=1
s1+0.6s)(1 +0.4s)
To Find: Range of k, frequency of sustained oseillations.
1. The characteristic equation
1+ Gls) H(s) = 0

K
+
s(1+0.6s) (1 +0.4s) x1=0
s(1 +0.6s) (1 + 0.4s) +K= 0
0.24s+s+8 +K= 0
2. The Routh array
0.24

1 K
s1-0.24K 0
K
3. For system to be stable
From raw of s" K> 0
Thus raw
of s 1-0.24 K>0
1> 0.24 K
K< 4.16
0<K<4.16
This is the range of K
4. For frequeney of sustained oscillations
Auxiliary equation
As) = s* +K =0

s -iK
1-0.24 K =0
K=4.16
At K= 4.16, s-4.16
S= +j2.03
5. The frequency of sustained oscillations will be 2.03 rad/sec.

Que3.9.What is the necessary condition for stability ? Explain

limitation of Routh's stability method, construet Routh array and
determine the stability of the system whose characteristics

equation, s+ 2+s+2+8+4 =0. AKTU 2019-20,Marka 07

Answer
i. Necessary condition: Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3-2C, Unit-3.
Control System 3-11C (EN-Sem-5)
ii.
ii.
Limitations: Refer Q. 3.4, Page 3-6C, Unit-3.
Numerical: The procedure is same as Refer Q. 3.6, Page 3-8C,
Unit-3.
Ans.
The given system is unstable.

PART-3
Root Locus Technique: Salient Features of Root Locus Plot.

Qquestions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.10. What is root locus ? Also give the salient features of root
locus.

Answer
A Root Locus:
Root locus is the plot of loci of the root of the complementary equation
when one or more parameter of open-loop transfer function is varied;
mostly the only one variable available is the gainK. The negative K
the plot obtained is
has no significance. Hence vary K from 0 to »,
called root locus.
2. It gives the complete dynamic response of system. It provides the
measure of sensitivity of roots of variation in the system.
B. Features:
The root locus starts (K =0) from the open loop poles and terminates
(K=») on either finite open loop zeros or infinity.
2. The number of separate branches of the root locus equals either the
number of open loop poles or number of open loop zeros whichever is
greater.
3. A section of root locus lies on the real axis if the total number of
open loop poles and zeros to the right of the section is odd.
4. The root locus is symmetrical with respect to the real axis.
5. At some points on the root locus between two open loop poles the root
locus breaks away.
6. For higher values of K the root locus can be approximated by asymptotic
lines ar.d these asymptotic lines intersect at a point on the real axis,
7. If the root locus intersects the imaginary axis then the point of
intersection is conjugate.
3-12 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and
Algebraic Criteria

PART-4
Procedure for Plotting Root Locus, Root Contours.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.11.| Explain step by step procedure for plotting root locus

Also explain root contour.

Answer
Rules for construction of root locus:

1. symmetrical about the real axis.

The root locus is
where
2. Each branch of the root locus originates form an open-loop pole
infinity where K=
o.
K=0 and terminates on an open loop zeros or
on

on infinity is
3. The number of branches of the root locus terminating
equal to P-Z.
4. A point on the real axis lies on the locus, if number of open loop poles
is odd.
and zeros on the real axis to the right of this point
5. Angdes of asymptotes: The (P-Z) root locus branches that approaches
to infinity are along straight line is called asymptote. Asymptotes making
angles with the real axis are given by

+ D 1 8 0 °

=0,1,2,...
(P-2-1)

P-Z nere q

6 Centroid: The point of intersection of the asymptotes

with the real
axis called centroid is at s =
G, where

2 Real part of poles - 2 Real part of

zeros
Number of poles Number
of zeros
7. Break points: "The break points (breakaway and breakin points) of the
0.
of the equation

root locus are determined from the roots

ds

at
meet at point
break away an
of the root locus which
a
Ther branches

angle of :
180
Contnol System 3-13 C (EN-Sem-5)

s Angle of departure: The angle of departure from an open loop pole is

e n by

=180 o
where o is the net angle contribution at the zero of all other open-loop
oles and zeras
Angle of arrival: The angle of arrival at open loop zero is given by
= 180°-4
where o is the net angle contribution of all other open loop poles and

1 The point of intersection of the root locus branches with the imaginary
axis and the critical value of K can be determined by use of the Routh's
citenon
11. Gain: Ihe open-Joop gain K in pole-zero from at any point 5, on the root
locus is given by

A= roduct af phasor lengths froms, to open-loop poles

Product of phasor lengths from s to open-loop zeros
Root contour :

The root loeus technique for the study of stability of closed loop system
rom open loop transfer function can be extended by varying parameter
other than K in system from 0 to .
Consider a system shown in the Fig. 3.11.1.

Ris) CS
s (s +a)

Fig. 3.11.1.

The open loop transfer function is Gs)Hls) =.

s(s +a)
T h e locus of roots of characteristic equation obtained by varying
parameter of the system other than K from 0 to o is called root contour
of the system
5 The perameters ike a, Kare to be varied simultaneously, while sketching
the root contours

que 3.121Sketch the root loeusfor the open loop transfer function
of a unity feedback control system given below and determine value

ofKat0.5, Gs) H ) s(s+ 1)(s + 3)

3-14 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and Algebraic
Criteria

Answer

K
Given: Gs) H(s) = s(s + 1) (s +3) s ) = 1, =0.5

To Sketch : Root locus and value of K at = 0.5.

A
1. The open-loop poles are at s = 0, s =- 1, s =-3.

There is no open loop zeros.

3. Number of poles, P = 3
Number of zeros, Z =0
P-Z=3-0 =3 ie., three branches of root locus end at infinity.
4 Angle of asymptotes:
2+1)180° where q = 0, 1,
2,...(P-Z-1)
P-Z

(2x0+1)x 60
(3-0)

6,-X+)x180° = 180
(3-0)

(2x 2+1)x 180° 300

(3-0)
Centroid
5.
of asymptotes:
Real parts of poles- Real parts of zeros
P-2

(0-1-3)-(0) - 1.33.
3-0
6 Breakaway points: Between open-loop poles s = 0 and s =- 1, there
exists a breakaway point.
The characteristic equation is
s (s + 1Ms +3) +K= 0
K= - (s" + 4s* +3s)

dK 38* + 8s + 3) = 0
ds
3s +8s +3 0 =

s-1.33 +0.88 -0.42 and 2.21 =

As the breakaway point has to lie between s = 0 and s = -

-
1, the valid
breakaway point is s = -0,12.
Control System 3-15 C
(EN.Sem-5)

ImK=
G1.732, K = 12)

-
0.35 + jo.6

180 60
K= K= 0 =0
3 -1.33
300°

-0.45

-j1.732, K = 12)

Fig.3.12.1. Root locus for Gs) Ks(s +1Ms +

3)
7. Intersection with jo axis:
Characteristic equation, 1 + Gls) H{s) =
0

s (s+ 1) (s +3) + K= 0
s4s 3s + K= 0)
Routh array:

4 K

s(12-K)/4
K
axis
The value of Kat imaginary

2A=0 K=12
Auxiliary equation,
4s+12=0
StJ
1.73
B.
1. Since
0.5
cos 6
and cos 0 = 0.5
3-16 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and Algebraic
Criteria

2. From the origin a line at angle 0 = 60° is drawn as shown in Fig. 3.12.1,
which intersects the root locus plot at s =(-0.35 + Jj0.6). As the point
S =(-0.35+j0.6) lies on the root locus the following equation is satisfied

|Gs)Hs) =1 K
ors(s+1Ms+3)
s = (-0.35 +j0.6), we get
3. Put
=1
-0.35 j0.6)(-0.35+ j0.6) + 1]I(-0.36+ j0.6)+3|

= 1 or K=1.66
1.66

Sketch the root locus of the system, whose transfer

Que 3.13.
function is Glo) = K(s + 15)/s(s + 1)s +5). AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer

Given: Gs) =s+15)

s(s+1)(s+5)
To Draw: Root locus.
1. Poles i.e., $ = 0, s =-1, s =-5
2. Zeros, s = - 15

3. Number of poles, P=3

Number of zeros, Z =1
4. Number of root locus branches = P-Z=3-1= 2 i.e., two branches of
root locus end at infinity.
5. Angle of asymptote:
2+ 1) 180
P-Z
where, q= 0, 1,2--- (P-Z-1)

(2x0+1)x 180 =90°

,2x1+1)x180 270
6. Centroid of asymptotes:
z(Real parts of poles)- X(Real parts of zeros)
P-Z

(0-1-5)--15) -6+1= 4.5

2 2
 -17C ENSem-5

e m prints v i t maary i s :

l-Gs s =0

88-L-
sis Is-5-Ea =
- s--E=®
he in1tt

-i

6 eBkEV pu
3-18 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and Algebraic
Criteria

The characteristics equation is,

1+Gls)Hs) = 0
K(s + 15)
1+ 0
s(s + 1) (s +5)
(s3+6s+ 5s) + K(s + 15) = 0

K=
+6s + 5s]

+15

dK = 0
ls
- 6s-5s = 0
8+15
(s +15)(-3s-12s-5)-(-s-6s* -5s) x1- 0
(s +15
2s3+51s2+ 180s + 75 = 0
s =- 21.37,-0.48, -3.64

Que 3.14.A unity feedback system has an open

loop transfer
function.
Draw the root locus for the system.
G) H(s) =k (s + 2/(s +3) (s*+2s +2)

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer

Given: Gs) H k (s+2)

(+3)(s +2s +2)
To Draw:Root locus.
Step1: Poles, P -3, P2=- 1+j, P^=-1-j
Zerps, Z =-2
No of poles = 3, No of zeros = 1
P- Z =3-1 2
Step 2: No of asymptotes
=
=

Angle of asymptotes B, = (2k+1)x180 (2x0+1)x180

= 90°
P-1 2

0, = (2x1+ 1)*180= 270°

2

Step3:Centroid 2 R P of poles - 2R.P of zeros

Z
Control System 3-19C
(EN-Sem-5)

-3-1-1)-(-2) = -1.
Step 4: Breakaway point: Characteristics equation,
1+ Gls) H (s) = 0

1+ k(s+2) = 0
(s+3)(s + 2s + 2)
(s+3) (s+ 2s +2) +k (s+ 2) = 0
s3+ 5s2+ &s +6+k (s + 2) = 00

k= - s-5s-8s -6
s+2
dklds = 0

d-s-5s-8s-6=0
ds L s+2
8] -s-5s-8s 6) 1 =0
(s+2) -3s- 10s x
-

-2s3-11s2-20s- 10=0

2s3+11s +20s+ 10 =0
s= - 0.80, -2.34 +0.84j-2.34-0.84]
That breakaway point is not valid

Step 5: Intersection point: Characteristics

equation,

1Gs)Hs) =0
k (s+2) 0
(s+ 3)(s* + 2s +2)
s 5s+8s +6+ ks+ 2k = 0

Apply Routh's criteria,

k+8

6+2k

34+3
6+2k

34 3k 0
34+ 3k/5 =0, + =
 t= -3
h=-34/3= - 11.33
3-20 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and Algebraic
Criteria

Auxiliary equation 5s2+6+2k = 0

Im
A

108.44

90
Re
2-1.5-1 |k =0
RL 270

-
108.4

Fig3141
5s+6+ 2 x-11.33 = 0
1.82
s 3.33 =s =#
That intersection point is not valid.

Step-6: Angle of departure

180- lop-
P90,2=26.56*
5
1 8 0 - [ 9 0 ° + 26.56° - 45) = 108.44

whose open loop

the root locus of the system
Que 3.15.Sketeh + 5). Find the vahue
ofK s o that
transfer function is GS) =K/ sls +2(a of
oscillation,
stable find out damped frequency
system is marginal ratio of the closed loop system
is 0.5.
also find K when the damping
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
3-13C, Unit-3.
The procedure is same as Q. 3.12, Page
Control System
3-21 C (EN-Sem-5)

1. Root locus:

Im

R=

+j3.16

K 180
O = - 2.33 P
Re
300
- 0.88

-
j3.16

Fig. 3.15.1

2. The value of K for marginally stable system, K= 70

The damped frequency of oscillation, o,
3 =
1.44 rad/sec
4. The value of K when the damping ratio, /= 0.5
K= 10.75

Que 3.16. Sketeh the root locus for the elosedloop control system

with Ge) = K
s(s +1)( +4s+ 5)

Answer

K
Given:Gs)= s(s +1Xs+4s + 5)
To Draw: Root locus,
1. Poles i e . , s = 0, s = - 1, $ = - 2 + j and s =-2-j

2. There is no open loop zero,.

3. Number of poles, P = 4
Number of zeros, Z = 0
3-22 C (EN-Sem-5)
Stability and Algebraic Criteria

P-Z=4-0 = 4 ie., four branches of root locus terminates at infinity.

4 Angle of asymptotes:

180°
P-Z where, q
=

0, 1, 2,... upto (P-Z- 1)

2 x0+1
4-0180°
45
=

e, 2x1+1x
4-0 180°
135
e = *tx180° =
225°
4 0

e, = 2*3* 180° =
315°
4-0
5 Centroid of asymptotes:
G=2Real parts of poles-2 Real parts of zeros
P- Z

0-1-2+j-2-j)-0) -1.25
4 -0
& B r e a k a w a y p o i n t s : The characteristic equation is 1 + GAs)
H(s) = 0

5) K= 0
sis+ 1) (s* +
4s + +

+5s+9s+ 5s +K=0
3s4) (9 2s) 5x 1=0
dK/ds 4s3 + (5=
x + x +

4s+ 15s2 + 18s +5 0

(s +0.4) (4s+ 13.4s+ 12.5) =0
s + 0.4) ((s -j0.565) +
1.675
+ (s 1.675 +j0.565)}
=

0
 Therefore three breakaway points are obtained
S = - 0.4 on real aris and
s-1.7 +j 0.6 and s =-1.7-j0.6
7. Intersection points with imaginaryaris :
The characteristic equation is s* + 5s3 + 9s + 5s +K=0
The Routh array
9
K

8 K

5K
K
Value of Kat imaginary axis :

5- = 0; K= 8
8
Solving auxiliary equation formed from the s terms in Routh array,
therefore
Control System 3-23 C (EN-
Sem-5)

82+ K= 0
&8 0
j
8 Angle of departure from complex pole:
= 180-(dp-z
P 180°- tan(1/2) =153.43
p180°-tan 1/1)= 135
PP90°

-2+ 80-9p1 P2+Pa

24) 180-(153.43° + 135° + 90°) = -

198.43°
and 9-2- +198.43°

9. Root locus :

-198.43

Re
198.43

*****..
K=
Fig. 3.16.1. Root locus

Que 3.17.| For a unity feedback system the open loop transfer
function is given by
Gle)- Klsla + 2)(6*+ 6s +25)
Sketch the root locus.
ii. At what value of K the system become unstable.
ii. At this point of instability determine the frequency of

oscillation of the system. AKTU 2018-10, Marks 07

Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 3.16, Page 3-21C, Unit-3.
3-24 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and
Algebraic Criteria

Root locus:
K = -142 jo
K . 4

-3+j4)
-

= 105 ( o =
1.16, K = 11.5)

******
4 0= 127
3
"AK=0
(Centroid, (o =-

1.16, K = 11.5)

K=(Breakaway
point, K = 4.59
--.--.
90
--

0=142°
Fig. 3.17.1.
ii. K= 11.55 ii. o = 1.16 rad/sec

root
Que 3.18. Explain the effect of addition of pole and
zero on

locus and time domain specifications. AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
A. Effects of addition of poles:
1. Root locus shifts towards imaginary axIis.
2. System stability relatively decreases.
3. System becomes more oscillatory in nature.
Example:
Consider, Gs)H(s) = Kls(s + 2)
1.
Breakaway point
=0
K=0 Ce

K =

Fig. 3.18.1.
Control System 3-25 C
(EN-Sem-5)

Corresponding root locus is shown in the Fig. 3.18.1.

2. Now if pole at s = -4 added to G(s)H(s) root locus becomes as shown in
the Fig. 3.18.2.

K=

K=o K=0
K=0 K«0

te

K
Fig 3.18.2

B. Effects of addition of zeros:

1 Root locus shifts to left, away from imaginary axis.
2. Relative stability of the system increases.
3. System becomes less oscillatory.

Example
1. Root loci for Gls) H(s) = i s shown in the Fig. 3.18.3.
s{s + 2)

K=o

Breakaway point
K =
e

Fig. 3.18.3.

shown in
2. Now if zero at s =
-4 added to Gls)H(s) root locus becomes
as

Fig. 3.18.4.
K (s +4)
Gs)Hls) g{s +2)
towards left. So
towards
gs roots
move

3. It can be seen that root locus shift

hence relative stability increakes.
left halfofs-plane,
Criteria
3-26 C (EN-Sem-5) Stability and Algebraic

Re

Fig. 3.18.4.

C. Time domain specifications: Refer Q. 2.7, Page 2-11C, Unit-2.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONSs

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your
SESSIONALS as well as

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

conditions
for
Q.1. Define stability. Also write the necessary

stability?
Ans Refer Q. 3.1, Unit-3.

Q.2. Explain stability on basis of location of poles and zeros.

For a unity feedback system G(s) =k/s(s + 1) (1+2s) (1 +3s).

Determine range of k for stability, value of k for frequency
of sustain oscillation.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5, Unit-3.

Q3. What is the necessary condition for stability ? Explain

limitation of Routh's stability method, construct Routh
array and determine the stability of the system whose
characteristics equation, s" + 28° + s*+ 2s* + 8 +4 = 0.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.9, Unit-3.

q4. Sketch the root locus of the system, whose transfer function
is Gu) = Ks + 15)/s(a + 1)(s +5).
Ans. ReferQ. 3.13, Unit-3.

Q.5. Explain the effect of addition of pole and zero on root locus
and time domain specifications.
Aus. Refer Q. 3.18, Unit-3.
 4
UNIT Frequency
Response Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Frequency Response Analysis . . . 4-2A to 4-3A
From Transfer Punction Model

Part-2 : Construction of Polar and. 4-3A to 4-8A

Inverse Polar Plots

Part-3 :Stability in Frequency Domain :.. 4-8A to 4-14A

Nyquist Stability Criterion

Part-4 Determination of Gain and. -14A to 4-25A

Phase Margin From Bode and
Nyquist Plots

Part-5: Correlation Between Time and .. 4-25A to 4-29A

Prequency Responses

4-1 C (EN-Sem-5)
4-2 C (EN-Sem-5)
Frequeney Response Analysis

PART-1
Frequency Response Analysis From Transfer Function Model.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1.What do you understand by frequency response ? What

areits various methods ? Discuss their
advantages, disadvantages
and limitations.

Answer
A Frequency response:
The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal
input
and the steady state output of a system is termed as the frequency

response
2. Linear system with sinusoidal input
rt)=A sin ot
3. Steady state output of
ct) = B sin (ot + p)

B. Various methods of frequency response:

Polar plots 2. Inverse polar plots
3. Nyquist stability eriterion 4. Bode plot
C. Advantages of frequeney domain approach:
1. Without the knowledge of the transfer function, the frequency response
stable open loop system can be obtained experimentally.
of
These methods are easy to use for design of control and for finding
absolute as well as relative stability of the system.
3. Even if the system has moderate non-linearity it can be depicted by an
approximate transfer function.
4. There is a close relation between frequency response of a system and its
step response.
D. Disadvantages of frequency response:
. For syste ms with very large time constants, the frequeney test is
cumbersome to perlorm as the tme required for the output to reach the
steady-state for each frequeney of the test signal is excessively long.
2. The frequeney response test cannot be performed on non-interruptible
Bystems.
Control System 4-3 C (EN-Sem-5)

E Limitations of frequeney response methods :

1. These methods can be applied only to linear systems.

2. For an existing system, obtaining frequency response is possible only if
the time constants are up to few minutes.
3. Obtaining frequency response practically is fairly time consuming.

LPART-2
Construction of Polar and Inverse Polar Plots.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.2. Explain Polar plot. Discuss phase margin and gain
margin on polar plot.

Answer
A Polar plot:
Polar plot of a transfer function Gjo) is a plot of the magnitude of Gjo)
versus the phase angle of Gjio) on polar coordinates as o is varied from
zero to infinity. Therefore it is the locus of vectors | G y o ) | 2 G j o )
as o

is varied from zero to infinity.

In frequency response we have
M= |Gj») Hjo)| = Magnitude

Phase
= 2Gjo)Hjo) =

obtained by varying the input frequeney

from 0
3 Values
to .
of M and are
Table 4.2.1 is used to draw polar plot.
o

Table 4.2.1.

M Gjo) Hjo) 2Gjo) HGo

01

2 M2
M,
44 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency Response Analysis

Advantage: It shows the frequency response characteristics of a

system over the entire frequeney range in a single plot.
5. Disadvantage : It does not indicate the contribution of each individual
factor of the open loop transfer function.
B. Procedure to sketch the polar plot :
1. Determine G{s).
2. Put s =jo in Gs).
Evaluate |Gja)| at 0 and o
3. =
=,
4. Evaluate phase angle at »
=0 and o =

5. Separate real and imaginary parts.

6. Put imaginary part = 0 and find o. Using o find Gjo).
7. Put real part = 0 and find ». Using » find Gyo).

C. Phase margin
1. The phase margin is that amount of the additional phase lag at the gain
eross over frequeney required to bring the system to the verge of

instability
2. Gain cross over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude ot

open loop transfer funetion |Gjo)|) is unity.

3. Phase margin is equal to 180" plus the angle of G{jo) at the gain cross

Over point.

m180° +¢
D. Gain margin :
1. Itis the reciprocal of magnitude |Gjo)| at the frequeney at which the
phase angle is -180°.

Gain Margin (GM),

2
Gjo)
When the plot passes through the point (-1 + j0), the gain margin is
zero it means that the loop gain can no longer be inereased because the
system is at verge of instability.

3. If gain margin is positive, it means that the system is stable and negative
gain margin means the system is unstable

E Stability:
1. To determine the stability of the system first draw the polar plot for
given transfer function.

2. If the critical point (-1 +j0) is within the plot, it means the system is
unstable.
3 If the polar plot passes through the point (- 1 + j0) the system is
marginally stable and if the critical point is outside the polar plot, the
system iN stable.
Control System
4-5 C (EN-Sem-5)

of the following
funetion, also
Que 4.3. Sketch the polar plot
Phase Margin, H(s) 1
determine Gain Margin, =

G(s) =
s1+ 8) (l + 2s)

AKTU 2021-22,
Marks 10
Answer

Gs) Hs) = 1
Given:
s{s +1)(2s + 1)

To Find: Gain margin and phase margin.

ToSketch: Polar plot.

Gls) =
s(s+1X2s+1)
Gyo) joX1+ joX1+2jo)
0
2. At o = 0,
Gjo) =
, ZGj») =F

+90° +0° +0°

90
0
3 At o =
, Gjo)0, 2GJo 90°90° 90° 270°
-

4. Rotation of plot - 270°-90°) = - 180° clockwise

jo(1-joK1-2jo)
Gjø) = JoX-joX+ joX1 - joX1+2j»X1-
2jo)

=Jo|l-3jo - 20 ]
1+o*1+ 40)
-30
jo1-20*
w1+X1+ 40) o(1+»* X1+ 40*)
 0.67
p = 0.707 rad/sec

0
ge 168

Fig. 4.3.1.
4-6C (EN-Sem-5) Frequeney
Response Analysis
6. For imaginary part to be zero, 1 - 20* = 0

= 0.5
1Gjo)| = 1
7.
= 1
oo1V40*+1
40+501+- 1 ge
= 0
0.57

= 0.707 rad/sec =0pe

8. Intersection with negative real axis,
-3(0.5) =-0.0.67
Point Q 0.5(1 +0.5(1+4 x0.5)
9 From Fig. 4.3.1 unit radius circle intersect polar plot at P

and GM = 20 lo 1
O0
PM=180 + 2Gjo)|age = 180°
168° = + 12°
18 the gain c r o s s over frequency where |Gj»)| =
1.
ge
GM =
20 log 3.48 dB
10. As GM and PM are positive, system is stable.

Que 44. Sketch the polar plot for the following transfer funetion
Gs)= (1+4s)/s (s + 1)(2s+1)
AKFU 2018-19,
Marks 07
Answer

1. Putting S = jo, Gj»)= 1+

J o r j o + 1)j2 o +1)

2. M= 16
+1+40

3. The value of M, when ) = 0, M= o, when o = o, M

=0
tan ' 4 0 -180° - t a n o -t a n
2»
4.

5. The angle ¢ for different values of o i8 tabulated in Table 4.4.1:

Table 4.4.1.
tan 40 180 - tano tan 20
180
180
- 180°
90° -90° -90
270
6 Polar plot makes an intercept on the negative real axis at point X.
Control System 4-7C (EN-
Sem-5)

7. The intercept OX is calculate as given below:

1+ 4j0
Gjo) Hjo)=
jo1+ joX1+2j»)
Separating into real and imaginary parts

Gjo) Hjo) +10w jo -8c"

=
- oI(1-20* + 9»1 o'l(1 - 20** +9])
Equating imaginary part to zero
Imj

Re
(o 0.35
rad/sec

Fig. 44.1.
(o 80*) = 0
8 = 1
(= 0.35 rad/sec
i.e., At o = 0.35 rad/sec,
plot crosses negative real axis.

Que 4.5. What is inverse polar plot ? Sketch the inverse polar
plot of

10
Gs) (s+10)
Answer

A Inverse polar plot: The polar plot of cio) 1s called inverse polar

plot.
B. Numerical:

10
Given:Gs) =(s+110)
To Sketch: Inverse polar plot.

Gs)= 10
(s+10)

10
2. Putting 8 = J0, GJo) =
Jo+ 10)
l t J0.lo)
4-8C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency Response
Analysis

= 1tj0.1o) = M 2¢
.
Gjo)
where, M = y1+(0.1o" and ¢ = tan (0.1o)

Table 4.5.1.

+ 90°

4. The inverse polar plot is shown in the Fig. 4.5.1.

90

Fig. 4.5.1. Inverse polar plot.

PART-3
Stability in Frequency Domain : Nyquist Stability Criterion

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que46. Write a note on Nyquist stability criteria.

Answer
The Nyquist stability criteria states that if the open loop transfer
function
1. Gs) Hs) of a closed lo0p system has K poles in the right-half s-plane und

lim Gls)Hs) = Constant, then for stability, the Gjo) Hjo)

locus as

varies fromo to o must encircle (-1 +J0) point K times in the counter
clockwise direction.

2. Z= N+P
 Control System 4-9C (EN-Sem-5)

where, Z = Number of zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) in right-halfs

plane.
N= Number of clockwise encirclements of the (-1 +j0)
point
P= Number of poles of Gs) Hls) in the right-halfs-
plane.
3. If P is not zero, for a stable control system, we must have Z= 0 or
N = - P ie., P must have counter clockwise encirclements of the

-1+j0) point.
4. If G(s)H(s) does not have any poles in the right half s-plane then
Z=N. Thus, for stability there must be no encirclement of the (-1 +j0)
point by Gjo)Hjo).
5. The stability of system can be obtained if(- 1 +j0) point is enclosed by
the Nyquist plot of Gjo)Hj»). For stability the (- 1 + j0) must lies
outside the graph.

Fig. 4.8.1
6. The encirclements of (-1 +j0) point by Gjo)H(jo) locus does not give
proper information to detect instability in multiple loop system. The
Routh Hurwitz could be applied to 1 + Gs)H(s) to find poles in the

right-halfofs-plane.
7. If the Nyquist path in the s-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of
1Gls)Hs) and does not pass through any poles or zeros ot
1+ Gs) Hs) as s movés in the clockwise direction along the Nyquist
path, then the contour in the Gls) Hs) plane encircle the (- l + j0)
point N=Z-Ptimes in the clockwise direction.
8 The three possibilities are:
i. There is no encirclement of (-1+J0) point. So, system is stable ifthere
are no poles of Gs) Hs) in the right-half of s-plune.
ii. There is a counter clockwise encirclements of the (- 1 + j0). Then the

system is stable if the number of counter clockwise encirclements is

same as the number of poles of Gls) H(3) 1n the right-half s-plane.

ii. There is a clockwise encirclement of the (-1+j0) point. Then, system

18 unstable.

Que4.7. Draw the Nyquist plot for the unity feedback system
whose open loop transfer function is

G Ho) 1+«T) AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

4-10 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency
Response Analysis

Answer
K
Given:Gs) Hl8) 1+ sT)
To Find:Nyquist plot.
1. Pus =Jo,

Gjo) Ho) K
J (1+ JoT)

K
2. Gia) Hjo) 1+ o'T*
180° 2 tan oT
Gjo) HGo)
-

= -

.
G(O)H(O) =®Z- 180
4. At @
=0,
At o = o, G(o}(o) = 0 -270° =0 2 90°

o Re
..1010

Fig. 4.7.1.

for the loop

transfer function is
Que 4.8. Draw Nyquist plot open

Gs)Hs)= 1/s(s +2). AKTU 2020-

21, Marks 10

Answer

Given: G) Hs) =
 s(s + 2)

To Draw: Nyquist plot.

G(s) H(s)= s(s+2)

2. Put 8 =Jo,
Gjo) Hyo) =
Jol j o + 2)

Gjo) Hjo)|=
o +4
Control System 4-11 C (EN-Sem-
5)

2Gjo)Hjo)=
an tan
2/

1
-90- tan
90+ tan
2
Table 4.8.1.

-90

180

Re
-1+j0/o=

=0
Fig. 4.8.1.

5. The point (-1+j0) is outside the Nyquist plot so there is no encirclement.

Hence
(No poles is lying on the right hand side)
Also P=
N=P-Z
0 0-2
Z=
So the given system is stable.

Que 4.9. Sketeh Nyquist plot for G(s) H(s) = 6/s2 (s +2) comment,

on stability. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer

Given: G6) Hs) =6/s-(s +2)

ToSketch :Nyquist plot.

domain the given transfer function will become,
1. In frequency

Gjo) H (jo)= Jo J)+ 2)

2. Magnitude (M),
4-12 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency Response
Analysis

GjoH jo)| =
o +4

3. Phase angle (),

2 Gjo)H (jo) = 2 - 180 tan

2
4. For various value of o, the value of M and o are:
Table 4.9.1.

180
270°

5. The corresponding Nyquist plot is shown in Fig. 4.9.1.

6. For stability, N=P-Z
where, N= 2(Number of encirclement)
P= 0 (Number of poles on right-hand side)
= 0-2
Z= 2 (Number of zeros on right-hand side)
So the system is unstable because its value lies in the right half

s-plane.
Lm

Re

Fig. 4.9.1.

Que 4.10. Sketeh the Nyquist plot for the system with open loop
transfer function

G) Hs) 60
(s +1) s + 2) (s + 5)

and comment on stability.

Answer

Given: G(s) Hls) =

60
(s+1)(s 2)(s
+ + 5)
To Sketeh :Nyquist plot.
Control System
4+13C (EN-Sem-
5)

1. Put s =jo, Gjo) H jo) = 60

j o + 1 ) o + 2) (j + 5)

2. Magnitude, M = |G jo) H jo)| = - 60

y+1Myo*+ 4Xyo +25)

3. Phase
2Gjo)Hg»)
=
-

tan (o)- tan -tan

Table 4.10.1.

90° (-270°)
N=P-Z
P= 0 (Number of poles on right hand side)
N= 0 (Number
of encirclement of- 1 +jo
Z= 0 (Number of zero on right hand side).

point)
So the given system is stable system.
Im

-0 Re
-1+j0 -
+0

0.4769

Fig. 4.10.1.

Que 4.11.| Draw the complete Nyquist plot for a unity feedback
syatem having the open loop funetion, from this plot obtain all the
information regarding stability.

G:)Ho) = k/ats + 3Ms +5) AKTU2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 4.10, Page 4-12c, Unit-4.
1. R-H plane)
P0CNumber of poles on
N=- 1 Because contour has infinite radius, so it
encircle-1,0) point|
4-14 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency Response Analysi

N= P-Z
-1 = 0-Z
Z = 1
So the given system is unstable

270

180 =

90

Fig. 4.11.1

PART-4
Determination of Gain and Phase Margin From Bode and
Nyquist Plots.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.12. Write procedure to draw Bode plot from given open loop
transfer function.

Answer
A Bode plot: In this plot we have two plots namely Magnitude plot;
which is drawn in between magnitude of transfer function in dB and
drawn in between
log10 (o is frequency) and phase plot; which is
phase angle of transfer function in degree and log1o generally.

B. Procedure to draw Bode plot :

Step 1
Replace s = jo from open loop transfer function G(s) to have Gj»).
Control System
4-15 C (EN-Sem-5)

Step 2:
Change factor of Gjo) in standard form and make a table with
all the
remarks for both magnitude plot and phase plot.
Some standard results and remarks is summarized here

Step
From 3:
the table, draw the magnitude plot for each of the factor by
calculating resultant slope and starting with lowest corner frequency
and ending with the highest one.

Table4.12.1.
Remarks for
Factors of Remarks for
Corner Magnitude Plot
Phase Plot
GGa) Frequencies
Straight line of constant slope
Constant - 90°
None
20 dB/ decade pasing
through 20 log A at a =

Sope=+*20dB/ deciade straght line

Constant

+90
20 dB/
decade
constunt slope -
othrough 20 1Og K a t o) =

Fhase angie
Straight line of slope
lor 0>0

tan
1 joT, -20 dB/ decade

Straight line of slope

Phase angle-

+Jol T Z0 ab Qecade Tor o >

@,a

Laln (oT)
 Straight line of slope
Phase angle.
3.
- 40 dB/ decade for
1+2
Lan

"

Straight line of slope

Phaseangle
6 1+25a " 40 dB/ decade for
tan

1-ta/o,

Step 4
to have
different values of o
Add all the expression of phase angle
(resultant phase).
Step
Draw 5:
o with logj0 to have phase plot.

and how to
Que 4.13.| Explain gain margin and phase margin
determine them using Bode plot.

Answer

Gain Margin (GM):

A
which is allowed till the system
reaches on

1. It is the margin in gain

the verge of instability.

2. Mathematically, gain margin i8 reciprocal

of magnitude of Giyolljo)
at phase crossover frequency.
GM = 1 | G ( J o ) JO
4-16 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency
Response Analysis

B. Phase Margin (PM: It is the amount of additional phase lag which

can be introduced in the system till it reaches on
the verge oft

instability.
Mathematically, PM =180 2Gjo)H jo),
C. Calculation of GM and PM from
Bode plot:
. GM = 20
log| Gja) Hjo)lo= ope dB
-

0
dB- log|Gjo) Hjo)= wpe dB
=

20 log| GjoHjo)|a=ope can be directly known from magnitude plot.

2. Now, PM = 180° +
2G(jo)H jo)
can be directly known on phase angle plot.
LGjo)HJjo)
3. Gain crossover frequency (og
Frequency at which magnitude of Gjo)Hjo) is unity.
4. Phase crossover frequency (ope
Frequency at which phase angle of Gjo)Hj») is -180.
5. Stable system = PM and GM positive.
Unstable system = PM apd GM negative

Marginally stable =
PM = 0, GM = 0

Que 4.14. A unity feedback control systems has:

Gls)=
s(s + 2) (s +5)
Draw the Bode Plot. Find Gain Margin.

Answer.
40
Given: Gis)= s(s+2)(s+5)
To Draw : Bode plot.
To Find: Gain margin.
1. Magnitude:
40

GSss2)(a+5)x21-3)s(1
First corner frequency (pole) (o1)= 2 rad/s
{1+
Second corner frequeney (pole) (»g) =5 rad/s
4
2. Phase angle: G(s) =

Put S = J0

Gojo1+0.5j») l+0.4J0
 Control System 4-17C (EN-
Sem-5)

-90-tan 0.50 - tan" 0.20

3 Magmitude plot:
Table 4.14.1.

No. Factor Corner Asymptotic log

frequeney magnitude
characteristics
Straight line of
constant
/s None slope (-20 dB/dec)
passing
through at o =
1

Straight line of
constant
. 1/1 +0.5s) slope (-20 dB/dec)
originating from o
= 2

Straight line of
constant
3. 1/(1+0.2s) 2 slope (-20 dB/dec)
originating from
o2 = 55

Straight line of
constant
None slope of 0 dB/dec
starting
from 20 log 4 =12
dB point

Phase plot:
Table 4.14.2.

S. No. o (rad/sec) (degrees)

-90
0.2 98
- 127.874

156.8°

-203.198°

6. -232.125°

T. 5 243.97

Result:
2.8 rad/s
i Gain crossover frequency =
P h a s e cross over frequency = 3.3 rad/s

i. Gain margin = 3 dB

iv. Phase margin = 8'.

4-18 C (EN-Sem-5)
requency eponse
Bode plott:

Bdec
40 dBdec

2 rad/stC

10dBdect
-20 dBdec

Que 4.15. For the given transfer function Gls) Hls) 2/«(1 0.5s)
(1+0.05). Determine phase crossover frequeney and gain margin.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Control System 4-19 C (EN-Sem-5)

Answer The procedure is same as Q. 4.14, Page 4-16C, Unit-4.

dB'dee

40 dB/decp

H G M =22 dB
-20 dB'dec;

10

Results from bode plot:

1. Phase crossover frequency (o,)= 6.35 rad/sec
2 Gain margin = 22 dB
4-20 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency Response Analysis

Que 4.16.| Draw the bode plot of the unity feedback control system

having open loop transfer function.

0
Gs)
s(1 +0.02s) (1 + 0.2s)

Also determine GM and discuss the stability of elosed loop system.

Answer
10
Given:Gs) =s(10.02s)(1+0.,2s)
To Find: Gain Margin, Stability
To Draw: Bode a Plot.

10
1. Puts =jo, Gjo) Jo (1+ 0.02 jo) (1 +0.2 jo)

10
..4.16.1)
Gjo)=
1+(0.02 o 1+ (0.200
2. Magnitude in dB = 20 log |Gja)|

20log 10-20 log oy1 0.02 o)1+(0.2 o ...4.16.2)

3. Angle of Gjo), 2Gjo)= - 90- tan (0.02 »)- tan" (0.2 o)...4.16.3)

Table 4.16.1.

rad/s LGjo) Magnitude in dB

0.1 91.26 39.00

0.2 90.2 33.00

0.5 96.2 25.90

0.7 -97.94 23.30

0.9 100.20 20.70

1.0 102.45 19.80

5.0 140.71 02.96

10.0 164.74 7.16

20.0 187.
.76 -18.05

50.0 -219.30° 37.35

-53.42
100.0 -240.57
Control System 4-21 C (EN-Sem-5)

IN

t pttt tttuttttmtt t
t ttt NINNNININM I IMMNNN

T
4-22 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency
Response Analysis

GM = 15 dB

5. PM =

the
positive
in nature, then
6. Gain margin and phase margin both are

given closed loop system is stable.

Que 4.17.| Draw Bode Plot of unity feedback control system

having
10
OLTF GS) s(1+ 0.2s) 0.2s)

c r o s s over
Determine GM, PM, gain frequeney, phase
cross over

of closed loop system.

frequency and discuss stability

AKTU 2019-20,
Marks 07

Answer

4.16, Page 4-20C, Unit-

4.
The procedure is s a m e as .

Results from bode plot:

. G a i n margin = 46 dB

2. Phase margin =47

frequency = 0.2 rad/sec

3. Gain crossover

5 rad/sec
4 Phase crossover frequency (p) =

and phase margin

both are positive
5. Stability: The gain margin
 stable.
therefore, the system is
Cont rol System
4-23 C (EN-Sem-5)

bU ddec

20wdec
=4i dB

function
Sketch Bode plot for the following transfer
Que 4.18. |
cross over frequency and phase eross
over

and determine the gain

c o m m e n t on stability.
frequeney,

10
Gls) Hs)= 10/s (1 +w)( 1 +0.002») AKTU 2021-22, Marks
 Frequency Kesponse Analys1s
4-24 C (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
is same as
Q. 4.16, Page 4-20C, Unit-4.
The procedure

alll
Control System 4-25 C (EN-Sem-
5)

Results from Bode plot

Gain crossover frequency, e = 5.5 rad/sec
Phase crossover frequency, a= 15 rad/sec
3. Gain margin, GM =
10 dB
4. Phase margin, PM= 10°
Because the GM and PM both are positive. So the given system is stable.

PART-5S
Correlation Between Time and Frequency Responses.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.19. Explain various frequeney domain specifications.

Answer
L Resonant peak (M): Resonance peak is the peak value of magnitude
of closed loop frequency response.

For second order, M, =

2 J1-2
2 Resonance
frequency: The frequency at which resonant peak occurs
1s called resonant irequency.

For second order, o, = o,y1-25

3. Bandwidth: It is the range of frequency up to o, which is cut oft
frequeney. At o the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is 3 dB
down from its zero frequency level.

IM
M,E-
3 dB
0.707

B.W

Fig.4.191.
4 Cut-offfrequeney: The frequency at which magnitude is 3 dB below
its zero frequency value is called cut-off frequency (m,).
5. Cut-off rate: The cut-off rate is the frequency rate at which the
magnitude ratio decreased beyond the cut-off frequeney
4-26 C (EN-Sem-5) Frequency Response Analysis

Que 420. Establish the correlation between time response and

frequency response analysis and suitably explain with diagrams.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

OR
Explain the strengths of frequency response approach; establish
correlation between frequency domain response and time domain

response. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
(Advantages): Refer Q.
4.1,
Strengths of frequemcy response
Page 4-20. Unit-4.
Correlation between time response and frequency response:

1 For 2nd order system, the transfer function is,

Cls)
R(s)
220,+,
where, = Damping factor
Natural frequency of oscillations
o =

Ris) C(s)
s+20,s
Fig. 4.20.1.

2 Closed loop frequency responseis.

Cyo Tjo) jo
Rjo) +220,jo) +O,
-+22o,jo)+ o
25o

(4.20.1)
(1-u)+j2u
where u = ola,, normalized driving frequency.

Tjo)= M 1 .
(4.20.2)
1-u +(2u*

and TJo) = ¢= - tan'

.20.3)
1-u
3 The steady state output 1s
ea-tan'u
c)= n
Vl-u'+ (2, - -u
Control System 4-27 C (EN-
Sem-5)

The frequency where M has a peak value is called the resonant

frequency. At this frequency the slope of magnitude curve is zero.

If o, = Resonant frequency

U, 0J0, 18 normalized
resonant
frequency.

M =1< 0.707)

Magnitude

ME = 0.707)

-u, = o, n
Normalized frequeney, u

Fig. 4.20.2. Frequency response magnitude characteristics

0 *******************************

Phase
angle
180°L
1.0
Normalized frequency u

F'ig. 4.20.3. Frequency response phase characteristic.

dM 14(1-u;Nu, +88 u, |
0
du
2 1-u +(2Eu,|*
- 4(1 - u,)u, + 8 u , =0

4u,1- u , - 24) = 0D

", -25
, V - 2
..420.4
 Frequency Response
Analysis
4-28 C (EN-Sem-5)

(4.20.5)
M,21- at resonant frequency 1s
5. The phase angle o of TUo)

,tan

Bandwidth:

1. The frequency at which M has value of and is called cut-off

frequency
Z

attenuated.
OThe signal frequencies
above cut-off are

2. The range of frequencies for which M2is known as bandwidth

to cut-off. o, indicates the
The low pass filters has bandwidth equal
noise filtering characteristics of the system.

3. Normalized bandwidth, u, = O / n

M=
l-u +(2u, /2

4 1-25+2-4+45*]*

o, 0,11-2+ y2-4+ 4']

The damped frequency of oscillations and peak overshoot
M, of the
4
step response tor 0sslare
,l-5

transfer function of unity

feedback
Que 4.21. The forward path
control system is G(«) = 100/s(s + 6.45). Find the resonance peak M,,
resonant frequency o, and bandwidth of the closed loop system.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Answer
100
Gs) and H(s) =1
s{s + 6.45)
 Gls) 100/ (sts + 6.45))
Cs)
Rs) 1+ G(») H(s) 1+100/(s(s +6.45)
Control System 4-29 C (EN-Sem-
5)

100

..4.21.1)
s+6.45s+100
3. Compare eq. (() with
s +2,0, s +o,

SO,
V100 =10 rad/sec
2 o , = 6.45 =0.32

4 Resonant frequency, , = y1-2 = 8.91 rad/see

1
5. Resonant peak, M,= = 1.6
25 1- 2x0.32/1 -0.32
6. Bandwidth, o, =
o,V1-2 +(2-4+4Ea =14.39 radsec
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questioms

may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSTY EXAMINATION

Q1. What do you understand by frequency response ? What are

its various methods ? Discuss their
advantages,
disadvantages and limitations.
Ans Refer Q. 4.1, Unit4.

92. Sketch the polar plot of the following function, also

determine Gain Margin, Phase Margin, H(s) =1

Gls)=
s(1 +s) (1 +28)
Ans Refer Q. 4.3, Unit-4.

Q.3. Sketch the polar plot for the following transfer function
G(s) = (1 + 4s)/s- (« + 1)(2s + 1)
An ReferQ. 4.4, Unit-4.

94. Sketeh Nyquist plot for G) H() = 6/s* (s +2) comment on

stability.
AnE Refer Q. 4.9, Unit-4.

Q5. Sketch the Nyquist plot for the system with open loop
transfer funetion
60
and comment on

stability.
( s + 1)(s +2) (s + 5)
 5
UNIT
Introduction to Design

CONTENTS
Part-1 : The Design Problems a n d . . 5-2A to 516A
Preliminary Considerations of Lead,
Lag and Lead-Lag Compensation
Networks, Design of Closed Loop
System using Compensation T'echniques
in Time and Frequency Domain

5-16A to 5-17A
Part-2 State Space Technique: The.
Concept of State and Space

Part-3 State Space Model of Physical. 5-17A to 5-26A

System, Conversion of State
Space to Transfer Function
Model and Vice-Versa

Part-4 : State Transition Matrix..*** ***** 5-26A

) -z6 to 5-29A

Part-5 Concept of Controllability and . . 5 - 2 9 A to 5-36A

Observability and Their Testing

5-1C(EN-Sem-5)
5-2C (EN-Sem-5) Introduetion to
Design
-

PART 1]
The Design Problems and Preliminary Considerations of Lead,
Lag and Lead-Lag Compensation Networks, Design of Closed
Loop System using Compensation Technigues in Time
and Frequeney Domain.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Define Phase lead compensation technique. How would

you draw its pole zero configuration ?

Answer
A Lead compensation :
Fig. 5.1.1l shows a phase-lead network where in the phase of output

voltage leads the phase of input voltage for sinusoidal input

C

Fig. 5.1.1. Phase lead network

2. The transfer function of a phase lead network,

E,(8) al1 + sT)

.1.1)
E (s) (1+suT)
E

where,

a R R
Control System 5-3 C (EN-Sem-5)

and T=lR,C
3. he transfer function given by eq. (5.1.1) can be expressed in sinusoidal
form a

E, Jo) a(l+ joT) ..5.1.2

E jo) 1+ jouT)
4 The pole zero configuration of eq. (5.1.2) shown in Fig. 5.1.2.
Im

Re

IT

Fig. 5.1.2. Pole zero configuration.

B. Bode plot of lead compensator:
The two frequencies
1 corner are

lower corner frequeney

, , upper corner frequeney

2. The maxim um phase lead 4, occurs at mid-frequeney o, between upper

and lower corner frequencies

losa ogTlolT
m TNa
+20 dB/decade

0 dB

--. Log
Tm Ta aT
Fig. 5.1.3. Bode plot of lead compensator.
3. The phase angle ZE,joME,Ujo) can be caleulated as
5-4C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Design

JO) t a n ' (oT) - t a n i (oa7)

Ejo)
4.
TVa
The phase angle is

TtaTa
tan tan| Va
va
Ja
. tan m
1
+ ya

tan m
2Na
1-a
and
sin 9m1+a

lead
Que 5.2.Explain the Bode plot method
of designing
compensator.
OR
What are the effects of lead compensation?

Answer
A Design procedure of lead compensator

Step 1:Consider equation

G)=K, S+

Let Ka =K= DC gain

Gs)= K s+1
aT's +1
in Fig. 5.2.1.
This control system is shown

G8)

Fig. 5.2.1.

The open loop transfer function is

Control System 5-5 C (EN-Sem-5)

Gs) Gs) -KTs +DGs)

aT's+1

KG(s) = G,(s)
f's +1 aT's+
where, G,(s) = KGs)

Now, determine gain K to satisty the requirement on the given static

error coefficient.
Step 2: Using above value of K, find phase margin from Bode plot of
Go) which is the gain adjusted but uncompensated system. Generally
phase margin is specified in design problems.
Step 3: Determine the necessary phase lead (o,) required to be added
by the following equation
2+
where, 1 Specitfied phase margin
o= Phase margin obtained in step 2
o'= Safety margin.
Step 4: Determine the value of the attenuation factor (a) using equation

-a
sin 9m 1+
Step 5: Determine the frequency where the magnitude of

uncompensated system G,jo) is equal to-20 log (1/ va) dB. This is the
new gain crossover frequency which corresponds to

Tya
The maximum phase shift (,,) occurs at this frequeney.
Step 6: Determine the corner frequencies of the lead compensator as
Zero of lead compensator » = VT
Pole of lead compensator o2 = lVaT

Step 7: Calculate constant K, from value of Kdetermined in step 1and

that of a determined in step 4, by using equation K, = Ka.
Step 8: Determine gain margin (G.M.). If it is not satisfactory and not
according to design requirements repeat the design process by modifying
the pole-zero location of the lead compensator until the satisfactory
result is obtained.
B. Effects of lead compensation:
The lead compensator adds a dominant zero and a pole. This increases
the damping of the closed loop system.
2. It improves the phase margin of the closed loop system.
3. It increases bandwidth of the closed loop system.
5-6 C (EN-Sem-5)
Introduction to Design

Que5.3. Design a lead compensator for a system whose open

loop transfer function is
G(s)H(s) =
4s(s +2)
It will fulfill following requirement
i. Statie velocity error constant = 20 sec
ii. PM at least
50
ii GM at least 10 db AKTU 2021-22,
Marks 10
Answer
Step 1:Assume a lead compensator as,

Gs)
Gs) = K . a + T s K1+Ts)
A (1+ aTs) (1+als)
4K
and G, s) =
K Gis) =

st8++2)

K, = 20=
lim 4 K , 1+Ts)
lim sG(s) H(s) s(s =
s

+2) (1+aTs)
20 2Ki.e., K = 10
G,s)=4x 10 40
s(s +2) sís + 2)
Step 2: Thus line of slope 2 0 dB/sec till »e = 2 and line of slope
-40 dB/sec from 2 onwards.
Sketch the bode plot of G,(s)
Phase angle table:
40
Gj) jo jo+2)
Phas
Phase angle, ¢=- 90° - tani . 5 o

S.No.
-116.56°

135
- 158.2°

- 163.7°

5. 100 -178.8°
Control System 5-7 C (EN-Sem-5)

From the Bode Plot:

20 dB/dec

11:t

Bde

2.9 rad's
b adec

PM= 18°, GM = «
Step 3:Given phase margin,
, 50
5-8C (EN-Sem-5)
Introduction to Design

Maximum phase lead angle

(Lete= 5°)
5 0 - 1 8 + 5 = 37

=0.6
Step4: . L e , sin 37
=
Sin
o,

0.6 (1a) = 1 -a
a = 0.25

Step 5:10 log|a =-6.02 dB (for a =0.25)

From Bode Plot find frequency at which gain of the uncompensated
system is - 6.02 dB, this is m

From Bode Plot, 8.8 rad/sec = 9 rad/sec

a=

Tie.. 4.5
Step 6:1Two c o r n e r frequencies of the lead compensator are,

T4.5 and o =T
aT
=18

Step7: K= Ka

K K_10
02 =40
G s ) =4 0 x 0 . 2 5 + 0 , 2 2 s )
10(1
0.22s)
(1+0.055s)
(1+0.055s)
This is the designed lead compensator

G(s) Gi5)
10(1+0.225)
(1 0.055s) ss + 2)
4

40(1+0.22s)
s(s +2)(1+0.055s)

20(1 + 0.22s)
 s(1 +0.5s) (1+0.055s)

Que 54. Explain the lag compensation.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks

07
OR
with the help
of R-C
Define phase-lag compensation techniques
network. Also draw its pole zero configuration.

Answer
phase the of
output voltage lags
1. In phase lag compensating network,
the phase of input voltage for sinusoidal inputs. It
is a simple and
commonly used network.
Control System
5-9
C (EN-Sem-5)

Fig. 5.4.1. Phase-lag network.

2. The transfer function of
phase-lag network is shown in
Fig. 5.4.1,
E,(8)1+sT
.5.4.1)
E(s) s$T
where ß >1, R+R
R,
and T R,C
3. The transter function given by eq. (5.4.1) can be expressed
in sinusoidal
1orma s

Jo) joT
.5.4.2)
Ejo) 1+jwßT
4. Bode plot for transfer function of eq. (5.4.2) is shown in Fig. 5.4.2.

20 dB/decade
0 dB

-45
90°
log o
m
BT
Fig. 54.2. Bode plot of lag compensator.

5. The two corner frequencies are = upper corner

frequency for

zero at s
. BT lower corner frequeney for
=-
a
pole at s
6. The maximum
phase-lag, , occurs at mid frequency ,
and lower corner

between upper
 frequencies,

lo8 lo7los7
1
m T
5-10 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Design

7. The phase angle E,joVE jo) calculated as

E,yo) tan 1 (oT)- tan (os7)

E jo)
At o =
0,m o,the phase angle is
VBT

tan 2
sin m 1-B
1+#
8. Pole-zero configuration is shown in Fig. 5.4.3.
Im

Re

T T
S-plane
Pig. 5.4.3. Pole zero configuration.

the
characteristics
Que 5.5. What is lag compensator ? What are

of lag compensation ? Explain the frequeney response of lag

compensator. AKTU 2019-20, Marks

07
Answer
Refer Q 5.4, Page 5-8C, Unit-5.
A
Lag compensator:
B. Characteristics of lag compensation:
1. Lag compensator allows high gain at low frequencies thus it is basically
low pass filter. Hence it improves the steady state pertormance.

2. A lag compensator is to provide attenuation in the high frequency

range to give a system sufficient phase margin.
C. Frequency response of lag compensator:
1. The transfer function of a lag compensator with unity zero-frequency
gain is of the form,

Ds)= B>1,t>0
Srs+
2. The sinusoidal transfer function is of the form,

Djo 1+
1+jot
joft
 Control System 5-11 C (EN-Sem-
5)

3. The bode plot of Djo), shown in Fig. 5.5.1, has two corner frequencies
at l/ßt and o = 1/t.

10 20 log P
0
20 dB/decade|

- 30°

60
0.01 0.1

( (rad/sec)

Fig. 5.5.1
4 The phase lag mainly occurs within and around the two corner
frequencies.
5. It must be recognized here that any phase lag at the gain crossover
frequency of the compensated system is undesirable.
6. To prevent detrimental effects of phase lag due to the lag compensator,
the corner frequencies of the lag compensator must be located
substantially lower than the gain crossover frequeney of the
compensated system.
7. Fig. 5.5.1 also shows that in the high frequency range, the lag
compensator has an attenuation of 20 log ß dB, which is the property
that is utilized to give a system suffieient phase margin.
8. The addition of a lag compensator results in an improvement in the
ratio of control signal to noise signal in the loop.
9. The high frequeney noise signals are attenuated by a factor p > 1,
while the low frequency control signals undergo unit amplification (0
dB gain).
10. The choice of p is usually restricted because very large p will
appreciably reduce the gain crossover frequency and consequently
speed of response of the system. A typical choice of p is 10.

Que 5.6.Explain Bode plot method to design a lag compensator.

OR
What are the effects of lag compensation ?
Introduction to Design
5-12 C (EN-Sem-5)

Answer |
A Design procedure of lag compensator

be
Step 1:Let the system transfer function of
controller
+

G8)= K, (B>)
Bt
TS+1
Gs) = BK,
Bts+
Let KB = K,
The OLTF of the compensated system is

G(s)Gls) =
K_" Gls) =

Bts+1

KG(s)
BTs+1

8G)
Ts+

where G,(s) = KG(s)

to satisfy the requirement

on the given static
Now, determine gain K
velocity error constant.
in step
1, draw Bode plot of
Step 2:Using the value of Kdetermined
Find the phase margin (0).
G,jo).
3: Using specified phase margin (9), find
the required phase
Step
margin
=5° to 12°
2 + , where ¢'
 Step 4: Find the frequency at which the phase angle of the
open loop
plus the required margan (0,).
This

is
transfer function is
equal to 180"
-

the new gain crossover frequency.

Step 5:Determine attenuation necessary to bring

the magnitude curve
down to 0 dB at the new gain erossover frequency. This change is due to
the factor (B) and the attenuation is - 20 log ß. For this shift find the

value of .
Step 6: Determine the other corner frequeney (corresponding to pole
of lag compensator) from l$7).
determined in step 1 and p
determined in
Step 7: Using the value ofK
step 5, calculate constant K, as
K

Step8:Using the transfer funetion of lag compensntor, draw Bode plot

and verify specifications.
B. Effects of lag compensation: It allows high gain at low frequencies
thus it is basically a low pass filter. Hence it improves the steady state
pertormance.
Control System 5-13 C (EN-Sem-5)

Que 5.7. Explain lead-lag compensator. Also write the effects of

lead-lag compensation ?
Answer
A Lead-lag compensator

1 Lead-lag compensator is combination of lead network and lag network.

Fig. 5.7.1. Lead-lag compensator in time-domain.

-- ---

1/sC

V(s) Vs)
I(s)

Fig. 5.7.2. Ins-domain.

2. From Fig. 5.7.2, we have

sC R ...5.7.1)
s R,+ skC+1
sC
and
Zg= R + - {sh,C, +1) ..5.7.2)
S2 SC2
3. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the shown Fig. 5.7.1 network
Vs)=(2+2,)fa) ..5.7.3)
Vs)=7s)
Hence the transfer function of the system
5.7. 4)

Gto)= V) .5.7.5)
Introduction to Design
5-14 C (EN-Sem-5)

and in eq. (5.7.5), we have

4. Putting value of V,(s) V{s)
Z,I(s)
Gs) (Z,+Z,s)

(5.77.6)

5. Putting
Gs)=Z,+Z2
value of Z, and Z, in eq. (5.7.6), we have

(sR,C,+1)
SC;|
Gs)= R
sRC, +1 *SC
(sRC,+1XsR,C, +DD
G(s)= s'RRCC, +sR_C, + skC +skC,+1

RCR, 'Ro°*RCR,

G8)

where, T =
RC. T2 =R,C2
1T, 6TRC, RC, RC
and apT,T = R,R,C,C,

and aß 1

6. Poles are at s= -

7.
Zeros are at s
-T T,

Fig. 5.7.3. Pole-zero configurations

 5-15 C (EN-Sem-5)
Control System

8. The various corner frequencies of the lag-lead compensator are,

+20dB/dec
2 0 dB/dec

OdB

+45

Logo

Fig. 5.74. Bode plot of lag-lead compensator

C1 for asimple pole

c2 ,
1or a simple zero

ca 1or a simple zero

OcA afor simple pole

a

BT
B. Effects:
1. Lag-lead compensator increases the low frequency gain which improves
the steady state.
2. It increases bandwidth of the system which makes the system response
very fast.

Que 5.8. Write down the procedure for designing lag-lead

compensator. AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer
1 Evaluate the performance of the uncompensated system to determine
how much improvement in transient response is required.
Design the lead compensator to meet the transient response
specifications. The design includes the zero lacation, pole location, and
the loop gain.
5-16 C (EN.Sem-5) Introduction to Design

3. Simulate the system to be sure all requirements have been met.

4 Redesign if the simulation shows that requirements have not been met.
5. Evaluate the steady state error performance for the lead-compensated
system to determine how much more improvement in steady-state error
is required.
6. Design the lag compensator to yield the required steady-state error.
7. Simulate the system to be sure all requirements have been met.
Redesign if the simulation shows that requirements have not been met.

PART-2
State Space Technique: The Concept of State and Space

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Mediüm Answer Type Questions

Que 5.9. Define state and state variable ? What are the
advantages of state space techniques ?
OR
Define the following terms:
i State
ii. State variables
iii. State vector
iv. State space
v. State equation

Answer
i State: The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables
such that the knowledge of these variables at t=t, with the knowledge
of the input for t 21, completely determines the behaviour of the system
for any time t 2
'o
ii State variables: The variables involved in determining the state of
dynamics systen are called state variables.
iii. State vector: If we need n variable to completely describe the behaviour
of a given system, then these n state variables may be considered as n
component ofa vector x. Such a vector is called state vector
iv. State space: The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consists
of the x, axis, x2 axis.., axis is called state space. Any state can be
represented by a point in the state space.
Control System 5-17C (EN-Sem-5)

v. State equation: A state space representation is a mathematical model

of the physical system as a set of output, input and state variables
related by a differential equation is known as state equation.
Advantages of state space techniques:
1. The method takes into account the effect of all initial conditions.

2 It can be applied to non-linear as well as time varying conditions.

3. It can be conveniently applied to multiple input multiple output systems.
The system can be designed for the optimal conditions precisely by using
this modern method.

PART3]
State Space Model of Physical System, Conversion of State Space to
Transfer Function Model and Versa.
Vice
Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.10.|Discuss state space representation.

Answer
1. In a state variable system, state variables are represented by x,{t)
xt)..
2. Input variables by u,(0), u,g{t),.
3. Output variables by y, E), y2).
where,

xtt) =
|x,t)|; utt) =| u,(0)|yt) =|s)
y,
4 So, dynamics of system
a can be represented by nth order
differential
equation

d" yt)dyt) dylt)

dy+ad
dt d-2
dr-T *uz t4,-1d+ G,ylt)
=

u(t) ..5.10.1)

5. The knowledge of initial conditions y0), *

dt
0)
dy0along
 * ' dn-iuongwith
with
the input ut) for t 20, completely determines the future behavior of the
system.
5-18 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Design

6. We take y(t),*dt as a
set of n-state variables
dt-
7. Let us define

n-1
8. Now from eq. (5.9.1)

9. We can write this set of equations in matrix form as,

Ax + Bu
Output y = Cx

*2

where, I=|

0
0
0 1 0

A=
; B=
0

-d -1 -2 -a1
10. For nth order single-input-single-output system:
i = Ar + Bu
Cx
A = System matrix of order (n x n)

(n 1)
Input coupling matrix of order

x
B=

(1 xn)
C= Output coupling matrix of order
x= State vector of order (n x 1)
1)
u =
Scalar input of order (1 x

Scalar output of order (1 x 1)D

 y =

11. For multivariable system

Ax Bu
y = Cx

yp nJ m
Control System 5-19 C (EN-Sem-5)

21 22 a2n
A=
LGn1 n2* nnJ

B=

22 C2n
C=|21

Cpl Cp2 p

Que 5.11. Describe different representation of state model in

details.

Answer
Basic ways to represent state models are:
a State space representation using differential equation:
L The state model is represented using these state variables called as
phase variables.
2. The phase variable is defined as those particular state variables which
are obtained from one of the system variables and its derivatives.
3. Transter function can be obtained by difterential equation

d"ylt)dy .+a, +a,ylt) = b u)

dt d-1 *...+1 dt

=b ult)
"+a,y +-1Y" +a,
Put

x = y" =X-1

y = bu-a, -....a, -a,n-

= bu-a,, a,¥2 a,-14,,
5-20 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction
to Design

0
**

0u
0 0

L ,-14,-2 a, x ,
x = Ax + Bu

y=|1 0 0 0 +[0Ju

n-1

Fig. 5.11.1. The block diagran.

In direct decomposition we
represent the
b. Direct decomposition :

denominator polynomial as

(sls +a+ b)s +C

We can do it for higher order also.

Y(s)
Us)

Fig. 5.11.2.

is written in
terms
C. Cascaded decomposition: Here transfer function
or more small transter functions.
of product of two

Y(s) Ks
 +b) (s +6,)
U(s) (s+a,) (s+a,)
Control System 5-21 C (EN-Sem-5)

Each group is then decomposed by direct decomposition and the state

diagram of the transfer functions is cascaded.

U) Cs)

(ID

Fig.5.11.3.
d Parallel decomposition : This method is also called canonical form.

The given transfer function

Y(s) b,s" +bs*++b

TS)
U(s) a,s +a,s
+.+,
Thenfactorized T(s) =-L+ . n

Simulate all terms using direet decomposition and add in parallel to have
complete representation.

Fig.5.11.4
Que 5.12.| Obtain the state space representation for the following

differential equation +5y +7y = 114u, where 'y'is the output and

u' is the input.

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
5-22 C (EN-Sem-5)
Introduction to Design

Answer
In the given equation the input 'u'is not mentioned. Therefore assuming
it as follows

y +5y + 7y = 114u
1. Select state variables as

y2 114u{t) - 5y2-7y1
2. State space representation

characterized by
Que 5.13.Construet the state model of a system
the differential equation. Give the block diagram representation
of the state model.

dy6+116y=u AKTU 2018-

19, Marks 07
dt dt dt

Answer

+6+11
dt
+6y = u

2. Taking Laplace on both sides: Y(sMs" + 6s*+ 11s + 6) = Uls)

l/s" 1ls + 6
Y(sVU(s) = +
6s +

3. Choosing state variable : , = X2, X, = X

X - 6x-1Lx2-6x, + u and y
=*

0 1
0 x,0
4. State model, 0 0 1 ||+0
-6 -11 -6||x,] |1]

y = [1 00| |x
 - 6

Fig. 5.13.1.
Control System 5-23 C (EN-Sem-5)

Que 5.14.| Determine the state model from transfer function of a

system given as

Y(s) s+3s+ 2
U) +9s 26s +24 +

Answer

YS) = (s2+ 3s + 2)
X(s)
Taking inverse Laplace both sides

drt3KU2x(t) =ylt)
dt t

2 X(S)- 1
Us) 3
s*+9s +26s+ 24
Taking inverse Laplace both sides

dx(t)ad'r26
dt d tZ6 +24x(t) =u(t)
24x(t) u(t) =

3. Cho0se state variables, r(t) =

x,t)
dx(t)
dt
x{t)
*
20) =x,(0)
dt
So, t ) = 4(t) - 9x,(t)-26x,(t)-24x,(t)
yt) = 2x,t) + äx,2{t) + *z{t)
4. In state space representation form

0 x,+0 ut)
-24 -26 -9%( [1

yt) = {2 3 11 , )

ut TT
26
-24
Fig. 6.14.1. Block diagram.
5-24 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Destgn

Que 5.15.Explain the correlation between transfer function and

state space equations.
OR
What is transfer function ? Also derive the expression for transfer
function of a state model.

Answer
A
Transfer Function Transfer function is defined the ratio ofLaplace
: as
transform of output of the system to the Laplace transform of input,
under the assumptions that all initial conditions are zero.

TIs)= aplace transtorm of output _C(s)

Laplace transform of input R(s)
B. Derivation:
1 Let us consider a vector matrix differential equation

i = Ax + Bu

and output, = Cx

2. Now, taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions

sXs)= AX(s) + BUs)

Xs) = Isl-Al' BUs)

Yls) = CXl8)

Yls) = C ls-Al BUG)

3. For a single-input-single-out put system, Y and U are scalars.
4. Now transfer matrix can be given as

Transfer matrix =S=Clsl

U(s)
-AT' B
5. Transfer function =
Clsl-A]-1B Cad((s/
=
- A])BB
det Isl - A]

6 Denominator part i.e,. Jsl-A| is called the characteristic equation.

Is-Al=0
7. nh degree characteristic equation |sl - A| = 0 has n roots or
eigen
values.

Que 5.16.Explain the term: State, State Space, State Vector. A

SIsO system has transfer function
Control System 5-25
C (EN-Sem-5)

Y(s)
G) Us) +7s +148 + 8
write down the state equation and stage diagram.

AKTU 2019-
20, Marks 07
Answer
A State, state space and state vector: Refer Q. 5.9, Page 5-16C,
Unit-5.
B. Numerical:
1. The given transfer function can be written as,
Y(s) (s) 1*
X, (s) U(s) s' +7s 14s+8

X,(s) s

U(s) + 7s* +
14s +8
2. The differential equation in time domain is written as,

+7 +
14 +
&r(t) =ult)
Let 20x + 1x2+ 0.x3 + 0.u

2 * 0.x, +0x,+ 1x +0.u

=

3 -8x, -14r,-7x3+ 1.u

3. In matrix form,
010

3
-8 14 -7]|3 1j
Y(s)
As 1
X,(s)
4. It can be written in time domain as

yt) = x,(t) = 1x, +0.x2 + 0.x

1
5. In matrix form y= |1 0 Ox2

x=*3 s x1=*2
Fig. 5.16.1.
5-26 C (EN-Sem-5)
Introduction to Design

Que 5.17.|For the following state equation, determine the transfer

funetion Y(s/Us),

yt) = [1 0]a(t)+ u(t)

Answer

Yls)
Uls)
=
C[sl -Al'B+D
Is-A]= O031
o s-2 -3
s3
2
s+3
s+3 3
s(s+3)+6 s(s +3) +6|
Isi - A]l ==
-2
s{s + 3) s(s +3)+6

s+3
s3s+6 s+3s+6
2
s +3s+6 s*+3s+6
8+3
0 + 3 s +6 s+3s+60
A Clsl- A] 'B =
|1
3
Ls +3s+6 s+3s+6
9
[1 oS +3s+6
3S s+3s +6
Ls* +3s+6J
Y(s) 9 1- 9+8 +3s+6
Uls)
s +3s+6 St3s+6

Y(s) s3s+15
U(s) s+3s+6

PART-4
State Transition Matrix.
Control System
5-27 C
(EN-Sem-5)

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions

Que 5.18. What is the state transition

matrix ? Derive its
expression. Enlist its properties with
proofs.
Answer
A State transition matrix (STM): The matrix
matrix and it helps in transition ¢(t) exp (AL) is an n x
=

from initial state X(0) to any other

state r(t) for t> 0, hence t) is called
state transition matrix.
B. Derivation :
1. Consider homogeneous equation, with u(t) = 0
Ax
Laplace transform,
sX(s)- z{0) A X(s)=

(s-A) X(s) = x{0)

I= Identity matrix
s =
Scalar Laplace operator.
Multiplying both sides by [s/-Al-l
X(s) = [sl-AJx(0)
X(s) = (s) x{0)
where,
¢ls) = Isl-AlH

- 3 *
s
3. Taking inverse Laplace transform of X(s),
x(t) =
L-lX(s)) =L-1Isl- A]-lx(0)
- 0)

x(t) = eA" x(0) = ¢«t) x(0)

4. State transition matrix
o)= L- Isl- All =L-l IMs))
5. So, state transition matrix (STM) be
can given as,
Kt)= e= I+At +A A'
5-28 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Design

C. Properties of STM :
. 0)= e0 =l
Proof: 0 ) = eAx0 =1

( ) = -1)

Proof: )= - = ¢-)
3. 4,-) o, -t,)=t-4,)
Proof
o(t,-t,)ot -t)= eA2-eAt-t0' = eAt2-1l +tl-t0)=eAl2-10)=¢lt,-t)
4. Ior= p(kt)
Proof: Ù(t = ¢lt).¢(t).. k times = eAl eA ... k times = eAkt = ¢(kt)
5.
+ , ) d(t,) ¢(t)= t,) ¢(t,)
=

Proof:
t+4)=Cl + 12) = e l eA? = e" Atl = t , ) ot,)= oKt,) bt,)

Que 5.19.Find the state transition matrix of the following matrix

A|1 AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer

Given
To Find: ¢(t)
1. Calculate [ s/-A
0
1 01 0 -1
S-1

ols) =
[sl-A]-1 = Adj Is/- A -1 s-1
Det [ s - A]
s-2s+1

-28+-1 s-1
8-

+1
(C)= L [sl - A]-l= L-18-2s
s-2s+1 s -2s+1|
Control System 5-29 C (EN-Sem-
5)

Que 5.20.| State properties ofState Transition Matrix (STM), find

out state transition matrix for

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
A Properties of state transiti on matrix: Refer Q. 5. 18,
Page 5-27C, Unit-5.
B. Numerical:

Given:

ToFind:0)
A8-
- 1 -1]
-Al s 0 1-8-68
lst-Al=
s+6
$+6
1

Is/-A]-1= Ad ls/
-A]_ 8
S
(s)=
(s 2) (s
4)
s
-

A| +
+

S+6
(s +2) (s+ 4) (s +2) (s + 4)

(s +2) (s + 4) (s +2) (s +4)

s+6

s+2) (s +4)
(s+ 2) (s +4)
o) = L-[sl-A]H =L
3 -8
(8+2)(s 4 )
(s+2) (s + 4)
 2e -

+2e"
4 - e e ") e

PART-5
and Their Testing.
Concept of Controllability and Observability

Questions-Answers

Medium Answer ype Questions

Long Answer Type and
5-30 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Design

Que 5.21.| State and explain controllability.

Answer
A Controllability: A system is said to be controllableif the state of the
system can be transferred to another desired state over a given time
period by using input.
B. Kalman's test for controllability
1. Consider n'h order multiple input linear time invariant system
represented by its state equation as,

*
Ax + Bu
=

2. The necessary and sufficient condition for the system to be completely

state controllable is that the rank of the composite matrix Q, 1sn.
3. The composite matrix Q.is given by,
B:AB: A*B:...AR-B]
C. Gilbert's test for controllability:
1. For the Gilbert's test it is necessary that the matrix A must be in
canonical form. Hence the given state model is required to be
transformed to the canonical form first, to apply the Gilbert's test.

2 Consider single input linear time invariant system represented by,

Ax+Bu
where A is not in the canonical form. Then it can be transformed to the
canonical form by the transformation,
Mz
where M = Model matrix
3. The transformed state model,

where A =M-AM
B = M-1BB
In such a case the necessary and sufficient condition for the complete

state controllability is that the vector matrix B should not have any
zero elements. If it has zero elements then the corresponding state

variables are not controllable.

If the eigen values are repeated then matrix A cannot be transformed
toJordan canonical form. IfA has eigen values , hgs ng, 3
g
canonical form shown
in matrix
then the transtormation results Jordan
below.
is
6. In such a case, the condition for the complete state controllability
the
last row of
that the elements of any row of B that corresponds to

each Jordan block are not all zero.

Control System 5-31 C
(ENSem-5)

0 0 0
..0

0...
.0
J=
0 0..
Jordan
1 0..
block
0 0.0
-----------
0..
0

****************************************************"n

Que 5.22. Explain the concept of observability.

Answer
A Observability : A system is said to be observable if all the state of the
system can be determined on the basis of knowledge of the output of

B.
thesystem at given time.
Kalman's test for observability:
1. State equation

i= Ax+Bu
y = Cx
and
2. The system is completely observable if and only if the rank of the
composite matrix, is n.
Composite matrix Q, is given by,

= IC:A"C":..(ATy-TCTI1
where C' = Transpose of matrix C

A"= Transpose of matrix A

C. Gilbert's test for observability:
1. For Gilbert's test, the state model must be expressed in the canonical
form. Consider the state model of linear time invariant system as,

i = Ax+Bu
and y = Cx

2. Use the transformation x = Mz where M is the model matrix.

y = CMz = z
where C=0CM
For a single input single output system,
 5-32 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction
to Design

C+Ct.+C,
3. For the system to be observable, each term corresponding to each
state must be observed in the output. Hence none of the coefficient of
C must be zero.

Que 5.23.A single input single output system is given

as

A = |0 0 1.B-0 0 and C =[1 0 0

o 2 -3 1 1
Test for controllability and observability.
AKTU 2018-19,Marks
07
Answer

f0 1 0 0 1
Given :A 0 0 1B =0 0 and C=(1 0 0
o 2 3 1 1
To Test:Controllability and Observability.
A Controllability test
0 1 0fo 1 0 0
AB =0 0 1 ||0 1 1

o 2-1 1l|-3 -3]

A'B-0 0
11 1-3 -a
0 2-3|-3 -3] [i1 11j
3. Controllability test matrix is given by
Q = [B:AB:A*B]

0 10 0 1
0 0 1 1 -3 -3
|1 1 -3 -3 11 11
0 1 0
4. Consider 0 0 1= 10; 14,1 :0
1 1 -3
Control System
5-33 C (EN-Sem-5)
5. Hence rank of Q, is equal to its order i.e., 3. Therefore the system 18
controllable.
B. Observability test:

C =
[1 0 0):C =|
o
0 0
0
A 00 1 AT= |1 0
2
0 2-3 o 1 -3

3.
ATCT= |1 0 2|| 0 - 1
o 1-3o o
00 00
ATRCT=AT) (ATCT)= |1 0 2|1=
0 1-3lo1
5. Observability test matrix is given bY
1 00

1 0
= IC":A" CT: (AT2 C)=0
I = 10

6. Hence its rank is 3 equal to its order i.e., 3, therefore system is

completely
observable.

Que 5.24. The state equations are given below; check

controllability and observability of a system.

+*2+*-2r
++

AKTU 2019-
20,Marks 07
Answer

O1-1 3
Given :A 2,C= [1 0 0
1 o
To Find: Controllability and observability.
5-34 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to
Design

A Controllability

0 0 1

AB =21 3 o
2 0JL
3. Controllability test matrix is given by
3-3 1
ec =B:AB: A*B] = |-2 2 0 19cl0

4. Hence rank of Q
11 -1
is equal to its order i.e., 3 therefore the system is
controllable.
B. Observability:
0 1 1

-1 1 o

ATCT=1 1 1|
O 23 1
ATCT= o 2||00
io ol
Observability test matrix is given by
4.
1 0 0

=ICT:ATCT: AT C) |0 =

-1
1
o=1. 1 , 0
5. Hence rank of , is equal to its orderie., 3, so the system is
observable.
Que 5.25. Find the controllability and observability of the system

yt)- [1 00},+0ful
AKTU2020-21, Marks 10
 Control System 5-35 C (EN-Sem-5)

Answer

o 1 0 o
Given:A =0 0 1B =0,C[1 0 0

To Find: Controllability and observability.

A Controllability test:

AB = 00 1||0
00 ol1
2. AB= 0o o0 o0-
o1
3. Controllability test is given by
= |B:AB :A*B]
cl0
4 Hence the rank of Q is equal to its order i.e., 3. Therefore the system is
completely controllable.

B. Observability test

00
AT= |1 0 oC 0
0 1 0

o 0 01
2 ATCT= |1 o o
0 1 00

fo o 010
ATCT=00 00
4. Observability test matrix is given by,
= IC":A'C": (AT)* C

1
=0 1 0
o 0 1
0
6. Hence the rank of the matrix Q, is equal to its order i.e., n = 3. So the
sy'stem is observable.
5-36 C (EN-Sem-5) Introduction to Design

Que 5.26.Determine the state controllability and observability of

the system described
0 1 1
X =| 0 0 3r+|11| u and

-76 9
y= [5 2 7

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 5.23, Page 5-32C, Unit-5.
1. Controllability test: Hence rank of Q, is equal to order i.e., 3.
Therefore the system is controllable.
2 Observability test: Hence its rank of Q, is equal to 3, therefore the
sy'stem is completely observable.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions

may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION

1 . Define Phase lead compensation technique. How would you

draw its pole zero configuration?
Ans Refer Q.5.1, Unit-5.

Q.2. Design a lead compensator for a system whose open loopP

transfer function is

Gls)H0)= 4s(s + 2)
It will fulfill following requirement
i Statie velocity error constant = 20 sec
ii. PM at least 50°
iii GM at least 10 db
Ans Refer Q.5.3, Unit-5.

Q3. Explain the lag compensation.

Ans Refer Q. 5.4, Unit-5.

4 . Explain lead-lag compensator. Also write the effects of lead.

lag compensation ?
Ans Refer Q. 5.7, Unit-5.