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Definition of Tall Building
“A structure that, because of its height, is affected
by lateral forces due to wind or earthquake to the
extent that the forces constitute an important
element in structural design, known as high-rise or
Tall building.”
Tall structures are wind sensitive and prone to large
wind-induced vibrations. Wind forces on a
structure are estimated considering it as an isolated
structure, i.e., stand alone condition. the standard
codes of practice suggest that one should go for the
wind tunnel studies for unusual structural shapes
and locations for which sufficient information is not
available in the standard codes of practice.
A B
PLAN SHAPE & SIZE

A B
 Height & Plan Dimension Effect
1. Wind Characteristics at Higher levels are much different
than near the earth surface.
2. Plan dimensions affect structure natural period &
frequency
3. Plan Aspect ratio affect stability & torsional response
4. Building face width affect the flow separation & wake
flow characteristics
5. Relative dimensional ratio affect the frequency of
structure & in turn oscillation behavior
6. Height also affect the design of façade & balcony project
wind effects
7. Human comfort at higher levels is a matter of great
concern
tŝŶĚZĞůĂƚĞĚ/ƐƐƵĞƐŝŶƚŚĞĞƐŝŐŶ ŽĨdĂůů ƵŝůĚŝŶŐƐ

 The structure of Approaching wind

 Choosing the correct Design wind speed and
Profile
 Building Response analysis – Static or Dynamic
 Interference effects
 Design Issues
 Analytical, Codal and Wind Tunnel Techniques
 HFFB & HFPI approach and its utilization in
predicting response
 Limitations & the way ahead for the
practitioner.
Types of Wind Design
 Wind loads on structures –
 to determine the design wind loads for designing the lateral load
resisting structural system of a structure & its foundations to
satisfy various design criteria, in combination with other loads.
 Wind Induced effects for occupants –
 to analyse the human comfort at pedestrian level around the tall
buildings
 To analyse the acceleration levels at upper levels for occupants
comfort
 Environmental wind studies –
 investigate the wind effects on the surrounding environment
caused by erection of the structure (e.g. tall building). This study is
particularly important to assess the impact of wind on pedestrians,
motor vehicles and architectural features such as fountains, etc,
which utilize public domain within the vicinity of the proposed
structure.
Types of Wind Design
 Wind loads for façade –
 to assess design wind pressures throughout the surface area of
the structure for designing the cladding system.
 Due to the significant cost of typical facade systems in proportion
to the overall cost of very tall buildings, engineers cannot afford
the luxury of conservatism in assessing design wind loads. With
due consideration to the complexity of building shapes and
dynamic characteristics of the wind and building structures, even
the most advanced wind codes generally cannot accurately
assess design loads.
 Wind tunnel testing to assess design loads for cladding is now
normal industry practice, with the aim of minimizing initial
capital costs, and more significantly avoiding expensive
maintenance costs associated with malfunctions due to leakage
and/or structural failure.
 Movement of Air on earth’s surface is called WIND.
 Objects on Earth Surface like Trees, structures, etc. retards the
flow.
 Wind speed varies from Zero at surface to a maximum at the
gradient height where the effect of Obstructions has vanished.
 This variation of wind speed from Zero at ground to a
maximum at Gradient height is called as BOUNDARY LAYER
flow.
 The approach flow to any structure inherits the characteristics
of obstructions it has passed, like size, shape and
scatter/density.
 Terrain category is the description of ground surface with
respect to Size, shape and scatter/density of structures.
Variations in Terrain category
 Mean Wind speed depends on Averaging time & Terrain
category.
 Wind is completely defined by Mean Speed, Turbulence
Intensity, Turbulence Scale, & Energy Spectra.
 Conglomeration of eddies with different sizes and
frequencies which is of Random Nature in time and space

Affected by:
• Height above ground
• Terrain category
• Structure size
• Averaging period
 Wind V′′
Velocity
Time
v

(V = V + V' )
(a)

Mean

Height above ground Fluctuating

Wind Velocity
(b)

Variation of Wind Velocity with (a) Time, (b) Height

(Boundary Layer Wind)
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 FOUR QUALIFICATIONS (REF. CASES)
 OPEN TERRAIN CATEGORY
 AT 10 m HEIGHT
 3 SEC. AVERAGE SPEED
 50-YEAR MEAN RETURN PERIOD
MEAN VELOCITY
PROFILE ( AT 13
α=0.16 )
m/sec,α

TURBULENCE
INTENSITY
PROFILE
 α
V(z) § z · Vref is the mean velocity at a reference height,
= ¨¨ ¸¸
Zref, and α is the power law exponent
Vref © z ref ¹

§ z−zd ·
V(z) = 2.5 u* ln ¨¨ ¸¸ where u* : shear friction velocity
© zo ¹ zo : aerodynamic roughness height
zd : zero – plane displacement height
A measure of the dynamic component of wind is the turbulence intensity
which is defined as
Σ (V ' z )
I= Vz (1)

and the mean velocity and I are related to height above ground as,
V z ∝ ZĮ
(2)

I ∝ V ′ 2 ∝ Z Į/2
(3)

where z = height above ground

V’= fluctuating component of velocity
I = turbulence intensity
Į = power law index

The value of Į and I are expected to vary as seen in subsequent slides

 0.4

0.3 Turbulence intensity at 30m, I

(Power Law Exponent α = I)

0.2
Turbulence
Intensity, I

0.1
Open Sea Open Terrain Forest, Subrub City Centre
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
Roughness Z0,m

Turbulence Intensity in Boundary Layer

(Davenport 1998)
Table 1 - Values for α for Different Terrains

Reference Coastal area Open Suburban Centers for

terrain terrain large cities

Davenport 1/10 1/7 1/4.5 1/3

(1975)

ANSI (1982) 1/11.5 1/9.5 1/7 1/5

ASCE 7-95* - 0.16 0.28 0.40

*For 3-S gust

Fig.1.0: Flow pattern around a single building
[after Baines1963]
Fig.2.0: Flow modifications & base pressure around adjacent buildings
[after Taniike1991]
Fluctuating Wind Forces based on Wind
Turbulence & Vortex Generation in Wake of
Building: Face Width Effect
VORTEX SHEDDING
•When wind strikes the surface of building, it displaces it
on either side.
• At low speed vortices are shed symmetrically in pairs
due to which there no vibration in the transverse
direction.
• At high speed vortices are shed alternately resulting in
vibration of building in transverse direction.
• This phenomenon is called vortex shedding.
(a) Elevation (b) Plan
Generation of Eddies
As wind hits a structure and flows around it ,
several effects are possible:
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Turbulent flow on high-rise buildings
due to upwind obstructions
Wind velocity Increase due to large
openings at lower floors
 The pressure coefficients are based on
 The enclosure category of the structure
 The location on a structure for which a pressure is
to be computed.
 The pressure coefficients have been determined
experimentally from wind tunnel studies done on
regular shaped structures
 The coefficient represents the ratio between
measured pressure and the computed basic
velocity pressure.
 A building is to be classified as one of the
following depending on opening area on walls:
 Open

 Partially Enclosed

 Enclosed
 Internal pressure is fairly easy because the air is
relatively stagnant and the shape of the structure
does not affect it’s magnitude.
 The magnitude of the internal pressure coefficient
is strictly dependent on the enclosure
classification.
 The pressure can be both positive or negative (i.e.
suction) depending on the direction of the wind
relative to opening for partially enclosed or
enclosed buildings.
 Both internal pressures must be considered.
 As external surfaces are subject to “flowing” air,
the pressure varies considerably on the building
surface depending on structural configuration
and direction of the wind.
 Coefficients also depend on whether the resulting
forces are to be used to design/analyze:
 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
à Structural elements that support large areas
exposed to the wind
 Components & Cladding
à Structural elements that support small areas
exposed to the wind
 F = Cp . p . Ae
where
p = 1/2 ρV2
ρ = Mass density of air
V = Wind velocity
Cp = Pressure coefficient
Ae = Reference area of exposure
 ALONG AND CROSS WIND
• The term along wind is used to refer to drag force.
• The term cross wind is used to refer to the transverse wind.

Definition of Loads & Wind Directions

ALONG WIND RESPONSE OR DRAG FORCE:
It has a mean component in the direction of flow
Over this is superimposed a fluctuating
component which has a peak value and RMS
can be calculated

ACROSS WIND RESPONSE OR LIFT FORCE:

It has ZERO mean component
A fluctuating component in transverse direction
almost equal in both the directions with a peak &
RMS value is generated due to vortex shedding
 Overall wind loading and dynamic response

Across-wind

Wind
Along-wind

Across-wind vibrations are usually greater than along-wind

vibrations for buildings of heights greater than 100m (300 feet)
 Directions of
fluctuating force

wind

Vortex shedding

Crosswind
Response
Shedding frequency N is given by:

U No vortex shedding
N=S
b
S = Strouhal number
Wind velocity
U = wind speed
b = building width
 METHODOLOGY
There are two major ways calculating wind load
on structure:

• Codal Approach using IS875 pt.3 for static and

dynamic response

• Wind tunnel tests

 WIND ANAYSIS BY IS 875 PART 3

IS 875 Part 3 has two ways of calculating wind load

• Static analysis

• Dynamic analysis
 STATIC ANALYSIS
Static analysis consists of following steps:

• Determining basic wind speed

• Obtaining design wind speed

• Calculating design wind pressure

• Calculate surface wind pressure on building faces &

applying in analysis to get overall forces
•OR
•Calculate overall wind force using Force coefficient
approach and use in analysis for main frames and
foundations
 Force Coefficients
The value of force coefficients (Cf) apply to a building or structure as a
whole, and when multiplied by the effective frontal area “Ae” of the
building or structure and design wind pressure, “pd” gives the total wind
load (F) on that particular building or structure.
F = Cf Ae pd
where F is the force acting in a direction specified in the respective tables
and Cf is the force coefficient for the building.
NOTES : 1)The value of the force coefficient differs for the wind acting on
different faces of a building or structure. In order to determine the critical load, the
total wind load should be calculated for each wind direction.
2) If surface design pressure varies with height, the surface area of the
building/structure may be sub-divided so that specified pressures are taken over
appropriate areas.
3)In tapered buildings/structures, the force coefficients shall be applied after sub-
dividing the building/structure into suitable number of strips and the load on each
strip calculated individually, taking the area of each strip as Ae.
4) For force coefficients for structures not covered above reference may be made
specialist literature on the subject or advice may be sought from specialist in the
subject.
FORCE COEFFICIENT FOR RECTANGULAR CLAD
BUILDING IN UNIFORM FLOW
 Along wind and across wind loads
 IS code 875-part3 - Along wind response
 Gust response factor method for tall
buildings
 Factor accounting for:
 Gustiness and turbulence
 Gust frequency
 Gust size
à Integral scale longitudinal and lateral
 Frequency of structure
 Structural damping
 Aerodynamic admittance
 Gust correlation
DAVENPORT GUST FACTOR APPROCH
Davenport showed that the average largest response during a
period ‘T’ is given by:

Where,

is the response to mean wind load, and

g f is the peak factor
ıx is total resonant response

Where Ȟ is the ‘cycling rate’ this is often conservatively taken as

natural frequency, n0. T is the time interval over which max. value is
required.
 Using the above equation.

Where G is called the gust factor and is the ratio of expected

maximum response to the mean response.

Davenport also presented an expression for Gust factor, as follows:

G =1+ g f r (B + R)1/2
Where,

gf = peak factor
r = roughness factor
k = Drag coefficient
B = background turbulence excitation

R = resonant response excitation

ȗ = Critical damping ratio

F = spectral density
S = size reduction factor

ȟ0 = reduced frequency

• IS 875 Part 3 is based on the above theory

 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Flexible slender structures and structural elements shall be
investigated to ascertain the importance of wind induced
oscillations or excitations in along wind and across wind
directions.
Dynamic analysis in IS875 Part 3 is based on Davenport
Gust factor approach
IS 875 Part 3 gives following requirement for use of
dynamic analysis of a structure.

•Buildings and closed structures with a height to minimum

lateral dimension ratio of more than 5
•Buildings and closed structures whose natural frequency
in the first mode is less than 1.0 Hz means natural period
more than 1 sec in first mode
To calculate the times period IS code has given 2 formula
• T = 0.1 n for building without shear wall or bracing
• T = 0.09H/(d)1/2 for all others structures

Shedding frequency, Ș is determined by:

Ș = (SVd)/b
Where,

S = Strouhal number
Vd = Design wind velocity
b = breadth of a structure or structural members in the
horizontal plane normal to the wind direction
2 If preliminary studies indicate that wind-induced oscillations are
likely to be significant, investigations should be pursued with the
aid of analytical methods or if necessary, by means of wind tunnel
tests on models.
3 Across-wind motions may be due to lateral gustiness of the
wind. unsteady wake flow (for example, vortex shedding),
negative aerodynamic damping or due to a combination of these
effects. These cross-wind motions may become critical in the
design of tall buildings/structures.
4 Motions in the direction of wind (known also as buffeting) are
caused by fluctuating wind force associated with gust. The
excitation depends on gust energy available at the resonant
frequency.
5 The eddies shed from an upstream body may intensify motion in
the direction of the wind and may also affect cross-wind motion
7. Buildings and structures that may be subjected to significant
wind excited oscillations. It is to be noted that wind induced
oscillations may occur at wind speeds lower than the design wind
speed.

8. Analytical methods for the evaluation of response of dynamic

structures to wind loading can be found in the special
publications.

9. In assessing wind loads due to such dynamic phenomenon as

galloping, flutter and ovalling, in the absence of the required
information either in the special publications or other literature,
expert advice should be sought including experiments on models
in boundary layer wind tunnel.
 DYNAMIC WIND RESPONSE
Along Wind Response
For calculation of along-wind load effects at a level s on a building/structure, the
design hourly mean wind pressure at height z shall be multiplied by the Gust Factor
(GF). This factor is dependent on both the overall height h and the level s under
consideration (see Fig. 9). For calculation of base bending moment and deflection
at the top of the building/structure s should be taken as zero.
The design peak along wind base bending moment, (Ma) shall be obtained by
summing the moments resulting from design peak along wind loads acting at
different heights, z, along the height of the building/ structure and can be obtained
from,

where Fz = design peak along wind load on the building/ structure at any height z

Az = the effective frontal area of the building/ structure at any height z, in m2

pd = design hourly mean wind pressure corresponding to Vz

Suggested Values of Structural Damping Coefficients

The peak acceleration at the top of the building/ structure in along wind direction
is given by the following equation:

where
x = mean deflection at the position where the acceleration is required.
 Across Wind Response
The across wind design peak base bending moment Mc for enclosed buildings and
towers shall be determined as follows:
Peak Acceleration in Across Wind Direction
The peak acceleration at the top of the building/ structure in across-wind direction
with approximately constant mass per unit height shall be determined as follows:
Typical values of the mode shape power exponent, k are as follows:

a) uniform cantilever, k = 1.5

b) slender framed structure (moment resisting),k = 0.5
c) building with a central core and moment resisting façade, k = 1.0
d) lattice tower decreasing in stiffness with height, or a tower with a large mass at the
top, k = 2.3

Cfs = across wind force spectrum coefficient generalized for a linear mode.
β = damping coefficient of the building/structure
m0 = the average mass per unit height of the structure in, kg/m.
VALUES OF THE CROSS WIND FORCE SPECTRUM COEFFICIENT FOR
SQUARE SECTION BUILDINGS
VALUES OF THE CROSS WIND FORCE SPECTRUM COEFFICIENT FOR 2:1
AND 1 : 2 RECTANGULAR SECTION BUILDINGS
 Yin Z. et al. (2002)
• In their paper did a comparative study of major International codes and
standards for along wind load effects on tall structure.

• ASCE 7 (United states), AS1170.2-89 (Australia), NBC-1995 (Canada),

RLB-AIJ-1993 (Japan), and Eurocode-1993 (Europe) are examined in
this study.

• He took a building of height 200 m with width and breadth of 33 m, Bulk

density considered 180kg/m3 and wind velocity of 40 m/sec

• In this paper it was observed that the difference in the results was due
to unique definitions of wind field characteristics employs by different
codes.
Following formula were used to find the Gust load factor:
 WIND TUNNEL
• Wind tunnel was first employed for
aerodynamic research.
• Later it came into use to calculate effect of wind
on man made structures.
• In this a life like specimen of the structure is
prepared and kept in wind tunnel.
• Air is blown or sucked in this wind tunnel using
series of fans.
• Effect of this air flow is observed on the
structure.
Pressure coefficients on high- rise buildings

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 Shear Forces Overturning Moments Torsional Moment

X Z
Y

Motion Comfort
Sway Flexure

Y
Torsion Flexure X
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i j
Location ũнϭ
Location ũ
Location ũͲϭ
pij = pressure on
tributary area Aij
Level (i+1)
Level i
Normal to
tributary area Level (i-1)
Aij

α ij x = direction
of modal Tributary Area
Aij
φ xi
Aij
deflection
Tall Buildings of Today’s Architecture
Challenges of Shapes
Wind loads may be difficult to predict because:

Complex building shape

Interference effects of neighboring buildings
Flexible building
Complex terrain
Lack of resolution provided by building codes
Computational programs (CFD) are not sufficient
 120
WIND TUNNEL CODE
TEST

100

80 Y Direction
Height (m)

60 Y Direction
Y
40
X Direction
X X Direction
20
Roof Plan
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
W ind Load (kPa)

Courtesy RWDI
 z ĐƌŽƐƐͲǁŝŶĚƌĞƐƉŽŶƐĞǁŚĞƌĞŵĞĂŶůŽĂĚƐĂƌĞ
M
ŶĞŐůŝŐŝďůĞ
x
4. 0 E + 0 9

ĂƐĞKǀĞƌƚƵƌŶŝŶŐ DŽŵĞŶƚ
y

Bas e Ov erturningMoment (N-m)

2. 0 E + 0 9
WĞĂŬ DĂdžŝŵƵŵ
DĞĂŶ
0. 0 E + 0 0

WĞĂŬ DŝŶŝŵƵŵ
-2. 0 E + 09

-4. 0 E + 09
10 60 110 160 210 260 310 360
W ind Di r e c t i o n ( d e g r e e s )
tŝŶĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶ;ĚĞŐƌĞĞƐͿ

For a slender tall building with almost uniform cross-section,

the wind loads can be governed by across-wind response due
to vortex shedding. This normally becomes an issue for both
strength design and serviceability. Courtesy RWDI
• Softened corners
• Tapering and setbacks
• Varying cross-section shape
• Spoilers
• Porosity or openings

Courtesy RWDI
z ĐƌŽƐƐͲǁŝŶĚƌĞƐƉŽŶƐĞǁŚĞƌĞŵĞĂŶůŽĂĚƐĂƌĞ
M ŶĞŐůŝŐŝďůĞ
x
4. 0 E + 0 9

ĂƐĞKǀĞƌƚƵƌŶŝŶŐ DŽŵĞŶƚ
y

Bas e Ov erturningMoment (N-m)

2. 0 E + 0 9
WĞĂŬ DĂdžŝŵƵŵ
DĞĂŶ
0. 0 E + 0 0

WĞĂŬ DŝŶŝŵƵŵ
-2. 0 E + 09

-4. 0 E + 09
10 60 110 160 210 260 310 360
W ind Di r e c t i o n ( d e g r e e s )
tŝŶĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶ;ĚĞŐƌĞĞƐͿ

Wind response can be significantly reduced by shape optimization.

Courtesy RWDI
25%
Reduction
in Base
Moment

Courtesy RWDI
C

Courtesy RWDI
Base Configuration

Exhibited high vortex-induced

oscillations (VIO)
The VIO response translated into high wind loads and high motions
for occupant comfort
Courtesy RWDI
slots
VIO Mitigation Steps
•In order to mitigate the high vortex shedding responses a variety of
aerodynamic modifications were
explored which focused on changes to outer corners with the inclusion
of slots in the building.
Courtesy RWDI
• Modified roof, made more porous
 N (0 deg.)

B as e T ors io nal M om ent on T ow er C

6E+ 07

4E+ 07

2E+ 07

0E+ 00

-2E+ 07

-4E+ 07

-6E+ 07

-8E+ 07
10 60 110 160 210 260 310 360
Wind Direction (degrees)

W ithout Upstream T owe r B W ith Upstream T ower B

Courtesy RWDI
• Modify shape of the structure (if possible) or try possible
aerodynamic modifications – SHAPE OPTIMIZATION

• Increase mass towards the top of the structure

• Increase stiffness

• Increase damping – MOST EFFECTIVE

'ĞŶĞƌĂůůLJͲŽďƐĞƌǀĞĚƌĞůĂƚŝǀĞĞĨĨĞĐƚƐŽŶďƵŝůĚŝŶŐŵŽƚŝŽŶƐŽĨĐŚĂŶŐŝŶŐ
ŵĂƐƐ͕ ƐƚŝĨĨŶĞƐƐ͕ ĂŶĚ ĚĂŵƉŝŶŐ͘

Courtesy RWDI
a < 5 milli-g Imperceptible

5 < a < 10 milli-g Sensitive people begin to feel the motions

10 < a < 25 milli-g Many more feel motion, sensitive people experience motion sickness

15 < a < 25 milli-g Annoying, many people will experience motion sickness

25 < a < 40 milli-g Desk work difficult. Walking is still possible for most without too much
difficulty but they will be very aware that the building is moving.

40 milli-g < a Very annoying. Working at a desk is very difficult. People have difficulty
maintaining balance and with walking.
1. Sachs,P.(1978). Wind Forces in Engineering. Pergamon Press
Ltd.
2. Simiu,E. and Scanlan,R.H.(1985). Wind Effects on Structures.
John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 2nd ed.
3. Kolusek,V., Pirner,M., Fischer,O., and Naperstek,J.(1984).
Wind Effects on Civil Engineering Structures. Elsevier
Science Publishing Co.,Part 2.
4. Rae,W.H. and Pope,A.(1984). Low Speed Wind Tunnel
Testing. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 2nd ed.
5. ASCE Manual (1987). Wind Tunnel Model Studies of
Building & structures.
6. Henry Liu (1991). Wind engineering. Prentice Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
7. Balendra, T. (1993). Vibration of building to Wind and
Earthquake loads. Springer – Verlag London Limited.
8. "Wind Loading on Structures" by J.D. Holmes
2nd Edition by Taylor & Francis, London, U.K. in April 2007
8. BIS (1987). Indian Standards Code of Practice for Design
Loads (Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures
pt.3- Wind Loads. Bureau of Indian Standards, India.
9. Revised Draft & An Explanatory Hand book on IS: 875
(part:3) at www.nicee.org. & www.iswe.co.in
10. Journal of Wind Engg & Industrial Aerodynamics: Elsevier
Netherlands
11. Journal of Wind & Structures: Korea
12. Journal of Wind & Engineering: ISWE Roorkee
13. Indian Society of Wind Engineering
14. International Association of Wind Engineering
15. National Conference on Wind Engineering: In India every
alternate year
16. Asia-Pacific Symposium on Wind Engg: Every 4th Year
17. International Conference on Wind Engineering: every 4th
Year
 I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Prof.
Prem Krishna for the continuous mentoring I have
always received from him……..!
 Thanks are due to IAStructE for organising this
course and inviting me to deliver this lecture.
 Significant information in this presentation has been
obtained from works of wind engineers across the
globe and internet. I sincerely acknowledge the
contribution of all known and unknown friends.
 Thanks to all the participants of this course who have
come in the quest of knowledge on the path of
becoming rational Wind & Structural Engineers.
Questions
please...?