WJEC / Eduqas

Media
Studies
for A Level Year 2 & A2
Christine Bell • Lucas Johnson

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 1 Applying the Media Studies
Framework

Link The Theoretical Framework: A Reminder

The theoretical Media Studies You will have gained an understanding of the theoretical framework in Year 1 of
framework is explored in detail the course and used it to support your analysis of the set products. This framework
in Chapter 1 of the Year 1 book.
continues to be the focus of your understanding in Year 2. It will provide you with the
tools to engage in critical understanding and analysis of the media. The framework
consists of four inter-related areas:
Tip
• Media Language: how the media communicates meaning through their forms,
All of the work you have codes, conventions and techniques
done and the skills you have
acquired in Year 1 of the course • Representation: how the media portray events, issues, individuals and social
will be used and developed in groups
the second year. Revising the • Media Industries: how the processes of production, distribution and circulation
Year 1 work will be essential as
engaged in by the media affect media forms and platforms
you embark upon Year 2.
• Audiences: how media forms target, reach and address audiences. How audiences
respond to media forms and how audience members become producers
Tip themselves

When you are exploring the The theoretical framework is explored in detail in Chapter 1 of the Year 1 book, what
techniques used in media follows is a brief recap of the key elements. The additional aspects of theory and the
products to communicate theoretical perspectives required for the second year of the A Level course will also
meaning, remember to discuss be briefly dealt with in this chapter; they will be explored and applied to specific
the purpose and the effect on
media products in more detail in the relevant chapters of this book.
the audience.

Rapid Recall 1.1

Media Language
In developing your ability to critically analyse the media and its products you will
What is a media platform? need to use your ‘Analysis Toolkit’, which will equip you to engage in complex
analysis both inside the classroom and when conducting your own independent
research. You will need to understand how products constructed with encoded
Rapid Recall 1.2 messages are decoded by the audience.
What term is used to describe What follows is a brief reminder of the aspects of media language which will be
audience members who make
their own media content?
relevant to your A Level studies: the ‘Toolkit’.

Technical Codes
Tip Technical codes contribute to the
You will need to use the Year construction of media products
1 book in conjunction with this and communicate messages to
book and revise the work done the audience. Technical codes
in the first year of the course. are important in the analysis
of both audio-visual and print
products.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

Technical Codes in Audio-Visual Products

Camera Shots
A range of camera shots are selected by the creators of products to
communicate meanings and elicit responses from an audience. These
may include:
• Close-ups: create emotion and tension and involve the audience.
Technical codes help to construct meaning.
The way they may be edited with other shots helps to establish the
narrative. Close-ups help to establish a connection between the Establishing shot hi res to follow
character or the action on the screen and the audience. They also position setting the scene.
the audience emotionally within the world of the product.
• Extreme close-ups: used to focus specifically on one element of the mise-
en-scène.
• Long shots: give the audience more information about characters and
setting.
• Point-of-view shots: place the audience in a particular position, for
example as a character in the action, and therefore enhance involvement.
Link
• Establishing shots: show the audience where a scene is taking place,
allowing them to anticipate the subsequent plot developments. The different shots, angles
and movement are explored in
greater detail in Chapter 1 of
Rapid Recall 1.3 the Year 1 book, page 15.

What is the purpose and effect of

the technical codes used in this Tip
image from the Super. Human.
trailer? The theoretical framework
‘Toolkit’ will enable you to
effectively analyse the set
products and prepare you for
the unseen stimulus in the exam.

Tip
Camera Angles
Exploring the technical
• High angle: makes the subject seem vulnerable. codes used by the creators of
• Low angle: creates power and dominance in the mise-en-scène. products will also equip you
for creating your own media
products in Component 3.
Camera Movement
This technique is used primarily to engage and involve the audience in the audio-
Quickfire 1.1
visual product and to develop the narrative. Camera movement manipulates
time and space for the audience and takes them through the story arc. Camera How are camera shots
movements can position the audience, restrict the narrative and introduce surprises; related to genre?
they are linked to character movement within the mise-en-scène and encourage the
audience to be more active participants in the action. The main techniques are:
Quickfire 1.2
• Tracking: this is a shot that moves the camera through the scene. The camera glides
on a dolly (a type of wheeled cart use to transport the camera) and can track towards, What is the purpose and effect
away from or alongside the subject. A steadicam is also used to ensure smooth of a bird’s-eye view camera
filming. Tracking can sometimes involve a single take to establish realism and involve angle?
the audience. is often used instead of a close-up shot to move towards or away
from the subject.

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

hi res to follow
• Panning: this involves movement across the
Rapid Recall 1.4
scene. This rotating camera movement can
What would be the purpose be related to pace as well as time and space.
and effect of using a handheld A whip pan can cause the audience to feel
camera to film a scene?
disorientated and give the effect of speed and
panic.
• Tilting: this is where a stationary camera pivots Tilting from the feet up to
Key Term vertically down to up or vice versa and is used introduce a character creates
to restrict the narrative by slowly revealing suspense.
Whip pan
When the camera pivots across the subject.
a scene at speed creating a
blurred shot. It is used to show
passages of time, movement Editing
between locations and to
The combination of camera shots, movement and angles all work together to construct
suggest frenetic action.
a narrative and create meanings for the audience to decode. The way in which the
audio-visual product is edited can also indicate the genre of the product. Editing can
also offer visceral pleasures for the audience by selecting shots, creating enigmas and
Rapid Recall 1.5 restricting the narrative to create tension and suspense.
What are transitions and how
are they used in the editing of
a sequence?
Audio Codes
There is a range of audio codes used across different products and platforms to
communicate messages to audiences. Particular audio codes are related to forms
and genres, and audiences have expectations of the diegetic and non-diegetic
Rapid Recall 1.6
sounds that will be heard in certain media products. Audio codes are an integral part
Give an example of non- of the construction and mediation of the product and may encompass the following:
diegetic sound and when it
might be used in a media • dialogue • sound effects • music.
product. • ambient sound • voiceovers

Technical Codes in Print Products

Quickfire 1.3
As you will be aware from studying the set products and related examples in Year 1 of
How might technical and the course, magazines, advertisements and other print products also employ a range
visual codes communicate the of technical codes to construct a narrative, convey the genre and transmit meaning.
ideology of newspapers through
These include:
their front pages?
• Layout and design: how the product is constructed to communicate meanings.
• Camera shots and angles: for example, close-up shots show more detail and
Tip the choice of the image may reflect the ideology of the product. This is true
of newspaper front pages where images are carefully selected, cropped and
Technical codes are an important constructed in order to communicate meanings to the reader.
element of media language and
as such communicate messages • Lighting: choices made about lighting contribute to the construction of messages
to the audience. Being aware of within the product.
the different technical codes in • Colour: the visual codes of colour transmit meanings and these meanings are
print and moving-image forms
recognised and accepted by audiences as they have been established over time.
will enable you to engage in
detailed analysis. • Graphics: splashes highlight key selling points, and graphs and maps exemplify
stories.

Quickfire 1.4
Give an example of how lighting can communicate messages in a print media product.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

ollow
• Post-production techniques: photographs are often edited and manipulated
Stretch and
to create an effect. In November 2017, Grazia magazine caused controversy by Challenge 1.1
Photo-shopping the hair of actor Lupita Nyong’o to make it shorter and sleeker.
The suggestion was that this was done in order to ‘fit a more Eurocentric notion Find the front cover of the
November 2017 Grazia
of what beautiful hair looks like’. Nyong’o stated on social media that she was
magazine online and consider
disappointed Grazia had edited and smoothed her hair to fit its notion of what how the decisions made by
beautiful hair should look like. In the same week, Solange Knowles complained the product to manipulate the
to the London Evening Standard when it digitally altered her hair for its magazine image reflect its ideology.
front cover. The digital manipulation of images in print products is much more
prevalent now and while audiences are aware that it happens, they may still be
influenced by the unrealistic images of perfection that are created. Quickfire 1.5
How can the use of post-
production techniques reflect
Theoretical Framework: Roland Barthes the ideology of the magazine?

You will have studied Roland Barthes’ theory of semiotics in Year 1 of the course.
Barthes is one of the theorists you must study and understand. You will be required Link
to apply his theoretical perspective to the set products you will study in Year 2 of For more on Barthes see the
the course and to develop your understanding further. The Media Studies A Level Year 1 book, page 19.
specification states that you must know the following in relation to Barthes:
• the idea that texts communicate their meanings through a process of signification
• the idea that signs can function at the level of denotation, which involves the
‘literal’ or common-sense meaning of the sign, and at the level of connotation,
which involves the meanings associated with or suggested by the sign
• the idea that constructed meanings can come to seem self-evident, achieving
the status of myth through a process of naturalisation.

Barthes and other theorists of the time originally centred their ideas on language
and linguistics; however, their theoretical perspectives can now be applied to a Rapid Recall 1.7
range of media forms and products, as these are the most effective forms of modern
communication. Signs function at three levels: What is meant by denotation
and connotation in relation to
• the sign: something that stands in for, or represents something, to communicate Barthes’ theory of semiotics?
meaning
• the signifier: the physical form a sign takes – a sound, word or image (the
denotation) Key Terms
• the signified: the concept or meaning that is portrayed, which is then interpreted Myth
by the audience (the connotation). Dominant ideas and beliefs that
are not necessarily true but have
One of Barthes’ key ideas with regard to semiotics is his exploration of myths and been accepted by a culture.
how signs that are regularly reinforced across media forms take on the role of a Social construct
myth and become accepted as natural, when in fact they are a social construct. An idea or concept that is
For example, the sign of the rose has only come to be associated with romance and created, developed and
Valentine’s Day through reinforcement over time, this is also a cultural construct as accepted by society. These
it only has meaning for certain cultures. The rose in this context has now become ideas are reinforced through
repetition and practice.
a symbol of love and romance when in fact, at its simplest level of denotation, it is
a flower. This is a good example of how signs and their meanings are learned and
become accepted over time. Barthes asserted that signs have historical and cultural
Quickfire 1.6
links that will change over time: ‘signs and codes are not universally given, but
are historically and socially specific to the particular interests that lie behind them’ Give another example of a myth
(Strinati, 1995). that is in fact a social construct.

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

Barthes also believed that the theory of semiology proves that reality is always
Tip
constructed through signs, codes and recognisable conventions. This theoretical
Engaging in independent perspective is obviously important when discussing the meanings encoded in
research around the key media products.
theories and theorists will allow
you to develop a more detailed He also suggested that all signs are polysemic and, when encoded into media
knowledge and understanding. products, mean different things to different people. He asserted that a text is:
a galaxy of signifiers, not a structure of signifieds; it has no beginning; it is
reversible; we gain access to it by several entrances … (Barthes, 2009)
Quickfire 1.7
How might a red rose be Charles Saunders Peirce
interpreted in different ways?
Charles Saunders Peirce formulated the triadic model related to semiotics. This, like
Barthes’ theory, incorporated the sign or object, the signifier, and he also referred to
Stretch and a third stage which he named the ‘interpretant’, meaning how a particular audience
Challenge 1.2 may perceive or understand the sign. He essentially defined the sign by its effect on
the interpreter. He also divided signs into the following groups:
Research semiotics, including
Barthes’ theory, in greater detail • Icons: these are signs that bear a resemblance to what is represented. Iconic
to develop your understanding. signs have a physical similarity to the objects they ‘signify’, for example a bottle
A useful resource is a paper of perfume in an advertisement or a road sign with a car/bike on it. The sign is
written by a media theorist, therefore easily recognisable. This iconic representation is important in certain
Daniel Chandler called
forms of advertising to enable the easy purchase of the product.
‘Semiotics for Beginners’ in his
2017 book Semiotics: The Basics. • Indexical signs: these are signs that have a direct link to what they represent, they
cannot exist in isolation as there is a physical connection, for example thunder and
a storm. Thunder is the sound signifier and the storm is the signified.
Key Figure • Symbols: these are signs with a symbolic link to what is represented. The sign may
not actually resemble the thing to which it refers – the understanding is built up
Charles Saunders Peirce
American philosopher whose
over years of habitual use and becomes part of a shared communal understanding.
research extended into A symbolic sign is one that represents an object or concepts solely by agreement
semiotics. Although he is not of the people who come into contact with it. These arbitrary signs have a variety
a set theorist, his ideas are of meanings, for example Big Ben, depending on where it is used, can take on a
useful to the understanding of symbolic importance related to tradition and London being the centre of power.
semiotics.
Similarly, the Nike ‘tick’ meant nothing on its own but has come to mean high-end
sports clothing.

Key Terms Quickfire 1.8

Iconic representation Can the perfume bottle pictured on the right also function as a symbol?
A sign that has a physical
resemblance to the thing that
it stands in for or represents.
For example, marketing Tip
materials often feature iconic A useful infogram, explaining semiotics, can be found on the
representations of the products Behance website: https://www.behance.net/gallery/9474813/
they advertise or promote. Explaining-Semiotics-Infographic.
Arbitrary signs
Signs that bear no obvious
resemblance to the thing
signified, the meanings of The Nike logo is an
which have been accepted example of an
through repetition over time. arbitrary sign.

The perfume bottle is

an icon.

10

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

Named Theorist
Theoretical Framework: Claude Lévi-Strauss
Claude Lévi-Strauss
A French social anthropologist
One of the theorists related to media language that you will study in Year 2 of the whose work was important to
course is Claude Lévi-Strauss and his ideas regarding structuralism. You will be the theory of structuralism.
required to apply your understanding to the set products you studied in Year 1
and the new set products you will be introduced to in Year 2 of the course. The
main elements of this theory you must study are:
• the idea that texts can best be understood through an examination of their Key Terms
underlying structure
Structuralism
• the idea that meaning is dependent upon (and produced through) pairs of
A critical approach used
oppositions to analyse the underlying
• the idea that the way in which these binary oppositions are resolved can have structures or patterns of
particular ideological significance. meaning within a text or culture.
Binary opposites
When people, ideas, concepts
Binary Opposites or values are set up in conflict
with one another.
Lévi-Strauss’ theory of structuralism is relevant to the set products studied. His
theoretical perspective focuses on the fact that all media products have a structure
which encompasses a set of rules that are accepted by audiences. Lévi-Strauss first
identified binary opposites in literature but they can be applied to media products.
They are concepts or forces that are set against each other, which then can produce a Quickfire 1.9
dynamic that may work in, for example, a music video narrative. How do the binary opposites
used in crime dramas have an
Lévi-Strauss suggested narratives emerge through conflict and are another way
ideological significance?
in which signs and their meanings are created. With binary opposites, signs are
contrasted with opposite meanings to make them more powerful. Basic binary
oppositions tend to be between good and evil or male and female, and audiences
are then positioned to respond in a certain way. Stereotypes are then constructed
through the other attributes we give to the binary oppositions.
Quickfire 1.10
Another common binary opposite is between villains and heroes. A further aspect of
What binary oppositions are
this theory is that the understanding of one element of the conflict is dependent on established in the set television
awareness of the other: an audience needs to be able to recognise the villain in order product The Bridge?
to understand the role of the hero and to anticipate the progression of the narrative.
Binary opposites are not necessarily natural; they are cultural and are used by media
producers to communicate simple and, at times,
more complex meanings. They often contribute to 1.10 Hi res to
stereotypes and also create myths. follow Alamy

For example, crime dramas often establish the

narrative through the creation of a structure of
oppositions including good and evil, gender, race
and class.
Binary opposites can be used by media products
to help define what they want to represent. For
example, in a charity campaign about Africa,
the product may play on the binary opposites of
developing versus developed world, as audiences
understand these ‘opposites’. Some media
products, for example newspapers, will represent
one side as positive and another as negative in a The narrative of The Bridge is structured around a series of
binary oppositions.
political story, in order to make their point.

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

Rapid Recall 1.8 Visual Codes

How can media products be As you will recall from your Year 1 work, visual codes are an intrinsic aspect of
said to be polysemic? semiology and are one of the ways in which media products combine elements of
media language to communicate meanings to the audience. Visual codes are used to
encode messages to be decoded by the consumer of the product; they contain signs,
Link the connotations of which will be read differently by different audiences. Following is a
reminder of the main visual codes:
For more on visual codes see
the Year 1 book, pages 19–20. • Code of clothing: the costume choices made by the creator of the product
communicate messages to an audience.
• Code of expression: this rapidly communicates meanings and advances the narrative.
• Code of gesture: this is another example of a non-verbal communicator that
transmits messages to an audience.
• Code of technique: the manipulation of the image or audio-visual piece can
convey meanings.
• Images: the selection of images to be used in a media product will construct a
preferred meaning for the audience.
• Colour: due to the fact that certain colours have specific connotations and take on
the role of signs, they can be used to establish meanings in certain media forms.
• Iconography: the meanings attached to the objects, settings and backgrounds.
• Graphics: the visual representations that are part of the construction of the media
Visual codes are used to product, for example drawings, diagrams and typography.
construct meanings for the
audience to decode in this Consider how visual codes that construct meaning are used to construct the image
image from Peaky Blinders. below from the TV drama Peaky Blinders:
• The code of clothing of the men in the image
1.12 Alamy hi res to follow
places the drama in the past, the choice
of clothing, including the caps, will be a
key element of character construction and
marketing for the programme. The similarity
in the mens’ clothing establishes them as part
of a group with a common purpose.
• The code of expression of the characters is
serious, intimidating and purposeful. They
are looking directly at the audience and the
still suggests it is taken from a shot tracking
backwards, the effect being to make the
audience feel threatened.
• The scene is shot at night, the colours are therefore muted and dull, suggesting
the darker narrative themes of the drama and creating a sinister aesthetic. The
iconography of the bleak setting and the weapons foreshadows the violent plot of
the drama.

Paradigms and Syntagms

These form another aspect of semiotics related to how the combination of elements
of media language, including visual codes, influence meaning. When they encode
messages, the creators of media products must ensure they choose the right
combination of signs, including language, graphics, colour and iconography, to
communicate messages to the audience.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

There is a set of options available to the producer depending on the product they
Quickfire 1.11
want to create. This set of options is called a paradigm. The paradigm must work for
the product and subsequently the audience if the meanings are to be successfully How could you apply Lévi-
transmitted. Strauss’s theory of binary
opposites to the image from
The paradigmatic choices made about a media product are important in The Bridge on page 11?
communicating messages to the audience and include:
• lexis • technical codes
• images • audio codes Key Terms
• graphics including font styles • colours.
Paradigm
The encoder chooses one sign rather than another, making a paradigmatic choice A set of related signs from
that will influence the product’s meaning. which the encoder can choose.
In choosing one sign rather
In relation to these paradigmatic choices, the producer must ensure that the different than another, the encoder
signs chosen combine to create an overall effect. This combination of signs that are of the product makes a
linked together in particular ways is called a paradigmatic choice.
1.13 Alamy hi res to follow Lexis
syntagm. The combination has to be successful
The specific words used in
in order to create meanings for the audience.
a product which may relate
For example, in an advert the typography has to the genre of the product
to work with the image, the choice of colours, and include terminology that
the layout and the lexis in order to communicate is understood by the target
meanings effectively. audience.
Syntagm
Consider the paradigmatic choices that have
A combination of signs that,
been made in the advert on the right for the when linked together in
Miss Dior fragrance. The colour signifier is a particular way, produce
important: the natural skin tones and the use meanings.
of pink for the bottle and the floral headband,
signify the femininity of the fragrance. The
construction of a natural image is reinforced by
the inclusion of bare shoulders and wind-blown
hair signifying a sense of freedom and romance
echoed in the slogan ‘#WAKEUPFORLOVE’. The
name of the fragrance ‘Miss Dior’ is written in cursive writing, that and the silver bow
on the bottle add to the connotations of romance and are part of the brand identity Rapid Recall 1.9
of the product. The signs all work together to construct the syntagm that suggests Give an example of how
the fragrance without actually being able to smell it. specific lexis communicates
meanings in a media product
and the effect this may have
Language and Mode of Address upon an audience.

The term ‘language’ used here is different from the ‘media language’ that is part of
the theoretical framework. Here it refers to the choices made regarding the written
and spoken language used in a media product and how they communicate meanings Rapid Recall 1.10
to an audience. The linguistic choices made by the creators of media products may Give an example of a media
affect the meaning. product that uses ellipsis.

Language
Key Term
The language incorporated in a media product may include:
Ellipsis
• the imperative to create a dramatic effect
The use of three dots at the
• ellipsis to establish enigmas beginning, middle or end of a
• slang and colloquialisms to appeal to a specific audience demographic sentence to attract attention
and interest through the
• direct quotations to establish realism and credibility withholding of information.

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

• idiomatic phrases are universally recognised by audiences and frequently are used by
Quickfire 1.12
the tabloid press for humour and to make fun of people they don’t like or approve of.
How do the language choices The famous front page of the Sun with a headline of about bacon (seen at: https://
made on the Sun’s front page www.thesun.co.uk/news/8969124/bacon-sandwich-loving-ed-miliband-says-brits-
reflect its ideology?
should-eat-less-meat-to-tackle-climate-change/) was said to have seriously damaged
Ed Miliband’s credibility in the run-up to the General Election in 2015. It uses two
idioms: ‘making a pig’s ear’ and ‘saving the bacon’. This manipulation of recognisable
Quickfire 1.13 idioms, combined with the choice of image, creates a negative representation of the
Which other language devices politician and makes him a figure of fun, showing the power of language and images
are used on The Sun’s front to create meaning.
page?
Other language features used include:
• puns and alliteration for effect
Tip • hyperbole to persuade.

Awareness of a range of different Mode of Address: A Reminder

language devices and their use
will prepare you for the analysis Mode of address refers to the way in which the media product communicates to the
of the unseen products in audience through the written and spoken language and style used:
Component 1.
• Informal mode of address: is used to communicate in a more casual way with an
audience, using, for example, slang and abbreviations.
• Formal mode of address: including complex vocabulary and a serious code of
Rapid Recall 1.11 expression, is employed by certain media products that want to engender a more
What is meant by hyperbole serious approach.
and how is it used in a media • Direct mode of address: the product communicates directly with the audience
product?
through the positioning of the characters, the selection of the central image and
language choices, for example the use of personal pronouns.
• Indirect mode of address: is used more commonly by products that aim to create
Tip
a storyworld that does not involve the audience directly.
Always consider the choices that
have been made by the creators Genre
of the product with regards to
the language techniques chosen. You will have developed your understanding of the concept of genre in Year 1
These choices often reflect the of the course and will continue to apply that understanding in Year 2 in a more
ideology of the product. sophisticated way to aid you in the analysis of the set products. Genre is an important
element of media language, it is only assessed specifically in relation to the set
products in Component 2 but may also enhance your analysis of the products you
Link study in Component 1.
A more detailed explanation of Here is a reminder of the key points related to a study of genre:
these key language points can • genre is a way of categorising media products
be found in the Year 1 book,
pages 21–22. • each genre has a repertoire of elements that are recognisable to audiences, as
they have been built up over time. These established codes and conventions are
useful in the marketing of the product
• some media products belong to hybrid and sub-genres. Nelson (2009) thinks that
Key Terms
nowadays the planning of many TV drama series involves the consideration of
Idiom generic hybrids.
A well-known phrase with a
figurative, not literal, meaning.
• it has, however, recently become increasingly difficult to place some products in
a specific genre, as the creators of products strive to find new forms in order to
Repertoire of elements
The key features or conventions appeal to audiences.
that are recognisable to
an audience and as such Tip
distinguish one genre or sub-
genre from another. Remember to use subject-specific lexis when discussing genre in relation to the set products.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

The repertoire of elements of any genre can be divided into the following key areas:
• narrative, referring to the structure • iconography and setting
of the product • technical and audio codes.
Genre Revision:
• characters
Key terms checklist
If you studied the sci-fi/supernatural thrillers television option, you will already have
You need to be confident in
examined some of the elements above in Year 1 when studying the Component 2 set using the following key terms
product Black Mirror and you will revisit them in Year 2 of your course when you study The related to genre:
Returned, considering the similarities and differences between the two genres including: • hybrid genre
• the narratives of both genres focus on extraordinary occurrences and their effect • sub-genre
upon the characters. However, the supernatural thriller genre usually focuses upon • codes and conventions
events that have no rational explanation and so creates unease in the characters. In • stock characters
contrast, the science-fiction narratives, as suggested by the name, focus on aspects • iconography
of science, for example AI, robots and the effect of new technology on society • linear narrative
• the iconography of the sci-fi genre may include futuristic costumes and weapons in • non-linear narrative
comparison to the often more everyday iconography of the supernatural thriller • formulaic structure
• the setting of a product in the science-fiction genre may be bleak and dystopian • story arc.
or otherworldly, suggesting the thematic concerns of this genre. The supernatural
thriller settings may be more ordinary and recognisable so making the extraordinary
more frightening.

Theoretical Framework: Genre

In Year 1 of the course you will have studied Steve Neale, and applied his theory
to set products. You will be required to develop your understanding of this Key Figure
theoretical perspective further and apply it to the products studied in Year 2.
Daniel Chandler
You will recall that the main elements of this theory you must study are: He refers to himself as a
• the idea that genres may be dominated by repetition, but are also marked by semiotician and his book
difference, variation and change Semiotics: The Basics (2017)
is a useful text for developing
• the idea that genres change, develop and vary, as they borrow from and understanding of media
overlap with one another language. Now retired, he is
• the idea that genres exist within specific economic, institutional and industrial an Emeritus lecturer in the
Theatre, Film and Television
contexts.
Studies department at
Aberystwyth University.
However, it is also useful to broaden your understanding of this central media
concept by being aware of other theoretical perspectives related to the study of
genre. Other theorists who discuss genre include: Tip
Daniel Chandler Daniel Chandler’s website,
http://visual-memory.co.uk/
While the main focus of Daniel Chandler’s research work is semiotics, he also
daniel/, is also a useful area for
discusses genre and he concludes that: research into media language.
• genres position audiences differently and therefore elicit different responses linked
to audience expectations
• the creators of the product belonging to a specific genre will have an idea of their Key Term
audience and therefore the ‘preferred reading’ for that product Interpretive communities
• genres create an interpretive community where an audience derives pleasure Initially used by Stanley Fish,
from sharing their knowledge and understanding of a particular genre with others a literary critic, to explain how
different groups of people,
• genres reflect society and as such genres come and go as audiences change. i.e. readers or audiences,
Audiences themselves can help to construct genres. interpret texts similarly due to
their shared social and cultural
The rise of digital platforms means new genres are created but these new genres still positions and their experiences.
tend to have their roots in pre-existing genres.

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

Key Terms Rick Altman

Semantics
Rick Altman is another media theorist whose theoretical perspective on genre is
Relates to the branch of useful to study. He stated that:
linguistics concerned with how • A genre can be identified through two different elements: semantic and syntactic.
meanings are created. In a The semantics of a genre are the recognisable elements that place a product in a
study of the media this applies
to the meanings of the words
given genre and communicate meaning to an audience. These are not rigid but
or objects contained within a fluent and changing and may include, for example:
product. • language • stars
Syntactic • visual codes including iconography • ideology.
In linguistics, this refers to the
way in which words are ordered • The syntactic elements are less obvious; they give the audience a range of physical
in a sentence in order to create pleasures including emotional, visceral and intellectual. They may also link the
meaning. When applying this semantic elements and the narrative structure of the product.
to media products, it refers to
the structure of the product • Altman extended his theory to include pragmatic elements of genre. This refers
and how the construction of to the way in which institutions use genres and the relationship between genres
the semantic elements in any and the audience. For example, film companies will produce films from a range
given genre create meanings. of genres in one year but they will also be aware of rising and falling trends.
Pragmatics According to www.the-numbers.com from 1995–2023 the adventure and action film
Relating to practical genres controlled 26.27% and 21.94% of the market share respectively compared
considerations, for example
with the romantic comedy genre at 4.41%. Audiences will respond to genres
the importance of the generic
elements of a media product in differently and may also recreate their own genres. YouTube is full of recut versions
its marketing. of existing media products made by fans of a specific genre.

Key Figure Theoretical Framework: Narratology

Rick Altman
A Professor of Cinema and
From your Year 1 studies you will remember that all media products have a
Comparative Literature at the narrative, which is a structure that conveys meaning and is recognisable to
University of Iowa, USA. He has an audience. Narratology is a term used to describe the study of narrative in
written widely on genre theory media products and as such is an integral element of media language and the
and narrative. theoretical framework with which you must be familiar. All media products place
events or textual features in a particular order; in this way they construct meaning.

Tip In Year 1 of the course you will have studied Tzvetan Todorov, and applied his
theory to set products. You will be required to develop your understanding of this
A useful text to broaden your
theoretical perspective further and apply it to the products studied in Year 2. You
understanding of genre is The
Television Genre Book, edited will recall that the main elements of this theory you must study are:
by Glen Greeber, BFI, 2015 (3rd • the idea that all narratives share a basic structure that involves a movement
edition). from one state of equilibrium to another
• the idea that these two states of equilibrium are separated by a period of
imbalance or disequilibrium
Quickfire 1.14
• the idea that the way in which narratives are resolved can have particular
How does the repertoire of ideological significance.
elements of a particular genre
help in the marketing of a
product? Many media products use a range of different narrative techniques to hold the attention
of an evermore demanding audience. In audio-visual products these may include:
• The manipulation of time and space: television programmes, films and music
Link
videos frequently challenge their audiences by moving the action between different
You will find a diagrammatic timeframes. Whereas in the past the audience would be shown the time change
explanation of Todorov’s through a range of what now seems outdated devices, including the hands of a clock
narrative theory in the Year 1
moving backwards or the use of sepia, now the sophistication of the audience is such
book, page 24.
that they are expected to work this out for themselves.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

• Three-strand narratives: a common formulaic structure used in TV dramas.

Rapid Recall 1.12
• Flexi-narratives: interweave and are more complex and challenging for the audience.
Todorov’s theory is based on
the idea of texts having a linear
Narrative Conventions in Audio-Visual Products narrative. What does this mean?

As you will remember, narratives are constructed through the use of specific
conventions which are used to convey meanings to the audience and progress the
storyline. These include: Stretch and
• flashbacks to move the narrative in time and space and to provide additional Challenge 1.3
information Consider how time and space
• point-of-view shots to position the audience is manipulated in one of the
set products you have studied
• apparently impossible positions, which enhance the viewing experience by and the effect this has on the
showing the audience action from an unusual/impossible position narrative.
• privileged spectator position, giving the audience additional information through a
specific shot, thus involving them more closely in the narrative
• voiceovers, which are used to supplement on-screen action Narrative Revision:
• enigma codes, restricting the narrative to create tension and anticipation in the Key terms checklist
audience You need to be confident
• action codes, which advance the narrative and create audience expectation of in using the following key
terms related to the study of
what will follow.
narrative:

Narrative Conventions in Print Products • linear

• non-linear
For media producers, narrative conventions are ways of organising random items of • restricted
information into a structure that will make sense for the audience. As such, narrative • unrestricted
is important in creating meaning, and the way in which the narrative in a particular
• diegetic world
media form is constructed will affect how audiences respond. This is true in the case
• self-contained narrative
of print forms, for example magazines and newspapers, where the producers are not
• equilibrium/disequilibrium
dealing with a straightforward narrative as might be the case with a film or television
• narrative arcs.
programme.
With regards to a newspaper, the main story can often be a big event that has
happened far away, for example a war or a natural disaster. The job of the journalist
Quickfire 1.15
is to create a narrative around the event that will make it relatable to the target
audience. This is often achieved through a focus on specific people (personalisation) What elements make up
or specific details that make the story seem more real to the reader. This gives the the narrative structure of a
magazine?
audience points of reference which they can relate to their own lives and experiences.
Other elements, for example photographs, can function as mini narratives
communicating aspects of a bigger story. The narrative of a front-page newspaper News photograph
story is therefore constructed and creates meaning through the use of headlines, documenting the events in
copy, photographs and captions. Ukraine.

The war in Ukraine in 2022 was a continuing news story, therefore 1.15 Alamy hi res to follow
using images to construct mini narratives helped to keep the
focus specifically on the plight of the residents of the Ukrainian
cities under bombardment. This news image of a soldier kissing
a young woman was selected to personalise the distant war
and make it more relatable to audiences, giving them a point of
reference that is universal – the relationship between two people.
The code of clothing of the soldier’s uniform and her civilian
dress emphasises the situation in Kyiv. Enigmas are established
regarding who they are and where they are going and the
audience is positioned to feel empathetic to their situation.

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This example illustrates that the way in which the narrative is constructed in a media
Quickfire 1.16
product, for example a newspaper, can also influence how the audience responds
How do news photographs to the event. The narrative may contain points of view and bias, suggesting how
construct a narrative for the the audience may view the event or which side to take and may reflect the ideology
reader?
of the product’s creators. The headlines and photographs will have been carefully
chosen to position the audience emotionally. These choices about how to construct
the narrative therefore limit the range of responses an audience may have.
Stretch and
Challenge 1.4 Other narrative conventions used in print products include:
• taglines on a film poster, which give clues to the film’s narrative
Look at a range of front pages of
newspapers and consider how • headlines, which can be dramatic or informative in the way in which they
they have created a narrative for communicate narrative information. They may also reflect a point of view
their lead news story.
• cover lines on magazines, which create mini narratives and contain enigmas to
entice readers to buy the product
• images and captions, which also develop the narrative, as illustrated in the
Key Figure example of the news photograph on the previous page. Consider what caption
Vladimir Propp may have accompanied this image to anchor the narrative
Russian structuralist theorist • language and mode of address communicate information and may give clues to
who conducted research into the genre of the product
fairy stories, establishing the
range of character types found • enigma codes, including teasers on film posters and DVD covers, which restrict the
in them and their role in the narrative information to attract an audience.
narrative. He discussed his
findings in his 1920 book The
Morphology of the Folk Tale. Additional Theories: Vladimir Propp
While Todorov’s theoretical perspective largely relates to how the narrative
progresses through chronological action, other theories consider different aspects
Key Terms
of narratology. Vladimir Propp was a theorist who studied the importance of
Character typology character in narrative. He used character typology to divide characters into
A system that defines the different groups with differing characteristics and functions within the narrative.
characteristics of different types
of people or characters across a
range of different narratives, for Propp’s research and subsequent theories are trans-historical and while his
example the hero and the villain. original focus was folk and fairy tales, his ideas can be transferred to more modern
Trans-historical media products, including films and television programmes that reflect a more
While some ideas and beliefs are contemporary context. The ideas themselves, however, do not change. He divided
initially relevant to a particular characters into eight key roles and 31 functions.
time period, certain ideas
embody universal truths that cut Proppian character roles:
across different time periods and
forms of expression. • the hero
• the villain
• the donor: helps the hero by providing a gift with magical properties
• the dispatcher: sends the hero on a quest
• the false hero: appears heroic but turns out not to be
• the helper: supports the hero in his quest
• the princess: the reward or prize for the hero
• the princess’ father.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

Proppian character functions are chronological events related to characters that

Key Term
drive the narrative, for example:
Character functions
1. A command not to do something is addressed to the hero.
Refers to the structural reason
2. This command is ignored. the character is in the narrative.
All characters have a key role to
3. The hero is tested/attacked and receives a magical agent as a result. play in extending the plot.
4. The hero uses the magical gift.
5. The hero and villain join in direct combat.
Quickfire 1.17
6. The villain is defeated by a range of different means.
Which of the Proppian
7. The false hero is exposed. character roles may be difficult
8. The villain is punished. to apply to more modern
media products?
9. The hero is married, attaining his prize of the princess.
In character-driven narrative theory the idea is that characters influence a narrative
through cause and effect, the narrative progresses as a result of their actions. All Tip
characters have motives, which are revealed during the course of the storyline; the
narrative is driven through their need to achieve their goals. This may mean that Although Propp is not a ‘Named
Theorist’, his theory may be
characters then come into conflict with one another; this is another important element of
usefully applied to some of the
narrative structure. products you study and may
therefore enhance your analysis
and understanding.
Theoretical Framework: Postmodernism
This is one of the more demanding theories you will study in Year 2 of the course.
You will be required to develop your understanding of postmodernism and
Tip
apply it to the products you studied in Year 1 and those you will study in Year 2. It is not possible to apply
Postmodernism is only assessed in relation to the Component 2 products. The main Propp’s theory to all media
elements of the theory are: products and you should not
try to do so, it is more useful to
• the idea that in a postmodern culture the boundaries between the ‘real’ world some than others.
and the world of the media have collapsed and that it is no longer possible to
distinguish between reality and simulation
• the idea that in a postmodern age of simulacra we are immersed in a world of
Key Terms
images that no longer refer to anything ‘real’
• the idea that media images have come to seem more ‘real’ than the reality Simulacra
Postmodern concepts used
they are supposed to represent (hyperreality).
to describe signs that simply
refer to another sign rather
Key points related to postmodernism: than anything ‘real’. Simulacra
are commonly understood as
• Postmodernism focuses on the idea that the media no longer holds a mirror up to copies of copies. The singular is
or manipulates reality, but instead has become that reality and as such is seen to simulacrum.
be the only reality we have. Hyperreality
• The evolvement of postmodernism directly links to the modern consumerist A state or condition in which
culture that celebrates the pursuit of pleasure. images or simulations may be
accepted as ‘real’ as they come
• Postmodernism also relates to technological progress, whereby the mass media to seem more real than reality
have become central to all communication, thus defining what is relevant and itself.
important, for example the top ‘trending’ topics on Twitter and the use of
Instagram to capture and share transient moments instantly. The internet, it could
be said, is the ultimate postmodern form, lacking any sort of structure and offering
a series of erratic, fragmented pages which may or may not have any meaning
related to what we are looking for.

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

• Postmodernism as a theoretical perspective has progressed from theories such

as those of Lévi-Strauss, which were focused on the idea that texts have a clear
and formulaic structure. Postmodernism relates to a more collage-bricolage-like
approach, postmodern texts deliberately play with meaning and use intertextuality.
• Postmodern texts are concerned with identity. This relates to Gauntlett’s idea that
we now have a range of different ‘models’ from which we can create our identities.
• Traditional references to identity anchored in ‘the real’, for example the family,
class and community, are being eroded and replaced by hyperreality in the media.
• Postmodernism is concerned with the creation of a hyperreality where something
fake and artificial becomes more definitive than the reality. Baudrillard uses
Disneyland as an example, which in its immersive reality becomes more real than
Stretch and Los Angeles itself and as such masks the reality that surrounds Disneyland, which is
Challenge 1.5 also a simulation in its ideological representation of America.
In order to broaden • Baudrillard asserted that there then becomes an inability to distinguish reality from
your understanding of simulation; this is the case with regard to highly manipulated images of women in
postmodernism as a theoretical adverts and on magazine covers and in the construction of fake news images and
perspective, read the chapter footage. Similarly, fans of soap operas can find it difficult to distinguish between
on postmodernsim in Dominic
the fictional character and the actor playing the character (Baudrillard, 1984).
Strinati’s (1995) book, An
Introduction to Theories of • Strinati (1995), in his discussion of postmodernism, asserts that metanarratives
Popular Culture. are being eroded as time and space become more confused. Modern technology
has created a shrunken world. This was predicted by Marshall McLuhan in the
1960s, before the arrival of the internet, in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962).
Key Terms McLuhan’s theory posed the idea that there are four eras of human history: the
Metanarrative acoustic age, the literary age, the print age and the electronic age that the world
Refers to an accepted account or was then entering. He predicted that the electronic age would be characterised
interpretation of events on which by a group of people brought together by technology, which he called the global
people have come to base their village – this could be understood as being the internet.
beliefs, for example the narratives
associated with historical truths • With the advent of postmodernism, metanarratives were said to be eroded as
and those related to religion. new points of reference became established, largely from the media and popular
It is a term used for ‘any theory culture. Postmodernism cannot, by its very definition, be explained by universal
claiming to provide universal theories related to, for example, religion, history and science.
explanations and to be
universally valid’ (Sim, 2011). • A key word related to Baudrillard’s postmodern theory is simulacrum, which refers to
Global village the construction of signs that then masquerade as reality. This is evident in the media,
This phrase was coined by for example the way in which virtual reality computer games manipulate time and
Marshall McLuhan and refers space and create believably real worlds for the players.
to the metaphoric shrinking of
• Postmodernism includes borrowing from other elements of popular culture in
the world due to advances in
technology. order to make something seemingly new and more ‘real’. Intertextuality is often a
key element of postmodern texts.

Advances in technology have

enabled virtual reality computer
games to create immersive
worlds that appear real.

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

Applying Postmodernist Theory to Media Products

Postmodernism is evident across all media forms and products, and you will be
required to apply this theoretical perspective and Baudrillard’s specific theory
to some of the set products you have studied for Component 2. It may also be
appropriately applied to the unseen Component 1 products.
Television: this media form has become increasingly postmodern as it adopts a more
playful and experimental approach to genre. One of the optional set products for
Component 2 is Black Mirror, which contains postmodern elements as it blurs the
boundaries between simulation and reality.
Although postmodernism is not one of the theories you are specifically required to
study for Component 1, you may find it useful for exploring the way in which music
videos, advertisements and video games create meanings and audience pleasures.
Advertising: this form is arguably most postmodern in its approach. A lot of adverts
are now less focused on selling the actual product and more about constructing a
visual experience for the audience in order to sell the product. Adverts very self-
consciously use references from popular culture or will critique and parody existing
media products. It is also true that contemporary advertising constructs a cultural
representation within the advert rather than focusing on the product as it would
appear in the real world. Adverts for beauty products construct a hyperreality centred
on the ideology of beauty; the construction does not bear a resemblance to real life
due to the use of post-production techniques.
The Guinness advert (2017), The Compton Cowboys, part of the Made of More series,
demonstrates postmodern elements in its construction. The actual product does not
Quickfire 1.18
feature in the advert and the only branding evident is the harp logo shown in the
opening. While the advert uses references to popular culture through the focus on Watch The Compton Cowboys
the riders of south central Los Angeles, there are also intertextual references to the Guiness advertisment
here: www.youtube.com/
western film and the documentary genre.
watch?v=ZRr-hE9TMdo.
As with other postmodern texts, the focus of the advert is on the emotional and How does the advertisement
symbolic meaning and is not directly related to the product. This conforms to the reflect the postmodern
approach?
idea that we are now a culture more concerned with superficiality.
Music videos: mix styles and genres in very obvious ways and incorporate collage,
pastiche and intertextual references. While in the past the expectation would be that
Stretch and
music videos would interpret the song lyrics in an often straightforward way, now an
Challenge 1.6
increasing number of music videos are more experimental, complex and challenging
as a postmodern form. Engage in independent
research into further examples
Video games: offer a hyper-real experience first hand due to the interactive nature of postmodern adverts.
of the form. This has led to a moral panic in some areas of the media regarding the
possible effect of video games on the behaviour of the players who are said to be
unable to divorce the reality of the game from their own real lives.
Quickfire 1.19
Online media: the creators of blogs and vlogs create seemingly realistic worlds and
invite the audience to become part of that hyperreality. They construct identities for How do video games and
themselves that are then ‘sold’ to audiences who may want to emulate the bloggers online sites illustrate elements
of a postmodern theoretical
and use them as role models. perspective?

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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

Applying Theory: Media Language

The grid below summarises the main theories and theoretical perspectives that must
be studied over Components 1 and 2. The key elements related to each theory have
been outlined above and will also be referred to in the chapters specifically dealing
with each component and their forms and products. Although you may also study
and show your knowledge and understanding of other relevant theories, the ones set
out below must be studied in relation to the areas of the specification indicated.

Tip Theory/theoretical Component 1 Component 2

Although postmodernism approach forms forms/products
as a theoretical perspective
is only required to be
Semiotics, including Advertising and Magazines: both
studied in specific areas of Roland Barthes marketing products
Component 2, your knowledge Music video Online: both products
and understanding can be
transferred to other set Newspapers
products and the unseen
products. Genre theory, including Television: both products
Steve Neale

Structuralism, including Advertising and Television: both products

Claude Lévi-Strauss marketing Magazines: both
Music video products
Newspapers Online: both products

Narratology, including Television: both products

Tzvetan Todorov

Postmodernism, Television:
including Jean Peaky Blinders
Baudrillard
or
Black Mirror
or
Killing Eve
Online: both products

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 1 Applying the Media Studies Framework

The Specification: Key Statements Rapid Recall 1.13

For each of the key areas of the theoretical framework – Media Language, How does the television
Representation, Media Industries and Audiences – there is a set of statements in the product you studied in Year 1
demonstrate hybridity?
specification that must be used as the basis of your studies. These statements will be
used to formulate the assessment for each of the areas of the specification. It is therefore
important that you are aware of them, their meaning and how they can be applied to the
set products. They can also be used as a basis for questions related to the sections of
the examination papers. The grid below shows the statements for Media Language and
explains their meaning and the forms and examination components to which they relate.

Key statement: Component 1 Component 2 Explanation

Media Language Media forms Media forms
How the Advertising Television Different media forms will communicate meanings in different
different modes and Magazines ways through aspects of media language. This will include
and language marketing technical, audio and visual codes, language and mode of
Online
associated Music video address. This statement also links to theoretical perspectives
with different including Barthes (semiology) and Lévi-Strauss (structuralism).
Newspapers
media forms Media products are constructed using signs and codes, and as
communicate such are polysemic and include a range of meanings that will be
multiple meanings interpreted differently by audiences.
The modes and language will differ according to the media product.
How the Advertising Television Producers make choices and select elements of media language
combination and Magazines in order to communicate meanings. For example, the decisions
of elements of marketing a newspaper may make regarding what to put on its front
Online
media language Music video page, including images, headlines and captions, and how these
influence meaning may influence the readers. This statement also refers to the
Newspapers
paradigmatic choices made by the creators of the products that
will affect the meaning; for example, in an advert, the choice
made about colour, font style and shot type. The syntagmatic
choices regarding how the product, for example a film poster, is
constructed will also affect the meaning.
How developing Music video Online This refers to the technological developments related to specific
technologies Newspapers media forms and how these affect the meaning of the product.
affect media Developing technologies have allowed newspaper websites
language to combine elements of media language including audio-
visual, images and text to construct meaning while computer-
generated imagery (CGI) and other evolving technologies are
used in music videos to enhance production. Developments in
technology have also meant that there are greater opportunities
for interactivity and consequently the relationship between the
product and the audience has changed.
The codes and Advertising Television This refers to the codes and conventions that place a product in
conventions of and Magazines a specific genre and that are common to particular media forms.
media forms and marketing This includes visual, technical and audio codes, iconography,
Online
products, including Music video narrative and characters. These conventions are common to all
the processes examples in a particular form, for example most television crime
Newspapers
through which drama contains certain characters and has an expected narrative
media language structure. Audiences become familiar with genre conventions,
develops as a and producers will use this to market new products and to create
genre audience expectation.
(continued)
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 Media Studies for A Level Year 2 & A2

Key statement: Component 1 Component 2 Explanation

Media Language Media forms Media forms
The dynamic and Component 2 Television This is the idea that genres are constantly changing and evolving
historically relative only Magazines over time, reflecting historical and sociological changes. New
nature of genre genres appear and hybrid genres are created to address the
needs of audiences and reflect changes in society. The popularity
of genres also reflects society at the time. During the lockdown
in 2021, according to a Vodafone poll, Peaky Blinders, Downton
Abbey, Only Fools and Horses and Friends were in the top
ten programmes watched, suggesting that audiences wanted
escapism and comedy at this time. Genres are also important to
industries in terms of marketing, playing on audience expectations.
Theorists, including Steve Neale, suggested that genres were
concerned with ‘repetition and difference’ – audiences need to
recognise the genre’s codes and conventions but also expect the
product to offer something different.
The processes Advertising Television Media producers use elements of media language to
through which and communicate meanings through references to other texts that
meanings are marketing are recognisable to audiences.
established Music videos For example, Janelle Monáe’s music video for Turntables makes
through several intertextual references to communicate their message
Newspapers
intertextuality about social inequality, including news footage, documentaries,
American icons, cultural codes and the protest song. Audiences
will interpret this product on different levels according to their
understanding of these references.
How audiences Advertising Television How media products are constructed will affect how an audience
respond to and and Magazines responds to them. As stated above, media products are polysemic
interpret the marketing and will communicate more than one meaning and have more
Online
above aspects of Music videos than one audience interpretation. This will also be affected by
media language aspects of the audience themselves, e.g. their ideology.
Newspapers
How genre Component 2 Television Genre conventions, particularly with regard to television and
conventions only Magazines magazines, will evolve and reflect changes in society. This is
are socially evident, e.g., in the way in which gender is represented in
and historically magazines and how that reflects the issues and concerns related
relative, dynamic to the time in which the products were created.
and can be used It is also the case that, in an attempt to attract audiences, hybrid
in a hybrid way genres are created which include elements of more than one
genre, which, when combined, produce something new and
innovative. According to Neale (1980), contemporary genres are
examples of ‘repetition and difference’ – audiences need to be
confident in the familiar while also being offered something new
and exciting this may be relevant to the television set products.
The significance Component 2 Television This statement is very relevant to the television set products
of challenging only in Component 2. The producers of media products will often
and/or subverting challenge or subvert more typical genre conventions in order to
genre conventions produce something new that may appeal to a broader audience.
An example is the episode of Black Mirror, ‘San Junipero’, which is
a hybrid genre combining elements of sci-fi and romance. It is also
a period piece as the plot takes place in the 1980s and 1990s.
(continued)

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