Magnetic dipoles: Self Inductance:

A current loop creates a magnetic dipole µ

~ = IA~ where A changing current i in any circuit generates a chang-
~ is a vector normal to
I is the current in the loop and A ing magnetic field that induces an EMF in the circuit:
the plane of the loop and equal to the area of the loop.
The torque on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is di
E = −L
dt
~τ = µ ~
~ ×B
where L is the self inductance of the circuit
Biot-Savart Law:
The magnetic field dB~ produced at point P by a dif- ΦB
L=N
~
ferential segment dl carrying current I is i
For example, for a solenoid of N turns, length l, area A,
~
~ = µ0 I dl × r̂
dB Ampère’s law gives B = µ0 (N/l)i, so the flux is ΦB =
4π r2 µ0 (N/l)iA, and so
where r̂ points from the segment d~l to the point P . N2
L = µ0 A
Magnetic field produced by a moving charge: l
Similarly, the magnetic field produced at a point P by
a moving charge is

~ = µ0 q ~v × r̂
B
4π r2 Capacitance:
A capacitor is any pair of conductors separated by an
Ampère’s Law: (without displacement current) insulating material. When the conductors have equal and
I opposite charges Q and the potential difference between
~ · d~l = µ0 Iencl
B the two conductors is Vab , then the definition of the ca-
pacitance of the two conductors is
Faraday’s Law:
Q
The EMF produced in a closed loop depends on the C=
change of the magnetic flux through the loop Vab

dΦB The energy stored in the electric field is

E =−
dt 1
U= CV 2
2
When an EMF is produced by a changing magnetic flux If the capacitor is made from parallel plates of area A
~ such
there is an induced, nonconservative, electric field E separated by a distance d, where the size of the plates is
that much greater than d, then the capacitance is given by
I Z
~ · dl~ = − d
E ~ · dA
B ~ C = ²0 A/d
dt A
Capacitors in series:
Mutual Inductance:
When a changing current i1 in circuit 1 causes a chang- 1 1 1
ing magnetic flux in circuit 2, and vice-versa, the induced = + + ...
Ceq C1 C2
EMF in the circuits is
di1 di2 Capacitors in parallel:
E2 = −M and E1 = −M
dt dt Ceq = C1 + C2 + ...
where M is the mutual inductance of the two loops
If a dielectric material is inserted, then the capacitance
N2 ΦB2 N1 ΦB1 increases by a factor of K where K is the dielectric con-
M= = stant of the material
i1 i1
where Ni is the number of loops in circuit i. C = KC0
 Current:
When current flows in a conductor, we define the cur- Force on a charge:
rent as the rate at which charge passes: ~ exerts a force F~ on a charge q given
An electric field E
dQ by:
I=
dt F~ = q E
~
We define the current density as the current per unit area,
and can relate it to the drift velocity of charge carriers
by Coulomb’s law:
A point charge q located at the coordinate origin gives
J~ = nq~vd ~ given by
rise to an electric field E

~ = q
where n is the number density of charges and q is the E r̂
charge of one charge carrier. 4π²0 r2
where r is the distance from the origin (spherical coor-
dinate), r̂ is the spherical unit vector, and ²0 is the per-
Ohm’s Law and Resistance: mittivity of free space:
Ohm’s Law states that a current density J in a material
is proportional to the electric field E. The ratio ρ = E/J ²0 = 8.8542 × 10−12 C2 /(N · m2 )
is called the resistivity of the material. For a conductor
Superposition:
with cylindrical cross section, with area A and length L, The principle of superposition of electric fields states
the resistance R of the conductor is ~ of any combination of charges
that the electric field E
ρL is the vector sum of the fields caused by the individual
R= charges
A
X
A current I flowing through the resistor R produces a ~ =
E ~i
E
potential difference V given by i

V = IR To calculate the electric field caused by a continuous dis-

tribution of charge, divide the distribution into small el-
Resistors in series: ements and integrate all these elements:
Z Z
Req = R1 + R2 + ... ~ = dE ~ = dq
E 2
r̂
q 4π² 0r
Resistors in parallel:
1 1 1 Electric flux:
= + + ...
Req R1 R2 Electric flux is a measure of the “flow” of electric field
through a surface. It is equal to the product of the
area element and the perpendicular component of E ~ in-
Power: tegrated over a surface:
The power transferred to a component in a circuit by
Z Z Z
a current I is
ΦE = E cos φ dA = E ~ · n̂ dA = E ~ · dA~
P =VI
~ to the sur-
where φ is the angle from the electric field E
where V is the potential difference across the component. face normal n̂.
Kirchhoff ’s rules: Gauss’ Law:
The algebraic sum of the currents into any junction Gauss’ law states that the total electric flux through
must be zero: any closed surface is determined by the charge enclosed
X by that surface:
I=0
I
ΦE = E ~ = Qencl
~ · dA
The algebraic sum of the potential differences around ²0
any loop must be zero.
X
V =0
 Electrostatics

Force on a point charge q inside a static elec- Electric field - scalar potential relationship
tric field
F = qE Z P2
E = −∇V or V 2 − V1 = − E · dl
P1
Gauss’s law
I Electric potential due to a point charge
D · dS = Q or ∇·D=ρ (with infinity chosen as the reference)
S
q
Electrostatic fields are conservative V =
4π0 |R − Ri |
I
∇×E=0 or E · dl = 0 Poisson’s equation
C
ρ
Electric field produced by a point charge q ∇2 V = −
in free space 

q (R − Ri ) Constitutive relationship in dielectric mate-

E= rials
4π0 |R − Ri |3
D = 0 E + P
Electric field produced by a volume charge
distribution
where P is the polarization.
ρv dV 0
Z
1
E= R̂0 P = 0 χe E
4π V0 R02
Electric field produced by a surface charge Electrostatic energy density
distribution
1
we = E 2
2
ρs ds0
Z
1
E= R̂0
4π S0 R02 Boundary conditions
Electric field produced by a line charge dis- E1t = E2t or n̂ × (E1 − E2 ) = 0
tribution

ρl dl0
Z
1
E= R̂0 D1n − D2n = ρs or n̂ · (D1 − D2 ) = ρs
4π l0 R02

Electric field produced by an infinite sheet Ohm’s law

of charge J = σE

ρs Conductivity
E = ẑ
2 σ = ρv µ
Electric field produced by an infinite line of where µ stands for charge mobility.
charge Joule’s law

D Dr ρl
Z
E= = r̂ = r̂ P = E · J dv
  2πr
 Magnetostatics:

Force on a moving charge q inside a magnetic Magnetic field intensity produced by an in-
field finitesimally small current element (Biot-
F = qu × B Savart law)

Force on an infinitesimally small current el- I dl × R̂

ement Idl inside a magnetic field dH =
4π R2
dFm = Idl × B Magnetic field produced by an infinitely long
wire of current in the z-direction
Torque on a N -turn loop carrying current I
inside a uniform magnetic field I
H = φ̂
2πr
T=m×B
Magnetic field produced by a circular loop
where m = n̂N IA. of current in the φ-direction

Gauss’s law for magnetism Ia2

H = ẑ
I 2(a2 + z 2 )3/2
∇ · B = 0 or B · dS = 0
S Constitutive relationship in magnetic mate-
rials
Ampere’s law
I
B = µ0 H + µ0 M
∇×H=J or H · dl = I
C
Magnetization
Magnetic flux density — magnetic vector
potential relationship M = χm H
B=∇×A
Boundary conditions

Magnetic potential produced by a current

distribution
B1n = B2n or n̂ · (B1 − B2 ) = 0
Z
µ J
A= dV 0
4π V0 R0
Vector Poisson’s Equation H1t − H2t = Js or n̂ × (H1 − H2 ) = Js

∇2 A = −µJ Magnetostatic energy density

1
wm = µH 2
2
 Constants

Differential operations:
Gradient of a scalar field: The vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of a scalar as the gradient of that scalar.
Measures the rate and direction of change in a scalar field. Maps scalar fields to vector fields.

Divergence of the vector field: the divergence of a vector field A at a point, abbreviated div A, as
the net outward flux of A per unit volume as the volume about the point tends to zero:
Measures the scalar of a source or sink at a given point in a vector field. Maps vector fields to
scalar fields.

Curl of a vector field: The curl of u vector field A, denoted by Curl A , is a vector whose
magnitude is the maximum net circulation of A per unit urea as the area tends to zero and whose
direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is oriented to make the net circulation
maximum.
Measures the tendency to rotate about a point in a vector field. Maps vector fields to
(pseudo)vector fields.

Divergence theorem: The volume integral of divergence of a vector field equals the total outward
flux of the vector through the surface that bounds the volume.

Stoke theorem: The surface integral of the curl of vector field over an open surface is equal to the
closed line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the surface.
Gradient, Divergence, Curl and Laplacian Opera ors
 Electromagnetic wave propagation
×H= J+ D= E
×E = - =
B= H
.D=ρ J=σ =
. =

=- = / ; E.H = 0 E ⊥ H in UPW

For loss less medium -ρ E=0 ρ= ω (σ + ω ) = α + jβ.

α=ω 1+ 1

β= ω 1+ +1

E(z, t) = e cos(ωt – βz) ; = /η.

η= |η | <
/
|η| = / tan 2 = σ/ω .

η= α + jβ α → attenuation constant → Neper /m . | N | = 20 log = 8.686 dB

For loss less medium σ = 0; α = 0.
β → phase shift/length ; = ω / β ; λ = 2π/β .
= = σ / ω = tan → loss tanjent =2
If tan is very small (σ < < ω ) → good (lossless) dielectric
If tan is very large (σ >> ω ) → good conductor
Complex permittivity = 1 = -j .
Tan = = .

Plane wave in loss less dielectric :- ( σ ≈ 0)

α=0;β=ω ω= λ = 2π/β η= / ∠ .
E & H are in phase in lossless dielectric
Free space :- (σ = 0, = , = )
α=0,β=ω ; u = 1/ , λ = 2π/β η= / < = 12 π ∠
Here also E & H in phase .
Good Conductor :-
σ >>ω σ/ω → ∞ ⇒ σ = ∞ = =

α = β = π σ ; u = 2ω/ σ ; λ = 2π / β ; η = ∠
Skin depth δ = 1/α
η= 2e / =

Skin resistance R = =
.
R =
R = .
Poynting Vector :-
( ) ds = - [ + ] dv – σ dv
S v
δ (z) = e cos a
| |
Total time avge power crossing given area = (s) ds
S
Direction of propagation :- ( )
a ×a =a
a ×a =a
→ Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
→ Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
Reflection of plane wave :-
(a) Normal incidence
Reflection coefficient Γ = =
coefficient Τ = =

Medium-I Dielectric , Medium-2 Conductor :-

> :-
Γ there is a standing wave in medium wave in medium ‘2’.
Max values of | | occurs
= - nπ/β = n = 1 2….
( ) ( )
= =
( ) ( ) ( )
< :- occurs @ β = ⇒ = =

β = nπ ⇒ = =
min occurs when there is |t |max
| | | | | |
S=| | = | | = | |;|Γ|=
Since |Γ| < 1 ⇒ 1 ≤ δ ≤ ∞

Transmission Lines
Supports only TEM mode
LC = ; G/C = σ / .
-r =0; -r =0
Γ = (R + ω )( + ωC) = α + jβ
V(z, t) = e cos (ωt- βz) + e cos (ωt + βz)
= = = =

Lossless Line : (R = 0 =G; σ = 0)

→ γ = α + jβ = jω C α = β = w C λ = 1/ C , u = 1/ C
= /C

Distortion less :(R/L = G/C)

→α= R β=ω = ωC =ω C

→ = = λ = 1/ C; u= = ;u = 1/C , u / = 1/L
 i/p impedance :-
= for lossless line γ = jβ ⇒ tan hjβl = j tan βl
=

VSWR = Γ =
CSWR = - Γ
Transmission coefficient S = 1 + Γ
| |
SWR = = = | | = =
( > ) ( < )
| | = =S
| | = = /S

Shorted line :- Γ = -1 , S = ∞ = =j tan βl

Γ = -1 , S = ∞ = =j tan βl.

may be inductive or capacitive based on length ‘0’

If l < λ / 4 → inductive ( +ve)

< l < λ/2 → capacitive ( -ve)

Open circuited line :-

= = -j cot βl
Γ =1 s=∞ l < λ / 4 capacitive
< l < λ/2 inductive
=

Matched line : ( = )
= Γ = 0 ; s =1
No reflection . Total wave . So, max power transfer possible .

Behaviour of Transmission Line for Different lengths :-

l = λ /4 → → impedance inverter @ l = λ /4

l = λ /2 : = ⇒ impedance reflector @ l = λ /2
 Wave Guides
TM modes : ( = )
= sin x sin ye

h =k +k ∴γ= + ω where k = ω
m→ no. of half cycle variation in X-direction
n→ no. of half cycle variation in Y- direction .

Cut off frequency ω = + γ = 0; α = 0 = β

k < + → Evanscent mode ; γ = α ; β = 0

k > + → Propegation mode γ = β α =

β= k

= + u = phase velocity = is lossless dielectric medium

λ =u/ =
( ) ( )

β=β 1 β = ω/ W β = phase constant in dielectric medium.

u = ω/β λ = 2π/β = u /f → phase velocity & wave length in side wave guide

η = =- = = 1

η =η 1 η → impedance of UPW in medium

TE Modes :- ( = 0)

= cos cos e

→η = = η / 1

→ η >η

Dominant mode

Antennas :
Hertzian Dipole :- = sin e =η

Half wave Dipole :-

= ; =η