Beyond Plastics: Exploring Eco-Friendly Alternatives in Food Packaging - A

Review of Both Biodegradable and Bio-based Bioplastic Materials.

U.G.E.Umayanga1
1`
Department of Materials and Mechanical Technology, Faculty of Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Homagama 10206,
Sri Lanka.

Correspondence E-mail: egt21568@fot.sjp.ac.lk

Abstract

Due to the increased levels of environmental degradation arising from conventional plastics, rise of
appropriate interventions, especially in the food packaging industry. Covering the basics of
conventional plastics, their usage, and potential harm, one must turn their attention to bioplastics.
bioplastics made from renewable sources like starch, cellulose, polylactic acid (PLA), and proteins. This
review provides detailed coverage of the bio-based polymers and bioplastics such as synthetic
bioplastics, polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), PLA, polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), polyvinyl
alcohol (PVOH), polycaprolactone (PCL), and starch-based bioplastics, cellulose-based bioplastics, and
protein-based bioplastics. This allows one understand the various characteristics they possess and how
effective they could be when used in food packaging. Effects on the environment, effectiveness on the
economy, biodegradable ability of the product, and its effects on the environment at different stages of
life, regulatory boundaries, and safety measures are assessed. However; the bioplastics are present
some difficulties in attaining the required mechanical and barrier properties, degradation of the
biodegradable polymers, and limitations in processing. Moreover, correlates that affect the acceptance
of the products by consumers and the position of the role of regulatory frameworks in the use of
bioplastics are presented. According to the review made, it is found out that bioplastics if promoted in
the right way have a high potential to be used as sustainable food packaging material; however, more
research needs to be done, the policies should be more supportive and the consumers need to be
sensitized in order to bring more improvement in the use of bioplastics.

Keywords: Polymer; biopolymer; bioplastic; biodegradable; food packaging; mechanical properties; Sustainability

1. Introduction

Plastic waste is becoming a major environmental threat globally [1]. Carbon emissions from plastics disposed
in landfills are estimated at 253 g CO 2 per kg of plastics [2], [3], while emissions from plastic waste when
burned range between 673 g to 4605 g CO 2 per kg [4]. Another reason is that those cremations use green
houses gases and therefore lead to global warming. It is indicated that even after a century the amount of
degradation of polythene is as low as half a percent. The long periods of degradation and detrimental impacts
on terrestrial and marine ecosystems of conventional plastic materials, which are mostly generated from non-
renewable fossil fuels, make them a chronic source of pollution in the environment [5]. The plastics-heavy
food packaging sector is under growing pressure to switch to more environmentally friendly and sustainable
options [4], [6], [7].
Bioplastics are plastic products that are made from renewable biomass feedstocks like starch, cellulose or
polylactic acid and are therefore being studied as a potential to reduce the problems associated with
conventional plastics [8]. These materials hold several benefits, including low levels of carbon emission when
used compared to conventional materials [9], degradability, and capability to reduce reliance on fossil
resources. Therefore, increased awareness regarding bioplastics is likely to make it a suitable solution for
applications in food packaging [10].

However, in light of recent developments in the issue of bioplastic materials with regards to food packaging,
this review seeks to offer an extensive update on the topic. The different categories of bioplastics that we will
examine include synthetic bioplastics (PBS, PLA, PHA, PVOH, PCL), starch base bioplastics, cellulose base
bioplastics, and protein base bioplastics, which will cover the methods of making bioplastics [8], [11], the
properties and the capability of using these kinds of plastics as food packaging materials. Furthermore, the
review will consider the course and behavior of the said materials such as the barrier properties, mechanical
strengths, and how they tend to behave with food items [12].

Other factors such as environmental and economic impacts will be investigated to determine the sustainability
of food packaging that employs bioplastics. Bio-degradability and comparative assessments with conventional
plastics, as well as life cycle assessments of the product, will be evaluated [13]. Moreover, the review will
focus on some aspects such as the regulation and safety and concern the frameworks that control the
bioplastics in direct relationship with food contact applications.

Although bioplastics have vast potentiality and actuality there exist some issues that need to be solved
including technical problems related to bioplastic production (limited resources, high cost, material properties
etc.) [14] , the performance of bioplastics under various conditions, and accepting the idea of bioplastic use
among the consumers [15]. This review shall describe these challenges and in the subsequent sections discuss
future developments to improve the life cycle of bioplastic food packaging and make the options more
popular.

Bioplastics are divided into three groups such as Bio-based, Biodegradable, and both of Bio-based and
Biodegradable. Bio-based plastic doesn’t necessarily show biodegradability and biodegradable plastic doesn’t
show necessarily show bio-based origin. Therefore bio-based and biodegradable bioplastics are not the same.
Because some bioplastics are bio-based but not biodegradable (bio-PE: monomers are produced from corn but
it not biodegraded) [16].
Figure 01. The classification of Bio plastics, bio-based plastics, biodegradable plastics and, both bio-based and biodegradable
plastic.

In order to achieve this goal, this review discusses the development of both bio-based and biodegradable
bioplastic materials (Starch, Protein, PLA, Cellulose) used in food packaging, their applications in food
industries in current society, as well as the future development of this research field. Thus, we envision
ourselves being able to contribute to the ongoing continuation of the discussion related to more sustainable
forms of packaging for the food industry in particular and to the improvement of the current situation in this
sphere in general.

2. Types of both bio-based and biodegradable bioplastic materials

2.1 Cellulous

Cellulose is a polydisperse linear homopolymer composed of D-glucopyranose units linked with a β-1,4-
glycosidic bond, including free hydroxyl groups (-OH) at the C-2, C-3, and C-6 atoms. Based on the -OH
groups and the oxygen atoms of both the pyranose ring and the glycosidic bond, ordered hydrogen bond
networks can be formed [12].
Cellulose, a natural polymer found in all plants, is one of the most abundant materials on the Earth and has a
great potential to be used in developing new materials. Available in large quantities, cellulose is renewable
and biodegradable as well as cheap [17]. And also, harmless, cheap, green, non-toxic, non-neocarcinogenic,
nonbioaccumulative, and thermally [18]. Thus, it becomes chemically stable and derivable. This is very rich in
fruit and vegetable waste and indeed it contains a higher yield of Carbon dioxide than compost prepared from
other materials [19]. valuable biopolymer. Among the two primary categories of cellulose derivatives, it is the
cellulose ester and cellulose ether that has the most demand in industrial application in the production of pure
cellulose bioplastics which is still rather challenging as far as melting and overall structural complexity of
metals is concerned. It can be dissolved in accordance with standard practices. Mechanical properties, thermal
stability,
that is, biopolymers’ flexible characteristics such as tensile strength, elongation at break, and water absorption
are some of the properties that could be enhanced with the addition of cellulose [12]

figure 02: Chemical structure of cellulose [20]

2.1.1 Characteristics and performance in packaging

Cellulose and its derivatives have been tested for packaging applications [21]. Cellulose composites showed
excellent mechanical properties, reinforcing capabilities, biodegradability, and availability [22]. For instance,
Carrillo et al. prepared the cellulose lyocell fiber/cellulose acetate butyrate composite [23]. They displayed
increased tensile properties, dimensional stability, fiber and matrix compatibility, and biodegradability
[6], [23]
. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) based films fabricated by incorporating bioactive Chinese chives root
extract (CRE) showed higher oil resistance properties in addition to the improved physical and barrier
properties, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity (against B. cereus, S. aureus, E. coli, and S. Typhimurium),
which is desirable for packaging of oil products [21]. Peptidopolysaccharide developed using 2,3-dialdehyde
cellulose and antimicrobial
nisin peptide showed improved mechanical properties, lower water-holding capacity, and excellent
antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. This active film also showed an extended shelf life of
fresh pork meat stored at 4°C for 6 days. In another study, antimicrobial packaging film was prepared using
cellulose acetate butyrate/organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT) incorporated with carvacrol and
cinnamaldehyde [24]. The properties and applications of the films are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Mechanical properties and applications of cellulose-based bioplastics

Types of cellulose properties Packaging applications ref

Carboxymethyl cellulose Higher oil resistance properties, improved Active packaging for sunflower oil [25]
(CMC)/Chinese chives root physical and barrier properties, antioxidant and
extract (CRE) antimicrobial activity against both Gram-
positive (B. cereus and S. aureus) and Gram-
negative (E. coli and S. typhimurium)
 A 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl piperidine- Flexible and highly transparent, higher YM Biodegradable packaging [26]
1- oxy radical (TEMPO)- (about 10 GPa) and lower elongation (about
oxidized cellulose nanofibrils 5.1%) than those of the TOCN-COONa, lower
with free carboxyl groups oxygen permeability (0.049mL μmm−2
(TOCN-COOH) prepared from day−1kPa−1) than poly(ethylene terephthalate)
the softwood celluloses films.
2,3-dialdehyde cellulose/nicin Improved mechanical property, lower water Antimicrobial packaging for fresh [27]
holding capacity, WVP, and oxygen pork meat at 4°C.
permeability, Excellent antimicrobial activity
against S. aureus and E. coli.
TEMPO-oxidized cellulose Higher TS (about 200%) and YM (about 100%) High-tech food and Medicinal [28]
nanofibers (TOCN) prepared than cellophane film. PLA film surface-coated packaging material
from the softwood and with TOCN showed reduced oxygen
hardwood celluloses permeability.
Hydroxyethyl cellulose, Exhibited lower water solubility and improved Composite film for food packaging [29]
carboxymethyl chitosan and zinc elasticity, thermal stability, UV shielding
oxide NPs ability, antibacterial ability against Listeria
monocytogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
and improved crystallinity.
Chitosan/bacterial cellulose Excellent barrier properties, hydrophobicity, Biodegradable food packaging for [30]
composite with curcumin mechanical, and antioxidant properties. strawberry and edible oil.
Cellulose acetate films with Antimicrobial activity against bacteria, Food packaging
geranyl acetate (0.5% v/v and Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and
1.0% v/v) against fungi Aspergillus flavus.
1)
Water Vapour Permeability-WVP; Young’s modulus – YM;

2.1.2 Environmental impact and biodegradability

Cellulose is derived from plants, making it a renewable source. Unlike fossil-based plastics. Therefore
cellulose-based plastic does not deplete non-renewable resources [12]. Bioplastic generally has a lower carbon
footprint than fossil-based plastics, because the use of renewable resources [7]. And also, cellulose base
bioplastics are free from toxic additives and plasticizers. Therefore, it safer both human health and the
environment [31].

In controlled conditions, cellulose-based bioplastics can biodegrade within a few weeks to months [32].
Biodegradation of cellulose-based bioplastics takes place mainly through the action of microbial which
includes bacteria, fungi and other microbes that secrete enzymes that break down cellulose into water, carbon
dioxide biomasses [32], [33]. This phase needs to take place under conditions such as the right temperature,
correct moisture levels, or right microbial activity in the substrates [33]. The optimal conditions are regulated
by industrial composting facilities to ensure that biodegradation takes place at a fast pace but not past the
required time. However, in natural conditions of their existence, for example, in loamy ground or in sea
conditions their maintenance can be different considerably, and, therefore, degradation processes occur at
different rates and, as a rule, slower. Hence, even though cellulose-based bioplastics yield several benefits of
the environment in which they are discarded controls their biodegradation effectiveness [34].

2.2 Starch
Starch is one of the least expensive biomaterials. Cereals and legumes, such as wheat, rice, barley, oat, corn,
beans, and soy, are also significant sources [35]. It is also abundant, biodegradable, and renewable, and its
possibility of blending with conventional polymers has garnered wide interest in the bioplastic market [36].
Starch-based bioplastics are mixtures of amylose/amylopectin ratios [36], depending on their botanic origin
Starch may have many weaknesses, and plasticizers help maintain their chemical and physical robustness.
Since bioplastic's biodegradability is faster than petroleum-based plastics, their life long has been questioned
many times. They can be an excellent choice for degradation, but wearing them for a long time is not
recommended [37].

Figure 03: chemical structure of starch [38]

2.2.1 functional properties

The fundamental starch structure is amorphous, consisting of amylose and an inter-crystalline zone of dense
cross-branched amylopectin. Such morphology is responsible for the thermal, plasticization, and rheological
properties of the starch [39]. In native starch, amylopectin chain length and chain ramification determine the
granule crystallinity [39]. Starch components along with lipids (amylopectin, amylose) are radially oriented
towards the surface of starch. The native structure of starch is not suitable for industrial applications, because
of its brittle nature and poor mechanical and rheological properties [13], [40].
Plasticizers are substrates with low molecular weight which when introduced into the starch matrices, can
enhance the flexibility and processability of polymeric compounds by decreasing the hydrogen bonding of the
starch-starch molecules [41]. Plasticizers on the other hand can influence the physical properties of the
processed starch by controlling its collapsing rate and depolymerization [39]. The properties and applications
of the films are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Mechanical properties and applications of starch-based bioplastics

Types of starch properties Packaging application Ref

Starch/PBS Excellent elongation at brake, Outstanding bending Food wrap and food containers, [42]
capability grocery bags
(flexural modulus 378.69- 3188.48 MPa), good tensile
properties (tensile strength 11.32 - 18.13 MPa,
Young's/tensile modulus 534.77- 2655.27 MPa)
thermoplastic starch (TPS) Adding starch at 15% yielded good mechanical properties, Food packaging [43]
(ultimate Tensile strength = 12.1 MPa, Elongation @brake
 % = 250%), starch decreased the gloss%
Thermoplastic PVA/starch glycerol and urea as a complex plasticizer for TPPS Biodegradable polymer to replace [44]
blend (TPPS) increased Tensile strength (7.83 MPa) and Elongation @ starch polymers.
brake (203%).
Cassava lower glycerol content presented better tensile and barrier Biodegradable and cheaper food [45]
starch/glycerol/clay properties, and clay NPs diminished the film permeability packaging
nanoparticles (NPs)
Starch/clay Increase of mechanical parameters (stress at peak = 6-22 Edible packaging [46]
(montmorillonite) NPs MPa and Youngs modulus = 450 -1135 MPa)
Carboxymethyl potato The highest tensile strength (160 kPa), Young modulus Edible packaging [47]
starch and citric acid (CA) (650 kPa), and improved thermal stability (increased Tg
(as a crosslinker and 58 °C) were reported with CA at 30 wt%.
plasticizer)
1)
glass transition temperature – Tg; starch and citric acid – CA;

2.2.2 Suitability for food packaging

Starch is derived from renewable resources like corn, potatoes, and other crops, making it a sustainable
option [48]. Starch-based bioplastics are compostable and degrade naturally therefore reducing the
environmental impact compared to conventional plastics [31].
However, starch-based plastics are brittle and therefore hydrophilic, limiting their processing and application
and leading to problems such as lack of water barrier, and poor mechanism properties [49]. Therefore it cannot
be used directly as packaging material [13], [50]. Despite the limitations, starch-based bioplastic is the best
option for food packaging because of its unique characteristics [51].

2.3 protein

Based on the raw materials, the protein bioplastics can be classified in two groups: plant protein biopolymers
and animal-derived protein biopolymers [52]. Food plant proteins include wheat gluten and proteins derived
from soy, pea, corn zein, and cotton seed [53], [54]. Sometimes they include whey, casein, collagen, gelatin
and keratin and others are of animal origin [55], [56]. Since proteins are made from different types of amino
acids, these strong intermolecular forces of proteins come up with positive functional changes in protein-
based bioplastics in as far as their performance is better than that of carbohydrates and lipids [4], [57]. Despite
the fact that they are not very robust, they are thousands of times cheaper than synthetic films and possess an
extraordinary number of advantages, such as richness in proteins, non-ecotoxicity, biodegradability, and high
film-forming ability [55].
 Figure 04: chemical structure of protein [58]

2.3.1 Characterisation of Protein-Based Bioplastics

For any material to be used in an end-product, it has to fulfill certain requirements, depending on the intended
application. Among these requirements, specific values for the mechanical, thermal and/or optical properties
may desired and this suggests the onset of the characterization of these aspects through various experimental
methods. The analytical methods are based on the physical characteristics and for made measurements there
are use physical quantities of macroscopic parameters analysis can be comparable with microscopic or
molecular structure of the evaluated materials [59], [60], [61]. The properties and applications of the films are
presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Mechanical properties and applications of protein-based bioplastics

Types of proteins properties Packaging application ref

Canola protein plasticized by glycerol had TS between 1.19 to [62], [63],
4.31 MPa and E of 41.9% to 287.4%, plasticized [64]
by sorbitol had TS of 1.60 to 3.30 MPa and E of
12% to 21%, Tg of CPI-based film containing
30% glycerol (wt %) -52.7°C.
Soy protein low water resistance, good optical transmittance [65]
of the SPI film (98.90±0.58%), SPI film showed
the lowest water solubility (27.37±0.73), SPI film
TS is (4.093±0.531)
Wheat gluten protein present good barrier properties for oxygen and non-food applications, such as films, [61]
carbon dioxide, generally not water-soluble, s plastics, and adhesives
adhesiveness and cohesiveness
Corn/ zein Protein better barrier to moisture compared to other standalone films in food packaging [66], [67]
proteins and a very good barrier to oxygen,
tensile strength (32–42 MPa)
Barley proteins (hordein) 200 μm thick; resistant to degradation in a gastric Delivery of drugs to the colon [56]
juice environment, but broken down completely
in an intestinal juice environment; low
cytotoxicity to Caco-2 cells
Keratin transparent materials, with proper UV barrier Sponges, films [68]
properties, thermal stability from 50 to 200 C,
and water sensitivity, an additive for synthetic
elastomers, giving rise to materials with good
thermal, mechanical, flame resistant, and thermo-
oxidative properties, Tensile strengths of keratin-
based plastics films generally have a lower
tensile strength value as compared to other
biodegradable plastics such as starch-based and
citric acid cross-linked plastics film.
1)
Tensile Strength – TS; Modulus – E; SPI- soy protein isolate film; Soy protein – SPI;

2.3.2 Environmental impact

Protein-based bioplastics are produced from renewable sources like corn, sugarcane, and other biopolymers
hence avoiding the many natural resources from the fossil chain [60], [69]. Nonetheless, their production and
use affect the conversion of lands to production, deforestation, and competition with other crops that may
influence the population densities and food supply. Further, biopolymer production can also turns out costly
where the biomass feedstock needs a lot of processing in order to produce the desired material [70]. Dramatic
increase cost of energy and demand for it can be offset by the improvement of production technologies and
utilization of renewable energy [14], [71]. Nonetheless, the production of protein-based bioplastics creates, in
general, fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional plastics, mainly on factors of carbon
mitigation in biomass growth [59]. To assess the environmental emissions, it means that lifecycle assessments
(LCAs) are need since other indirect parameters may include agricultural practices, transportation and
manufacturing processes [72].

2.4 Poly (lactic acid) (PLA)

“Cargill Dow’s polylactide (PLA) is a versatile new compostable polymer that is made from 100% renewable
resources like corn, sugar beets or rice” [73]. PLA is formed from a monomer called lactic acid, which has a
molecular formula of 2-hydoxypropionic acid, and basically exists in two types, namely L-lactic acid and D-
lactic acid. PLA is a thermoplastic aliphatic polyester made through the polyesterification of bio-based
feedstocks such as starch and can be assigned a ‘biodegradable’ label due to the presence of hydrolyzable
linkages in its backbone structure [74]. The PLA advantage relies on its mechanical properties that compensate
for its flawed versatility by being akin to petroleum-based plastics such as polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET). Lactic acid is an organic water-soluble acid that is inherent and is synthesized by
chemical synthesis from petrochemical compounds or through fermentation [75]. Lactic acid generation by
fermentation is essentially more sustainable compared to chemical synthesis since it can be derived from
renewable material and uses lesser energy as well as costs less to produce [76]. In the global scenario of PLA
production, it was approximately 180,000 tons in 2012 and it is projected that PLA production should cross a
minimum of 800,000 tons per annum by 2020 [75].
 Figure 05: PLA manufacturing overview [73]

2.4.1 functional properties

The crystallinity of PLA has benefits including improved heat setting, chemical resistance, higher strength in
fibers/non-wovens, heat resistance and stiffness in cutlery, permeability and chemical resistance in films [74]
[77]
. High molecular weight (MW) PLA (Mw > 100,000 D) is generally characterized by high mechanical
strength with a tensile strength in the region of 50-70 MPa which is comparable to nonbiodegradable
conventional plastics [78]. And also, high molecular weight Poly (L-lactide) has a melting point of 180 `C,
while the introduction of meso-lactide depresses the crystalline melting point to 130 `C [79].

2.4.2 Applications

PLA has been commercialized in commodity production for short-life cycle compostable products like semi-
rigid Films, food packaging bags, and containers; most of which are currently in use as containers [75].
Originally the market for PLA was confined to food and packaging applications but often now it is also used
in Electronics, Baseballs, Synthetic fibers, Wrapping films & Tapes, etc. Ingeo™ fibers introduced by Cargill
Dow in 2003 are the first synthetic fibers that are 100% annually renewable and mainly in application on
pillows, mattresses, and or duvet, apparels, floor, wall, and or furniture textiles. PLA also finds its uses in the
cosmetic products industry and is currently being utilized in 3-D printers [80].

2.4.3 Environmental impact and biodegradability

According to Cargill Dow in 2003, the PLA production system uses 25-55% less fossil energy than
petroleum-based polymers [80]. While disposal of PLA products (combustion, composting, etc.) causes carbon
dioxide release to the atmosphere, it can be considered a low-impact greenhouse gas polymer compared to
petrochemical-based polymers [80]. This is because the CO2 generated during PLA biodegradation is
balanced by an equal amount removed from the atmosphere during the growth of the plant feedstocks [73].
PLA greenhouse gas emission rate is about 1600 kg CO2 per metric ton, while polypropylene (PP),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon have greenhouse gas values of 1850, 2740, 4140, and 7150 kg
CO2 per metric ton respectively [81].

In nature, biotic and abiotic factors exist together; therefore, the whole degradation mechanism of a certain
material can be referred to as environmental degradation [82]. The environmental degradation process of PLA
is affected by its material properties such as molecular first-order structure (molecular weight, optical purity)
and higher-order structures (crystallinity, Tg, and Tm), and by environmental factors such as humidity,
temperature, and catalytic species (pH and the presence of enzymes or microorganisms) [83].

When the molecular weight is low (Mw < 100,000 D), PLA is brittle, cloudy, and opaque, while at higher
molecular weights, PLA is stronger, more transparent, and less susceptible to degradation [84]. Crystalline
regions within PLA hydrolyze much more slowly than the amorphous regions as water diffuses more readily
into the less organized amorphous regions compared to the more ordered crystalline regions, causing greater
rates of hydrolysis and increased susceptibility to biodegradation [85], [86], [87] . In semicrystalline PLA,
degradation occurs first in the amorphous regions and more slowly in the crystalline regions. Therefore, with
time, the proportion of the crystalline regions within the PLA increases and the rate of degradation
decreases [88], [89].

The rate of PLA degradation is much greater above the glass transition temperature (Tg, 55-62°C) as polymer
chains become more flexible and water absorption increases, accelerating both hydrolysis and microbial
attachment [90], [91].

3. Regulatory and Safety Considerations

3.1 Current Regulatory Frameworks

3.1.1 FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration)

In the United States, the FDA monitors the materials interacting with food through Title 21 of CFR on Food
and Drugs. Firstly, with the usage of bioplastics for food packaging requires that bioplastics must also adhere
to the FDA food contact substances that requires that bioplastics should undergo a series of tests to ensure
they do not leach into the food [92].

3.1.2 EFSA (European Food Safety Authority)

In Europe, the EFSA assesses the safety of food contact materials The European Food Safety Authority is
responsible for assessing the safety of the Food Contact Material under EU no. 10/2011 on Plastic Material
and article intended to come into contact with food substances. This regulation provides a definition to set up
maximum levels of migration to food substances from the bioplastic to avoid harm to the consumer [93].

3.1.3 Other International Frameworks

Different other countries have their respective standard and regulatory authorities like Health Canada and
from China's National Food Safety Standards (GB standards), and the Food Sanitation Law of Japan. All of
these frameworks ensure food safety compliance for bioplastics meant for food contact purposes [94], [95].

3.1.4 Biodegradability and Compostability Standards

Currently, specification about labeling bioplastics as compostable includes ASTM D6400, which is available
in the USA, and EN 13432 which is from Europe. These standards make sure that when the bioplastics are
disposed, they will biodegrade under Industrial composting conditions and do not have a negative impact
when discarded into the environment [96].

4. Global trends and analysis for the international bioplastic packaging market

In the year 2020, the market was affected due to COVID-19 arising from the outbreak affecting nations
worldwide, which led to the implementation of nationwide lockdowns that disrupted manufacturing processes
and supply chain and production halts. However, the conditions began improving in 2021 to again make the
market grow during the forecast period.

4.1 Current market dynamics

The global bioplastic market in 2023 was valued at 11.33 billion [97]. There are several reasons for that, such
as including increasing environmental awareness, stringent government regulations aimed at reducing plastic
pollution, and advancements in bioplastic technologies [97]. Therefore, with projection estimating a
substantial increase to around US$ 15.30 billion by the end of 2024 [98].

4.2 Future forecast

The global biodegradable bioplastic market in 2021 was valued at US $ 7.7 billion. The market is further
estimated to grow at (CAGR) of 16.4% in the forecast period of 2021-2030 to reach a value of around US $
23.3 billion by 2030 [99].

Figure 06 : estimated global market size of biodegradable plastics in the forecast period of 2021-2030 [99]

Sustainability focus, food and beverage sector demand, technological advancement, and regulatory initiatives
are the main factors in the growth of the global bioplastic market. As an example, Bioplastics are mainly used
in food and beverage sector for food packaging application [99]. Bottles and food containers made out from
bioplastics. Bottles made of PLA plastic are strong, single-use, and have qualities like gloss and transparency.
And also, PLA based bioplastics do not release hazardous fumes when it is burned like petroleum-based
plastics. Therefore, it is anticipated that throughout the forecast period, the demand for the bioplastics industry
trends will continue to be very high [100].
 5. Future trends

Investors in Sea6 Energy Pvt. Ltd. include Aqua-Spark, a Dutch investment firm, and BASF Venture Capital
GmbH, the corporate venture business of BASF SE, Germany. In terms of growing and preparing tropical red
seaweed, Sea6 Energy is a pioneer. Additionally, Red Seaweed-based biofuels and bioplastics are being
developed by Sea6 Energy [101].

MAGNUM BIO ABS was introduced by Trinseo for use in automotive settings. With the introduction of
MAGNUM BIO ABS, the business is able to provide a wider range of sustainably-advantaged products and
services to its clientele, assisting them in realising their sustainability objectives [101].

ABB technology to automate NatureWorks' new bioplastics plant in Thailand, helping to meet the increasing
global demand for sustainable materials. The new site is set to produce 75,000 tons of Ingeo PLA biopolymer
per year - an integrated process from fermentation to polymerization enhances supply chain reliability. ABB
technology will help improve energy and production efficiency of bioplastic manufacturing, expected to grow
over 260% by 2026 [101].

6. Conclusion

Bio-based plastics are well favored to replace the ordinary plastics used in the food packaging industry owing
to their biodegradability hence a reduced shelf life of 500 years thus addressing environmental concerns. Still,
there are challenges that mean that mechanical strength cannot be effectively controlled, barriers may be
irregular, and biodegradability might be inconsistent, which must be solved with better material science.
Another disadvantage is the relatively high production cost of bioplastics and the issues in conformity to the
FDA regulations required for food packaging application. It is important for most consumers and can be
improved on through education and clear labeling. However, with further research, advocacy, and policy
support, and an enhanced consumer campaign, bioplastics are set to assume a critical role in shaping a greener
and environmentally friendly food packaging system.

Acknowledgment

Thanks to all who support me in the success of this project.

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