Introduction

Bioplastics can be defined as plastics made of biomass such as corn and sugarcane. These

substances have been increasingly highlighted as means for saving fossil fuels, reducing CO 2

emission and plastic wastes. Biodegradability of bioplastics has been widely publicized in

society and the demand for packaging is rapidly increasing among retailers and the food industry

at large scale.

Population growth has led to the accumulation of massive volume of non-degradable waste

materials across our planet. The accumulation of plastic waste has become a major concern in

terms of the environment. Conventional plastics not only take many decades during

decomposition, but also produce toxins while degradation. Hence, there is need to produce

plastics from materials that can be readily eliminated from our biosphere in an “ecofriendly”

fashion. Bioplastics are natural biopolymers synthesized and catabolized by various organisms.

These get accumulated as storage materials in microbial cells under stress conditions. However,

the high production cost and the availability of low-cost petrochemical-derived plastics led to

bioplastics being ignored for a long time. Currently, different types of biodegradable polymers

are being studied for different applications including polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactide

(PLA), poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(p-dioxanone) (PPDO) and poly(butylene succinate)

(PBS). The most extensively produced microbial bioplastics are polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

and their derivatives. PHAs are one of the relatively newer families of biodegradable polymers

that have great potential in the future due to their properties. Currently, intensive research has

investigated the bacterial production of PHAs and a great effort is underway to improve this

procedure. However, the PHA production price is still far above the price of conventional

plastics. In order to make the process economically viable, many goals have to be addressed
simultaneously. Recombinant microbial strains are being developed to achieve both a high

substrate conversion rate and close packing of PHAs granules in the host cell. A more efficient

fermentation process, better recovery ⁄ purification and the use of inexpensive substrates can also

substantially reduce the production cost. Plastic products have become an integral part of modern

lifestyle with their widespread application in packaging, shopping and garbage bags, fluid

containers, toys wrapping, industrial products and building materials wrapping. Dumping of

huge volumes of plastic and its products has become a global environmental concern due to their

nonbiodegradability in nature. The rising concern brought by excessive utilization of non-

biodegradable products/conventional plastic has stimulated to search for green materials for

development of biodegradable plastic. Biodegradable plastic is an appropriate alternative for the

petrochemical plastics with advantages of biodegradability, non-hazardous, ecofriendly and

economic. By-products of bioplastic degradation include carbon dioxide, methane, water,

biomass, hemicellulose other biopolymer which are easily eliminated. The core values or

parameters on which different feedstocks are compared for the production of bioplastic materials

include sustainability, industrial ecology, eco-efficiency and green chemistry. Plastics are the

most widely used daily life polymer, since plastic offers a lot of advantages, in an assortment of

shapes, for example, film, boards and sheets, or can be adaptable for any application which

requires for packaging. Plastics are utilized in numerous consumer goods; its resources come

from an unrenewable resource, oil; and its disposal is a challenge across the globe. An alternative

to conventional plastic is bio-based and biodegradable plastics, synthesized from green materials.

Huge volumes of agro waste generated annually are considered environmental hazard due to

several challenges in management, disposal, treatment and recycling of agricultural waste. Along

with burning of agro waste/crop residue left postharvest, landfilling in another common approach
is practiced on large scale for disposal of agricultural waste. Besides associated health hazard,

several other environmental concerns of landfilling are leachate production and release of

greenhouse gases. Dumping of agricultural waste is not only an environmental hazard but also a

potential loss of valuable resource considering agro waste to possess polysaccharides which act

as precursor of plasticizers, presence of natural stabilizer (gallic acid, gallates), antioxidant and

other economic biomolecules. Utilization of agro waste as feedstock or raw material for other

industrial processes appears to be an ideal approach and a two-way solution accomplishing agro

waste consumption and providing an economic, readily available and abundance feedstock for

industrial use to attain economic benefits. Waste material of vegetables, fruits and plants has

been successfully processed to isolate natural biopolymers including starch, cellulose, pectin or

lignin. The combination of different biopolymers is used for synthesis of bioplastic and for food

packaging materials, household materials etc. Citrus fruits are good source of pectin which is

used in various industries like food processing industry for jelly formation, food stabilizer,

pharmaceutical industry medicine, dietary fibre supplement and fat reduction activity. Increasing

environmental concerns due to extensive use of nonbiodegradable products have led to a need to

develop eco-friendly bioplastic, derived from organic substrate such as agriculture biomass and

fruit waste. Several advantages associated with utilization of bio-based plastics include low

carbon footprint, less vigour costs in synthesis, easily manipulative structure and improvement in

decomposability. The standard composition of bioplastics is cellulose-based, starch-based, pectin

and assortment of other natural biopolymers. The production of bioplastic does not require any

higher supervision and it can be manufactured with simple and affordable facilities.Kumar et al

have also emphasized on synthesis of biodegradable plastic from agriculture-derived waste as a

sustainable approach towards development of green and circular economy.

utilized to extract cellulose, pectin, starch and other biopolymers of industrial and commercial

significance. The composition of food waste varies from source to source. Ho and Chu [analysed

composition of food waste collected from five different sources including house kitchen waste,

pre- and post-consumption hotel waste and food waste from wet market and restaurant. The

study reported food waste collected from household and restaurants to be highly rich in crude

protein and minerals. Favourable C:N ratio was reported among pre-consumption food waste and

wet market food waste. Nutritionally food waste comprises of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and

minerals. Food waste rich in elements including N, Fe, S, P and K is considered suitable for

composting, preparation of biofertilizers and bioabsorption of toxins. Food waste rich in

nonessential elements is not suitable to be utilized as food supplements

OBJECTIVE

  To explore possibility to produce a plastic which is biodegradable

  To reduce the production cost of Bioplastic

  To find out cheap substrate for the production of Bioplastic

  To test different kinds of bioplastics which are available in nature

  To understand about various types of Microorganisms which produce bioplastics

  To have the idea about the fermentation and process development for bioplastics

production

  To make genetically engineered Microorganisms for the production of bioplastics

Starch-Based Bioplastic

Biopolymers made from starch are becoming increasingly popular due to their abundant

availability, renewability, low-cost, and biodegradability. In addition, starch is regarded as a

promising raw material for biopolymer production. After polylactic acid (PLA), starch-based

plastics accounted for the second-highest share of the total bioplastics production. There are two

types of polymers involved in its composition: linear amylose and branched amylopectin. An

important feature of bioplastics is their elasticity, which is provided by linear amylose, while

amylopectin has a branched structure that controls tensile strength and elongation. Among the

most promising biopolymers for producing edible films, starch is particularly popular because of

its affordabilit

PLA-Based Bioplastic

Polylactic acid is a commercial biodegradable thermoplastic based on lactic acid also called

polylactide or PLA (also known as polylactic acid, lactic acid polymer). The most widely used

biodegradable aliphatic polyester, PLA is a thermoplastic that is aliphatic non-cyclic,

nonaromatic, derived from lactic acid and lactide, and formed by polymerizing sugars obtained

from various agricultural biomass sources . Polylactides are developed for degradable packaging

materials, and polylactide decomposes within three weeks in industrial composting processes.

Polylactide is the first synthetic polymer to be synthesized from renewable resources . Moreover,

polylactic acid exhibits a number of desirable characteristics, including being easy to fabricate,
biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, and having better thermal properties. When polylactic

acid biodegrades, it releases water, CO2, and decomposed organic matter that green plants are

able to utilize, which reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, when oxygen is added to

polylactic acid, no toxic intermediates or byproducts are produced. In comparison with other

synthetic polymers, polylactic acid emits relatively fewer greenhouse gases.

PHAs-Based Bioplastic

Several types of microalgae produce PHAs, which are biodegradable biopolymers. In nutrient-

limited environments, diverse prokaryotic microbes produce PHAs for carbon storage . In PHAs,

the carboxylate group of one monomer forms ester bonds with the hydroxyl group of the

adjoining monomer to form polymers of 3 hydroxy-acid, sometimes called hydroxy alkanoic

acids. In terms of physical properties, PHAs can be compared to petro-chemical polymers, which

makes them viable alternatives for the growing global bioplastic market. In bioplastics, PHAs

have not been widely applied, and this may be due to their high production and recovery costs.

Scientists are searching for cost effective feedstocks to replace PHA. Approximately 90 percent

of the microbes that degrade PHAs also breakdown starch as the biodegradation pathways are

similar .

Cellulose-Based Bioplastic

A variety of biomass can be used to produce cellulose, including wood, seed fibers, bast fibers,

grass, marine animals (tunicates), algae, fungi, invertebrates, and bacteria. Additionally, acetic

acid bacteria can synthesize cellulose in addition to higher plants. As with starch, cellulose

consists of linear chains with glycosidic bonds that join a few hundred to more than ten thousand

glucose units. Although starch and cellulose have the same monomer unit, they differ in how
their polymeric chains are oriented. In recent years, cellulose-based biopolymers have gained

attention due to their strength, stiffness, high durability, and biodegradability. In addition to

being low-density, low-price, and nonabrasive, cellulose-based reinforced composites are also

non-abrasive. As cellulose-based bioplastics contain distant tenuous molecules with weak

hydrogen bonds, they degrade rapidly. Conversely, bioplastics made from cellulose have weaker

hydrogen bonds, and therefore have lower mechanical properties, such as strength and flexibility.

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

PHB is transparent, biodegradable, and resembles polypropylene in many characteristic

properties. PHB is obtained as a result of the action of the bacteria. The synthesis of PHB

includes a complex enzymatic process. Firstly, the condensation of two molecules of acetyl CoA

leads to the production of acetocetyl-CoA; β-ketothiolase act as a catalyzer in this process.

Further, acetoacetyl CoA reduces itself, producing β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Finally, the

polymerization of β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA results in the synthesis of PHB. PHB exists as cysts in

the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell, and these cells are destroyed to obtain PHB. PHB is produced

and accumulated by a wide range of bacteria. About 300 species of bacteria are found to produce

PHB, but the amount of PHB capable of producing bioplastic is present in very few species.

Although PHB can be utilized for a number of applications, the high production cost is a matter

of concern (Singh et a2009). After suitable pre-treatment, agricultural waste and industrial waste

effluents may be utilized in the production of PHB to reduce the cost constraints. A few bacterial

species capable of producing PHB are Pseudomonas, Ralstonia eutropha, Staphylococcus, and

Bacillus. Fig. 3 shows the general points of comparison between synthetic plastic and bioplastic.
3. Biodegradation of Biopolymers in Soil and Aquatic Environments

In biodegradation, naturally occurring microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, mineralize

materials through their action [53]. The degradation of bioplastics varies in three different

surroundings (soil, aquatic system, and compost). In contrast, bioplastics derived from biological

sources take significantly less time to degrade than petroleumbased plastics. Because plastics

have a high molecular weight, chemical structure, low water solubility, and contain xenobiotics,

their biodegradation is limited [54]. In previous studies in the literature, many scholars

investigated the biodegradation of bioplastics which are listed in Table 1. Bioplastic

Degradation in Soil . Soil contains a wide diversity of microorganisms, making plastic

biodegradation more feasible than in other environments such as water and air [55]. A number of

microorganisms isolated from soil media utilized bioplastic as a carbon source. Actinobacteria

species, such as Nonomuraea, Amycolatopsis, Streptomyces, Laceyella, Actinomadura, and

Thermomactimyces species, were obtained from soil. However, among these the Streptomyces

and Amycolatopsis were the most common species that play a crucial role in bioplastic

degradation in soil environments. Bulkholderia, Pseudomonas, Paenibacillus, and Bacillus

species were mainly isolated from different soil environments, and they were capable of

degrading the bioplastics. Most commonly, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium were

identified as soil-isolated fungi responsible for bioplastic degradation [56]. In spite of the fact

that cellulose, which was used as a positive control, was fully degraded, the biodegradation

process was slow. Possibly, this is due to the lower temperature of the system under real

conditions and the longer time span of the experiment. Consequently, these bioplastics required

higher temperatures and longer degradation times to degrade effectively [57]. The
biodegradation of polymers depends on the chemical nature of the polymer as well as on

environmental factors, such as moisture, temperature, acidic nature, etc. [58]. Including these

factors, bioplastics biodegrade differently in different soil compositions. Figure 1 depicts the

biodegradation mechanism of biopolymers in soil environments. Starch-based plastics are found

to reduce in weight and faster degradation were observed in field soil than PHAs and PLA, while

PLA sustains its weight for a long period of time, about 12 weeks [59]. The highest

biodegradability was found with cellulose-based bioplastics (80 to 100%) after 100 days [60,61].

Based on the kinetic constants of degradation of the three blends studied in soil, PHAs, blends

showed the highest kinetic constant, followed by PLA blends [62]. Overall, the bioplastic-

composted soil increases the soil fertility and increase the yield of crops. It is generally observed

that microbiological content increases after biodegradable films are buried, as the organic mulch

increases bacterial populations because of the different chemical compositions and

decomposition rates of these materials [63]. However, in composting processes, the PHAs’ films

enrich the soil more than PLA since they increase the microbial population present in the soil

[64]. In addition to an increase in Clostridia species and mesophilic aerobic bacteria, there was

also a significant increase in fungi. There is no doubt that these changes were caused by the swift

degradation of the protein-based bioplastic, which resulted in the release of carbon and nitrogen

compounds, which served as food and increased the microbial population.

However, bioplastic degradation in both seawater and fresh water generally appears to be slower

than biodegradation in composting, anaerobic digestion, and soil environments. Specifically, this

was related to the characteristics of aquatic environments that play a critical role in bioplastic

degradation. In addition to bioplastics’ properties, some environmental parameters, such as

nutrients content, temperature, pH, microbial diversity, and microbial population density, have

an important impact on bioplastic degradation in aquatic environments. As a result of the study

in [76], the PHAs degraded in seawater, and temperature played a significant role in the

degradation process. According to the authors, seasonal changes in water temperature led to the

difference in degradation rates. There are a number of factors that could contribute to the slow
biodegradation of bioplastics under aquatic environments, including low temperatures, nutrient

levels, and microbe population density. Several bacteria species were capable of degrading

bioplastics in aquatic environments, such as river water and marine environments; Bacillus,

Lepthotrix, Tenacibaculum, Pseudomonas, Entrobacter, Variovorax Gracilibacillus, and

Avanivorax were isolated from these environments as reported in several studies [55]. Figure 2

depicts the biodegradation mechanism of biopolymers in aquatic environments

2 Source for bioplastic

Huge volumes of agricultural waste including rice husk, wheat straw, sugarcan bagasse,

corncobs and coffee husk are generated worldwide mainly as agricultural harvesting leftover.

Agricultural waste comprises of significant proportion of organic polymer such as cellulose,

hemicellulose, starch and lignin which have potential utilization in different industrial sectors

including food processing industry, paper industry, chemical industry and cosmetic and

pharmaceutical industries for specific applications. A prominent utilization of such organic

of biofuel [27], bioplastic and biofilm formation, biocomposite and food processing. Banana peel

has been recognized as an effective substrate for synthesis of bioplastic. Several studies have

successfully utilized banana peels for production of biodegradable films. Starch extracted from

banana peel wastes has been utilized for synthesis of bioplas tic through alkaline leaching

method. Fortification of plasticizer like glycerol and sorbitol [22] has also been reported to exert

a positive influence on bioplastic syn thesis. Plasticizer supplementation increases flexibility of

biofilms; other additives such as sodium metabisul phite are also utilized to minimize microbial

growth [31]; and utilization of eggshell as filter is also recommended in bioplastic synthesis [32].

Besides alkaline leaching, synthesis of bioplastic from banana peels and potato starch through

acid hydrolysis (HCl) is among eco friendly and economically favourable approach, easily

applicable at large scale for production of bioplastic [33]. Banana peel waste is used for

synthesis of bioplastic by using alkaline and acid treatment or further modified its structure to

improve its mechanical and physical properties to more weight-carrying ability [34, 35]. Agung

banana Semeru variety peel starch is an effective alter native of starch for bioplastic production

[36]. Starch, eggshell, chitosan jackfruit flour, sago starch and poly lactic acid (PLA) represent

materials utilized for bioplas tic synthesis by casting method [37]. At industrial level,

valorization method is used for processing of food wastes for extraction of different biopolymers

like cellulose,starch, pectin, lignin or hemicellulose for further synthesis of bioplastic and

biofuels as by-product of food waste management [38]. Starch-based bioplastic has been

successfully manufactured from yam tube and potato starch by alkaline leaching, and casting

method is used in moulding of bioplastic. These products exhibit exceptionally high

biodegradability in soil [39]. Starch extracted from Musaparadisiaca through acid treatment and
alkaline leaching has been reportedly utilized for bioplastic synthesis along with glycerine, with

its several applications in industries like pharmaceutical, food and textile industry [40].

Combination of starch with other biopolymers has also been reported to be effective for biofilm

synthesis. Starch mixed with glycerol and weak acid turned into a unique material which was

further utilized for bioplastic synthesis. Addition of chitosan tends to increase material

degradability into soil [9]. Hasan et al [41] synthesized bioplastic from chitosan and starch

(isolated from yellow pumpkin) with castor oil as plasticizer. The study analysed effect of

varying concentrations of chitosan and starch in different compositions and reported higher

chitosan content to result in high tensile strength with maximum biodegradation attained at 50:50

composition of chitosan and starch. Algae biomass has been recognized as a potential feedstock

for production of different value-added products. Eco-friendly approach of algae biomass has

rendered it among most suitable substrate for renewable energy production. Processing of algae

biomass has been reported to produce bio-oil, biofuel, biofertilizer, pigments, animal feed

additives and antibiotics, with major focus on production of biofuel from several algae species.

Some crucial studies conducted have also depicted potential of algae biomass to be further

processed for production of biofilms. Dianursanti et al [44] reported bioplastic synthesis from

Spirulina platensis (a high protein context alga). The study utilized polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as

polymer for bioplastic synthesis. Addition of glycerol (plasticizer) and maleic anhydride

(compatibilizer) increased flexibility and strength between microalgae and polymer. The analysis

of biofilm revealed to possess properties comparable to commercial plastic. The study also

emphasized that blending of algae biomass with polymer PVA will also decrease the market

demand of polymer along with making the process more economic and environment friendly. El-

Mohamedy Hawas et al [45] utilized three algae species Calothrix scytonemicola, Scenedesmus
almeriensis and Neochloris oleoabundans for bioplastic synthesis. All the three species selected

contain high starch content. Abdo and Ali [46] analysed the potential of Chroococcus turgidus,

Haematococcus pluvialis and Microcystis aeruginosa and biomass of two microalgae collected

from high-rate algae ponds to produce polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB). Comparative analysis

revealed M. aeruginosa to result in production of maximum PHB. PHB is a well-recognized

polymer for production of plastics. Ali et al [47] in their significant study screened bacterial

isolates from organic waste and reported production of PHB by bacterial species. Bacterial

isolate belonging to Bacillus sp. was specifically reported to accumulate PHB. The findings of

the study recommend further screening of microbial strains for production of

polymer/compounds with potential to be utilized for biofilm production.

3 Biopolymer extraction from agro waste

Cellulose, starch and pectin comprise major biopolymers extracted from diverse organic sources

for widespread applications. Cellulose is a polysaccharide which is the most copious renewable

biomass and biopolymer prevailing on earth; around 200 billion tonnes of cellulosic biomass is

produced annually worldwide [48]. Cellulose has been identified as an efficient substrate for

various processes; several advantages associated with its utilization include its low density, high

explicit mechanical property and an extensive inter- or intra-molecular hydrogen bond which

imparts ability of cellulose to combine with other substances and molecules. Several studies have

been conducted to optimize protocol for extraction of cellulose from different agricultural wastes

such as wheat straw, rice husk, corn straw and sugarcane bagasse, including chemical, physical,

biological or biochemical methods [49–53]. Among the most common abundant agricultural

waste is corn waste or blue agave. Song et al [54] reported an eco-friendly system, named as
Low temperature laccase system (LTLS) for extraction of cellulose from corn straw. The study

reported extraction of cellulose with high purity and the system utilized posess advantages of

easy operation, high yield and recycling of solutions utilized for the process of cellulose

extraction. Grapes are among largest fruit crops across the world and its skin is utilized to isolate

cellulose by organic extraction and acid–base treatment. Isolated cellulose was further used in

the synthesis of nanostructure of cellulose or nanocrystal [55]. Through ultrasonic-assisted

preparation method and acid hydrolysis, cellulose nanocrystals prepared from sugarcane bagasse

act as natural biopolymer which is used in several industries [56]. Cellulose extracted from Nypa

fruit peel has been utilized for synthesis of cellulose nanofibers for fabrication industries [57].

Pineapple leaves are another agricultural waste produced in abundance and utilized

for cellulose extraction through acid hydrolysis, and its implementation for synthesis of cellulose

nanocrystals at commercial level has been reported [58]. Argan press cake agricultural waste

material residue obtained after oil extraction from argan nuts also contains cellulose and

hemicellulose, which can be effectively extracted by alkaline solution, and the extracted
cellulose can be further utilized in pharmaceutical and food industry. In a study conducted by

Yaradoddi et al. [60], cellulose was extracted from sugar cane bagasse and was modified to

carboxymethyl cellulose, by treatment of isopropanol, NaOH, sodium monochloroacetate and

methanol. The study has reported carboxymethyl cellulose to be an effective stabilizer and also

can serve as a superior packaging material for packaging of diverse type of products in different

food industries. Utilization of carboxymethyl cellulose as packaging material is supported by its

ability to act as a barrier for CO2 and oxygen as well as lipids. Favourable mechanical properties

also make carboxymethyl cellulose an appropriate material for biofilm synthesis. The same study

also mentioned fortification of carboxymethyl cellulose with other additives such as agar, which

further enhances the potential of carboxymethyl cellulose as raw material for biofilm synthesis.

In an another study conducted by Guzman-Puyol et al. [61], cellulose naringin bioplastic has

been recommended to be a suitable biodegradable material which can be effectively utilized for

food packaging. Cellulose plasticization was achieved in the presence of naringin as additive

which resulted in enhanced stuffiness of film. This further strengthens utilization of cellulose

naringin biofilm as food packaging material similar to other commercially utilized polymers.

Besides enhancing the strength, cellulose naringin (CN) plastic exhibited high transparency and

blocking against UV radiation A and B. Romruen et al. [62] extracted cellulose from rice straw,

leaves and peels of phulaepineapple and corn cob. Alkaline-extracted cellulose from corn cob

exhibited highest yield and maximum thermal stability. Corn cob-extracted cellulose exhibited

high similarity to commercial cellulose depicted by maximum crystallinity index. Cellulose

derived from bacterial sources is also recommended as suitable polymer to be utilized for

production of multiple products including nanocomposites [63]. Large scaleup microbial derived

polymers for commercial production of value-added products are challenged by the high cost of
carbon sources for bacteria cultivation. High organic content of food and waste makes them

appropriately suited for production of bacteria-derived cellulose [63]. Agro waste–derived

nanocellulose comprising of CNC (cellulose nanocrystal) and cellulose nanofibrils has also been

the focus of recent scientific studies. Lu et al. [64] prepared cellulose nanocrystals from

sugarcane straw through sulphuric acid hydrolysis. The study reported cellulose isolation with

high purity (due to successful removal of hemicellulose, lignin and other non-cellulosic

components). Produced CNC were reported to possess needle-like shape, 40–320 nm in length

and 2–16 nm in diameter. The study also reported CNC to exhibit natural cellulose structure with

high proportion of crystallinity.

with cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Pectin possesses a complex molecular structure with

homogalacturonan being the major component. Microwave-assisted extraction, alkaline

extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction and ultrasound-assisted microwave extraction represent

commonly applied techniques for extraction of pectin [65]. Banana peel, jackfruit peel, orange

peel, grapefruit peel, lemon peel, passion fruit peel, cocoa peel, fig seed, mangosteen peel, guava
pulp, mango peel, beet pulp and apple pomace comprise commonly utilized feedstock for pectin

extraction. Manufacturing of thermoplastic starch (combination of starch and plasticizer with

thermomechanical energy) from different plant species by different methods has been reported

with its further utilization in industries [66]. Pectin extraction is a multiple-stage process. The

pectin extracted through acid hydrolysis (citric acid or nitric acid) and further used in food

processing industry (vegetable agglutinate) is as a gelling agent, thickening agent and stabilizer

in food and manufacturing of jams, jellies and various sweet juices [67]. Several methods

reported (acid, alkaline or combination of acid and alkaline treatment) for cellulose, pectin and

starch extraction from various sources are characterized by their respective advantages and

disadvantages (Fig. 1) [19, 21, 25, 31, 40, 51, 68, 69]. Acid treatment or alkaline leaching

comprises the two most common methods employed for extraction of pectin and starch from

various sources. In acid treatment, citric acid or HCl is generally utilized for softening of

substrate and their breakdown into small particles. In addition to citric acid and HCl, ascorbic

acid is also a suitable alternate for isolation of pectin. HCl has been reported to result in high

pectin yield when utilized in acid treatment process. In alkaline leaching methods, Na2SO4

NaHSO4 are commonly utilized bases for starch and pectin extraction from variable sources.

NaOH is utilized for pectin extraction as well.

4 Bioplastic synthesis

The analysis of published literature (Table 1) depicts several plant products, and agricultural and

food waste has been successfully utilized for extraction of biopolymers (starch, cellulose, pectin)

for synthesis of biodegradable biofilms. Utilization of organic waste as feedstock for bioplastic

synthesis appears to be a two-way solution; along with production of biodegradable plastic, it

simultaneously accomplishes consumption of huge volume of organic waste making a sound

contribution to limit release of agro and food waste into environment (Fig. 2). Rice straw, potato

and banana peels, citrus fruit peels and corn waste are among commonly utilized substrates for

bioplastic synthesis. Besides starch, cellulose and chitosan, other biopolymers utilized for

synthesis of bioplastic include thermoplastic starch (TPS), PLA, polyhydroxy alkenoate (PHA),

lactic acid, sorbitol, glycerol-chitosan, eggshell, whey protein, flex fibres and palm oil (Table 2).

Literature study reveals heat and dry method to be the most commonly applied technique for
biofilm preparation from wide range of organic feedstock. Other reported methods of bioplastic

synthesis include casting [30, 37], copolymerization [70], acetylation and cooling [71] and

valorization [72]. The bioplastics with different starch-to-cellulose nanocrystal ratios were

prepared by solution casting and evaporation method [49]. The natural cellulose-based flax fibres

or cotton liners were prepared by using sulphuric acid-catalysed acetylation process [73]. Ismail

et al [39] in their study utilized potato and yam tubers for the production of starch-based

bioplastic. In a similar study, Pratiwi et al [74] used rice straw extracted cellulose bioplastic

production. Bilo et al [75] investigated eco-material properties of bioplastic from rice straw.

Utilization of food waste for production of value added products is economically favorable

approach. Application of biorefinery, fermentation techniques, mofidication of biopolymers can

potentially enrich bioplastic synthesis from food waste. Food waste is a highly recommended

substrate to be utilized for various purposes as it checks the disposal of food waste into the

environment [72].