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Seam Welding

Here two copper wheels act as electrodes through

which current is passed and pressure is applied

Seam Welding

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Seam Welding

Work pieces are kept between the electrodes and current is passed
through the electrodes and pressure is applied.

A weld is formed. Continuous weld is formed as the work is moved

between the electrodes.

Heat is generated due to the flow of current and the work offers
resistance to this.

Either current or pressure can be varied to control the heat generated.

This changes the contact resistance.

Projection Welding

A series of overlapping welds are formed and the spacing can be

controlled by controlling the movement of the work.

Used for making continuous welds between two overlapping

sheets of metal for producing water tight joint

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Projection Welding

Projection Welding

Similar to spot welding. Copper platens are held in the arms.

The work pieces are held in position in the arms. One piece has projections
and the other is flat.

Current is passed and pressure is applied. The projections flatten and

the two pieces get welded.

Large number of welds can be done at various points by having

projections. Any metal or alloy can be welded

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Friction Welding

Friction Welding

Heat produced due to friction is utilized and by applying pressure a

joint is formed.

The heat is enough to fuse the work pieces.

One of the work pieces is held stationery and the other work piece
pressed against it and kept rotating at high speed, a very high pressure
is applied and the rotation is stopped.

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Friction Welding

A perfect joint results. No preparation of the surface required. The surfaces to be

welded must be flat.

Process is well suited to non ferrous alloys. Pipes, tubes, bars of carbon steel,
stainless steel, Al, Ti alloy, steels can be welded with ease.

Dissimilar metal can be joined. Initial pressure, heating time and final upsetting
pressure can be varied to suit the requirement.

Thermit Welding-Principle

The high temperature obtained from the reaction of finely divided metallic-
oxide (usually iron oxide) and aluminium is employed to raise the temperature
of the parts to be welded to above their fusion point.

The liquid metal also acts a filler.

Thermit welding is based on casting and foundry practice.

It essentially consists of providing, by means of a chemical (thermit)

reaction a volume of molten weld metal which is poured into the joint to
be welded. Certain metals are preferentially welded by this method

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Thermit Welding-Principle

The thermit mixture may also contain other

controlling ingredients , elemental oxides which
are subsequently reduced to their pure state
during the main reaction.

Thermit
Welding

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Applications of Thermit Welding :

Joining of Heavy sections.

Welding of pipe joints

Repair field such as repair of shafts,

machinery frames etc.

Welding of railway rails.

Advantages : Thermit welding

The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction

and thus no costly power supply is required

Hence broken parts (rails etc) can be welded on the site itself

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Disadvantages : Thermit welding

Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of heavy reactions

i.e., mill housings and railway reactions.

The process is uneconomical if used to weld cheap metals or light parts

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Explosive Welding

Explosive forces generated by the ignition of explosive materials will

travel at very high velocities.

These forces are used to cause ripples in the base metal and lock them
together.

The base metal parts are placed at an angle to each other.

Explosive Welding
The parts are covered with flexible rubber and above it explosive material is
covered.

The whole arrangement is kept in a special chamber.

A detonator is used to detonate the explosive material.

The force of detonation results in ripples in the parts and the shock waves will
lock the parts together.

Like and unlike metals can be joined. Normally big items are welded

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Explosive Welding

Ultrasonic Beam Welding

Here ultrasonic waves are used as the energy source for welding.

Ultrasonic waves are sound waves in the high frequency range with 20
KHz and more.

These sound waves are above the human audible range. Ultrasonic
welding is a solid state welding process

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Ultrasonic Beam Welding

It consists of a power source and a transducer.

The power source essentially converts the mains frequency (50 Hz) to a
very high frequency electric power

The transducer converts the power to magnetic flux and then

the kinetic motion is amplified through a velocity transformer.

Ultrasonic Beam Welding

The assembly of transducer and velocity transformer is called as
“sonotrode"

The tip of the velocity transformer is made of low high speed steel or
nimonic (Ni alloy). The velocity transformer is made of low loss and high
strength metal such as Titanium.

The work to be welded is placed on the anvil and below the tip. Load is
applied on the tip.

Due to US vibrations the oxide layer on the metal surface is broken and a
clear surface results

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The temperature at the interface of the work rises to 35-50 % of

the melting point of the work and a solid joint is achieved

Ultrasonic Beam Welding

Ultrasonic Beam Welding

Merits

Very thin materials can be welded.

Material characteristics are not altered since

low temperatures are involved.

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Ultrasonic Beam Welding

Demerits

Not suitable for ductile materials since they yield

under the stresses.

Process is limited to only joining thin sections.

Quite expensive.

Ultrasonic Beam Welding

Applications :

For fabrication of nuclear fuels.

Used for welding electronic and electrical equipment's.

Used for refrigeration, air-conditioning equipments,

containers of explosives

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Laser Welding

Laser welding is defined as a welding process

wherein joint is produced by heat obtained
from the application of concentrated light beam
impinging upon the surfaces to be Joined

Laser Welding

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Laser Welding
Ruby is Aluminium Oxide with chromium dispersed through
out it, constituting about l/2000 of the crystal

The ends of crystal are silvered to form mirrors internally

Around the outside of the crystal is placed flash tube containing xenon

This flash tube converts electrical energy into light

Laser Welding
Capacitor bank stores electrical energy

It energizes the flash tube by an appropriate triggering system

When subjected to electrical discharge, xenon transforms

electrical energy into white light flashes.

As the ruby is exposed to the intense light flashes,

the chromium atoms are excited and pumped to a high energy level.

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Laser Welding
The atoms drop immediately to an intermediate energy level with the
evolution of heat and eventually back to their original states with the
evolution of red fluorescent light

As the red light emitted by one excited atom hits another excited
atom, the second atom gives off red light which is in phase with the
colliding red light wave

This becomes a chain reaction and finally a narrow

laser beam comes out of the ruby crystal.

Laser Welding

This beam is focussed by an optical focusing lens to

produce a small intense spot of laser on the job, thereby
heating up and melting it to facilitate the welding
operation.

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Laser Welding-Advantages

Laser Welding-Advantages

Since it is light, it can be focused to microscopic dimensions

and directed with great accuracy

The concentration of energy of Laser beam can be precisely

controlled

Areas not readily accessible can also be welded.

No protection is needed against atom contamination.

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Laser Welding-Disadvantages

The major drawback is the slow welding speeds (25 to250 mm/min)
resulting from the pulse rates and puddle sizes at the fusion point

It is limited to depths of approximately 1.5mm and additional energy

only tends to create gas voids and undercuts in the weld

Materials such as Mg tend to vaporize and produce severe surface voids

Laser Welding-Applications

Laser is a high energy light beam that can both weld

and cut the metals.

For connecting leads on small electronic components and

in integrated circuitry in the electronic industry.

To weld lead wires having polyurethane insulation without

removing the insulation

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Laser Welding-Applications

To join hard high melting polyurethane metal alloys

In space and aircraft industry for welding light gauge materials

It can join dissimilar metals and other difficult to weld metals

such as Cu, Ni, Al, W, Ti, stainless steel,
zirconium, Tantalum etc

Laser Welding-Applications

Laser can weld wire-to-wire, sheet-to-sheet, wire-to-sheet, tube

to sheet and small diameter stud welds.

Laser beam is used for micro welding purposes

It's particularly suitable for the welding of miniaturized

and micro-miniaturized components

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NDT for casting ,

Forming and welding processes
Types of inspection
1. Destructive type

All mechanical property tests are carried out here. The

specimen is broken or Fractured while testing. Yield
strength, %elongation, hardness and ultimate strength
properties are determined.

NDT for casting ,

Forming and welding processes

2. Non-destructive type (NDT)

Parts are inspected without destructing them.

Any deviation in the component, external or
internal portions can be inspected

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NDT for casting ,

Forming and welding processes
NDT methods:
Visual inspection
Components are closely observed with naked eyes or using a magnifying
glass to identify the defects on the surface. Defects like cracks, cavities,
sand inclusions, misrun, etc., can be detected.

Magnetic particle inspection

It is used to detect cracks and other discontinuity on the components.

It is used when the component can be magnetised.
All ferrous alloys can be inspected here.

Parts can be magnetised by using a powerful permanent magnet,

electromagnets or by passing heavy current through the
component.

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Magnetic particle inspection

Principle

Wherever crack or discontinuity on the component appears, there will

be a leakage field, under the influence of magnetization.

The magnetic (ferrous) particles when sprinkled orient in a

direction opposing the free surface

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Magnetic particle inspection

Method

First the casting is cleaned with a wire brush or by sand blasting

and then cleaned with CCl4 or acetone.

Now magnetic particle in oil suspension is applied on the entire

casting surface with a brush.

Magnetic particle inspection

The casting is magnetised by passing current through the coil

surrounding it.

The cracks are revealed by the formation of magnetized

particles oriented along north and south directions.

The magnitude of the defect is a function of the density of the

particles surrounding the area.

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Magnetic particle inspection

A common practice of magnetising the component is to clamp two leads to

the work surface and pass large amperage current viz. 400 amps.

The magnetic field leaks out at the casting surface where there is a crack
and is referred to as flux leakage.

Both AC and DC supply can be used.

AC supply magnetises surface layers more strongly and DC magnetises the

material to a larger depth.

Even permanent magnets can be used for the purpose

Magnetic particle inspection

In the presence of magnetic field, the particles at the points of leakage

get oriented along N-S direction.

Depending on the extent of cracks, the concentration of magnetic

particle varies and from this also the severity of defect can be assessed.

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Magnetic particle inspection

Fluorescent Powder inspection

Is used when the components are non-magnetic in nature and can

be used for all type of materials.

Here fluorescent powder suspended in a penetrating oil is applied

on surface of the component . The suspension is capable of
penetrating very minute cracks on the surface. This

This method is used for detecting surface or subsurface cracks and

other discontinuities

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Fluorescent Powder inspection

Fluorescent Powder inspection

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Fluorescent Powder inspection

This method is sensitive to small surface discontinuities

such as cracks, shrinkage and porosity, open to the surface
which tend to retain penetrant in spite of the rinse

Smooth or machined job surfaces provide more satisfactory

conditions for the test.

Fluorescent Powder inspection

Method

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Fluorescent Powder inspection

Method

The developer acts like a blotter to draw penetrant out of crack and
enlarge the size of the area of penetrant.

The surface is viewed under black light , which is between the

visible and ultraviolet range in the spectrum

Fluorescent Powder inspection

Applications
Besides locating cracks and shrinkage in ferrous and especially non
ferrous castings, fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to determine
cracks in carbide tools

Cracks and pits in welded structures, cracks in steam and gas turbine
blades and cracks in ceramic insulators for spark plugs and electronic
applications

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Fluorescent Powder inspection

Applications

Besides metals, penetrant inspection can also be carried out on

parts made up of other materials such as plastics, ceramics, glass,

Ultrasonic inspection

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Ultrasonic inspection
Principle :

Sound waves can be transmitted through both fluid and solid media.
Sound waves are elastic waves. Frequency :20 Hz. To 20 KHz. ...
audible range. Beyond this range

For inspection of castings 0.5 MHz. range is used. Ultrasonic waves can be
used to identify the sub surface and internal def'ects in components.

Ultrasonic vibrations are produced by Barium Titanate/

Quartz crystals.

Ultrasonic inspection

These crystals show piezoelectric effect , they strain if voltage is

applied across the faces and emit Ultrasonic waves.

The waves are made to pass through the casting.

The reflected wave is observed for loss in energy, which will represent the
defect in the casting.

The defects will absorb the incident energy. An oscilloscope records the
events.

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Radiography
It is used to identify and permanently record the internal defects
in the casting.

X-rays have wave lengths varying in the range. 10-6- 10-12 cm.

The radiant energy is generated by Radium for

Radiography

The radiant energy is of short wave length electromagnetic radiation

and can penetrate through solid media, may be partly absorbed by
the media

The amount of radiation energy absorbent depends on the

density and thickness of the material.

X-rays are produced by passing electrons at very high

velocities and made to strike cathode.

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Radiography

Now the radiant energy is allowed to fall on the

casting and the image is observed on a lead coated
glass sheet.

The defect is seen as bright spot whereas other

portions are seen as dull spot.

X- ray-Radiography

Is used for recording internal defect in the component.

Exact nature, location and magnitude of defect can be easily observed and
recorded on a permanent basis for future reference.

Any metal or alloy can be tested. X-ray is generated by bombardment of a

target by moving electrons.

Very high potential difference is established between the anode and cathode.
When high energy radiation falls on a component. it tries to pass through
the component.

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X- ray-Radiography

The component absorbs some amount of radiation energy. Amount of energy

absorbed is directly proportional to the density of the material of the
component.

Accordingly, when the component is observed through a lead coated screen

the lighter regions indicate defects and darken regions indicate defect free
portions.

X- ray-Radiography
Using a photographic film, photograph of the component when exposed to x-
ray can be recorded.

In the -ve film the darker spots show defect regions and lighter spots show
defect free regions.

Used for recording the defects in the component, permanently

X-ray radiation is health hazardous.

Cost of equipment is high

Component thickness of less than 100mm
(steel) can only be tested.

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X- ray-Radiography

X- ray-Radiography

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X- ray-Radiography

Radiant energy is allowed to fall on the casting and

the image is observed on a lead coated glass sheet.

The defect is seen as dull spot whereas other

portions are seen bright.

X- ray-Radiography

By placing 'film behind' the casting, photograph

can be taken and kept for permanent record
purposes

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X- ray-Radiography

Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is one of the highly popular

non-destructive tests with applications as diverse as
in aerospace engineering,

Manufacturing processes-chemical, nuclear

applications and defence.

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Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current :
It is the electric current induced within the body of a conductor when
the conductor is moved through a non uniform magnetic field or in the
region where there is a change in the magnetic flux

Eddy Current Testing

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Eddy Current Testing

Eddy Current Testing

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Eddy Current Testing

Advantage

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Eddy Current Testing

Disadvantage

Holography Inspection

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Holography Inspection

Holography Inspection

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Holography Inspection

Holography Inspection

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Holography Inspection

Holography essentially measures deformations

on the surface of the object. However, there is
sufficient sensitivity to detect sub- surface and
internal defects in metallic and composite
specimens.

Holography Inspection

The light used to illuminate the surface of the specimen must be coherent,
which means that it must also be monochromatic, and the only practical
source is a laser. Each type of laser emits a characteristic wavelength, e.g. a
helium-neon laser emits 632.8nm; a ruby laser emits 694.3nm.

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Holography Inspection

HNDT is widely applied in aerospace to find

impact damage, corrosion, delamination,
debonds, and cracks in high performance
composite aircraft parts as well as turbine
blades, solid propellant rocket motor casings,