PERIODIC TABLE, PERIODIC PROPERTIES AND

VARIATIONS OF PROPERTIES

Contribution in formation of Periodic Table:

Dobereiner- started grouping 3 elements(triad) such that

atomicweight of middle is average of other two. Ex: Ca , Sr
and Ba are traids.
Newlands-arranged elements in increasing order of atomic
masses.Every Eighth element has same properties as that of
first element.

Mendeleev- first periodic table of elements based on

atomicmasses. Divided 63 elements into groups and
periods.

Henry Mosely – Father of Modern periodic Table. Modern

Periodic law “ the physical and chemical properties of
element are periodicfunctions of their atomic number”

Why Atomic number is Fundamental property ?

Atomic number is equal to the number of electrons in the
energy shells of an atom. Physical and chemical properties
of an elementdepend on the number of electrons and their
arrangement. Henceatomic number is the fundamental
property of an element.

A tabular arrangement of elements in groups (vertical

columns) andperiods (horizontal rows) highlighting the
regular trends in properties of elements is called a

PERIODIC TABLE

Periodicity: The properties that reappear at regular

intervals, or in which there is gradual variation (i.e.,
increase or decrease) at regular intervals, are called
'periodic properties' and the phenomenon is known as the
periodicity of elements.

Cause of periodicity: The cause of periodicity is the

recurrence ofsimilar electronic configuration i.e., having
the same number of electrons in the outermost orbit.

Features of the Modern Periodic Table:

Groups- There are 18 vertical columns showing the
number ofelectrons in the outermost shell.
Group 1: Alkali Metals. Ex- Li, Na,
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals. Ex- Be, Mg
Group 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 and 12 are transition elements. They
have2 outermost shells incomplete.
Group 13: Boron family. Ex- Al, Ga
Group 14: Carbon family. Ex -Si, Ge
Group 15 : Nitrogen family. Ex- P,
As.
Group 16 : Oxygen family (Chalcogens meaning ore
forming) Ex- S Group 17 : halogens (salt formers)Ex-Cl, Br
Group 18 : inert/ noble gases. Ex- He, Ne

Main / representative Elements : Group 1,2,13,14,15,16 and

17.Periods : 7 horizontal rows. It represent the no of shells.

Periodic Properties

i) Atomic Size: It is the distance between the centre of

the nucleusof an atom and its outermost shell.
a) Number of Shells: An increase in the number of
shells increasesthe size of an atom because the distance
between the outermost shell and the nucleus increases.
b) Nuclear Charge: It is the positive charge present in
the nucleus of an atom, which is equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus,i.e., the atomic number.

TRENDS:
Across a period (Left 2 Right) : Decrease- due to increase in
nuclear Charge
Down a Group (Top 2 Bottom) : Increase-New shells are added.
ii) Metallic Character: Those elements, which have a
tendency to lose their valence electrons (electrons of the
outermost orbit) and form a positive ion, are considered
metals. They are good reducingagents.

TRENDS:
Across a period (Left 2 Right) : Decreases due to Increase
innuclear charge
Down a Group (Top 2 Bottom) : Increase. Due to Increase in
Atomicsize and nuclear charge . Li least metallic.

iii) Non-Metallic Character: Those elements which have

a tendencyto gain electrons, in order to attain octet in their
outermost orbit, are considered as non-metals.

TRENDS:
Across a period (Left 2
Right):Increases Down a Group (Top
2 Bottom): Decreases

Chemical reactivity
The reactivity of elements depends upon their tendency to
lose orgain electrons to complete their outermost orbit.
Greater the tendency to lose electron(s), greater is the
reactivity in the case ofmetals.

Trends
Across a period :
On moving from left to right in a period, the chemical
reactivity ofelements first decreases and then increases.
Down a group:
The tendency of losing electrons increases down the
group. The most reactive metal is at the bottom of group

1. (Caescium)
The chemical reactivity of non-metals decreases on going
down thegroup as it depends upon the tendency to gain
electrons, which decreases down the group.
The most reactive non-metal is at the top of group 17 i.e.,
Fluorine.

Gradation in physical properties

The melting and boiling points of metals decrease on going
downthe group.
The melting and boiling points of non-metals increase on
goingdown the group.

Across a period, left to right, melting point and boiling point

usually increase upto group 14 (IV A) and then decrease.
Density of elements
Across a period increases gradually to maximum and then
slightdecrease may be noticed.
Down a group density of elements increases gradually.

iv) Ionisation Potential: The energy required to remove

an electron from a neutral isolated gaseous atom and convert
it into a positivelycharged gaseous ion is called ionisation
potential (I.P.) or ionisationenergy (I.E.) or first ionisation
energy.
Across a period (Left 2 Right): Increase – Atomic size
decreaseDown a Group (Top 2 Bottom): Decrease- Atomic
size increases.

Electro affinity: The amount of energy released while

convertinga neutral gaseous isolated atom into a
negatively charged gaseousion (anion) by the addition of
electron is called Electron Affinity (E.A.)

Across a period (Left 2 Right):

increaseDown a Group (Top 2
Bottom):Decrease

v) Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom in a

molecule toattract the shared pair of electrons towards
itself is called its electronegativity. It is dimensionless
property as it has only a tendency.
Across a period (Left 2 Right):
IncreaseDown a Group (Top 2
Bottom):decrease
Linus Pauling gave scale of measuring
electronegativity.Highest Flourine and least Caesium.
Diagonal relationship : Elements of
thesecond period have resemblance
with right diagonal elements of
third period.

Atomic Number: The atomic number of an element is equal

to the number of protons in the nucleus. Atomic number is
the unique property of an element, because no two elements
have the same atomic number.

Mass Number: The mass number of an element is the sum of

the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the
atom of thatelement.
 CHEMICAL BONDING

Everything in this world wants stability, so is the case with

atoms. For atoms, stability means having the electron
arrangement of an inert gas, i.e., octet in its outermost shell.
Helium has two electrons (DUPLET) while all other inert gases,
i.e., Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon have eight
electrons (OCTET), in their outermost shell.
Therefore, to attain stability, atoms tend to combine chemically
by redistribution of electrons in the outermost shell or valence
electrons so that each is left with a stable electronic
configuration (duplet or octet).
A chemical bond may be defined as the force of attraction
between any two atoms, in a molecule, to maintain stability.
Chemical Bond:
A chemical bond is the force of attraction between atoms that
leads to the formation of chemical compounds. The bond occurs
because of electrostatic force of attraction between atoms of
opposite charges and through the sharing of electrons (in
covalent bonds).

There are three methods in which atoms can achieve a stable

configuration:
(1) The transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the
other to form an electrovalent (or an ionic) bond.
(2) Sharing of one, two or three pairs of electrons between two
atoms to form a covalent (or a molecular) bond.
(3) When the shared electron pairs are contributed by only one
of the combining atoms, the bond formed is known as
coordinate (or dative) bond.

Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

A metallic atom, which loses electron(s), becomes a positively
charged ion and is known as a cation and a non-metallic atom,
which gains electron(s), becomes a negatively charged ion and
is known as an anion.

An ion is a charged particle which is formed due to the gain or

the loss of one or more electrons by an atom.

A metallic element, whose one atom readily loses electron(s) to

form a positively charged ion, is an electropositive element.
Na - e- → Na+ (cation)

A non-metallic element, whose atom readily accepts electron(s)

to form a negatively charged ion, is an electronegative element.
Cl + e- → Cl- (anion)

Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron

between atoms. Ionic bonds occur between metals (electron
donors) and non-metals (electron acceptors) because of the
electrostatic force of attraction between positive and negative
ions.

Conditions for formation of Electrovalent Bond:

1. Low I.P.- cations are formed easily
2. High Electron Affinity- anions are formed easily
3. Large electronegativity Difference – transfer of electrons
easily

Most Ionic Compound is Caesium fluoride

Ionic Bonds are stable because they are formed by electrostatic
force of attraction.
Ex : sodium chloride, magnesium chloride etc..

Structure of compounds some electrovalent

1. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Na – 1e- → Na+
(2,8,1) (2,8)
Atom Cation
Sodium EC is 2,8,1

Calcium EC is 2,8,7
Cl + 1e- → Cl-
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
Atom Anion
Electron Dot Structure of NaCl

2. Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)

Mg – 2e- → Mg2+
(2,8,2) (2,8)
Atom Cation

2Cl + 2e- → 2Cl-

(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
2 Cl Atoms 2 chloride anions

Electron Dot Structure of (MgCl2)

3. Calcium Oxide (CaO)

Ca – 2e- → Ca2+
(2,8,8,2) (2,8,8)
Atom Cation

O + 2e- → O2-
(2,6) (2,8)
atom anion

Electron Dot Structure of (CaO)

Redox Reaction:
The electropositive atom undergoes oxidation, while the
electronegative atom undergoes reduction. This is known as
REDOX PROCESS.

For example:
Formation of sodium chloride:
Sodium chloride is formed by the combination of sodium and
chlorine.
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

2Na →2Na+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

Cl2 + 2e- →2Cl- (Reduction)

Note: Oxidation and reduction always occur simultaneously

because the electron(s) lost by the reducing agent must be
gained by the oxidising agent.

Covalent or Molecular Bond

Covalent bonds are formed between two or more atoms when
they share electrons. They are normally formed between atoms
of similar electronegativity and may occur between atoms of the
same or of a different kind.

Example: Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen share 1, 2, and 3 electrons

respectively, with similar atoms to form molecules. Carbon and
hydrogen share electrons to form hydrocarbons.
Covalent bonds can be polar or non-polar. The more the
difference in electronegativity, the more is the polar nature of
the molecule.

Covalent bonds are of three types:

1. Single Covalent Bonds like hydrogen, chlorine. It is formed by
sharing of one electron

2. Double Covalent Bonds like oxygen. It is formed by sharing of

two electrons.

3. Triple Covalent Bonds like nitrogen. It is formed by sharing of

three electrons.

Ionisation is the process by which covalent compounds are

converted into ions.
The covalency of an atom is the number of its electrons taking
part in the formation of shared pairs. Thus, the covalency of
hydrogen is 1, oxygen 2, nitrogen 3 and carbon 4.

Non Polar Covalent: when shared pair of electrons are equally

distributed. No separation of charge takes place. The Molecule
is symmetric and electrically neutral. They donot ionize in
water. Ex- Hydrogen, Chlorine, Oxygen etc..
Polar Covalent Bonds: are formed when shared pair of electrons
is not equally distributed. Separation of charge takes place.
Polar covalent bonds are between atoms with differences in
electronegativity, for example, water, and hydrogen chloride.

A molecule that has both, slight positive and slight negative

charge is called a Dipole molecule.

Some Covalent Molecules and their structures

1. Hydrogen Molecule (Non – Polar Comound)
2. Chlorine molecule (Non-polar compound)
3. Nitrogen molecule (Non-polar compound)

4. Carbon tetrachloride molecule (Non-polar compound)

5. Methane molecule (Non-polar compound)
6. Water molecule (Polar compound)
7. Ammonia molecule (Polar compound)
PROPERTIES AND COMPARISION OF ELECTOVALENT AND
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON ELECTROVALENT AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in molten or

aqueous states due to free mobile ions.

Covalent compounds: When the current is passed through the

solutions of covalent compounds, i.e. distilled water, sugar
solution, alcohol, chloroform, benzene and petrol the bulb does
not glow. This shows that they do not conduct electricity. This
happens because solutions of covalent compounds contain only
molecules and no ions.

Co-ordinate Bond or Dative Bond

A coordinate covalent bond is also known as a dative bond or
coordinate bond or co- ionic bond is a type of covalent bond in
which the two-shared electrons are supplied by the same atom.
It is formed by two atoms sharing a pair of electrons where one
of the atoms has a lone pair of electrons.
A lone pair is a valence electron pair without bonding or sharing
with other atoms. They are found in the outermost electron
shell of an atom.
Example: Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons of which three are
used for bonding with hydrogen to form ammonia.
Nitrogen in ammonia thus has one lone pair of electrons left.
When ammonia combines with a hydrogen ion it forms
ammonium ion. Nitrogen is the donor and hydrogen is the
acceptor.

Formation of Hydronium Ions

 ACID, BASES AND SALTS
ACIDS:
The word ‘acid’ comes from the Latin word “acidus”, meaning
‘sour’. In fact, the sour taste of some foods is due to the acids
they contain.
Acids are defined as “Compounds which contain one or more
hydrogen atoms and when dissolved in water, produces
hydronium ions (H3O+) the only positive charged ions.”

Some Naturally Occurring Acids

Acetic acid Vinegar
Citric acid Citrus fruits (oranges and
lemons)
Butyric acid Rancid butter
Hydrochloric acid Gastric juice
Formic acid Sting of bees and ants
Lactic acid Sour milk, curd
Malic acid Apples
Oleic acid Olive oil
Oxalic acid Tomatoes
Stearic acid Fats
Tartaric acid Grapes, tamarind and apples
Uric acid Urine

Classification of Acids
1. Depending on their sources
i) Organic Acids- obtained from plants Ex. Acetic acid, Citric
Acid. They are weak acid and forms ions and molecules in
solution.

ii) Inorganic Acids- obtained from minerals Ex. Hydrochloric

Acid. They are strong acids as they ionises completely.

2. Depending on their concentration

i) Concentrated acid- Amount of acid is more than amount of
water.
ii) Dilute acid- Amount of water is more than amount of acid

How Concentrated Acid is Diluted ?

Water is not added to acid as it is exothermic reaction it results
in splashing of acid which is dangerous.
So Acid is added to water in small amounts and constantly
stirred.

Strength of an acid is the measure of concentration of

hydronium ions it produces in its aqueous solution. Thus dil.
HCI is stronger acid than highly concentrated acetic acid.

On what does Strength of an Acid depend ?

The strength of an acid depends on the degree of ionisation (α)
and concentration of hydronium ions [H3O]+ produced by that
acid in aqueous solution.

1. Degree of ionisation (α)

= No. of acid molecules ionised / (Total no. of acid molecules
present in aqueous solution) × 100

2. If the degree of ionisation (a) for an acid, or alkali in aqueous

solution is greater than 30%, it is strong and if it is less than
30%, it is weak.

3. Depending on their basicity (No. of hydronium ions

produced in complete ionisation of one molecule of an acid)
i) Monobasic acid- One hydronium ion. Ex HCl, HBr
ii) Dibasic acid- Two Hydronium ions Ex. Sulphuric acid,
iii) Tribasic acid- Three hydronium ions Ex. Phosphoric Acid

Preparation of Acids
(1) By synthesis
Binary acids (acids containing two elements) are prepared by
this method.

(2) By the action of water on non-metallic or acidic oxides

Acidic oxides (also called acidic anhydrides) dissolve in water to
give acids.

(3) By the oxidation of non-metals

A non-metal, e.g., sulphur or phosphorus is oxidised by conc.
nitric acid to form sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid
respectively.

(4) By displacement
Normal salts of more volatile acids are displaced by a less or
non-volatile acid.

Properties Of Acids
i) Taste- Sour taste but don’t try tasting acid as mineral acids
are corrosive.
ii) Physical State- Solid - Boric Acid, Citric acid. Liquid- HCl
(Volatile), H2SO4 (Non Volatile).
iii) Effect on skin- mineral acids are Corrosive action causing
burns - Sulphric Acid (Black), HCl (Amber), Nitric Acid (Yellow)

iv) Colours of indicators- Blue Litmus Red. Methyl orange to

Pink. Phenolphthalein no change.

• Those substances whose smell (or odour) changes in acidic

or basic solutions are called OLFACTORY INDICATORS.
• For example, onion, vanilla and clove oil.

Chemical Properties of Acids:

i) Reaction with active metals- form Hydrogen and Metal Salt
Exception Nitric acid produces water and salt.

ii) Reaction with bases – Neutralisation

iii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates (hydrogen

carbonates) - form Salt, water and Carbon di oxide. Exception
insoluble salt don’t proceed.

iv) Reaction with sulphites and bisulphites- Forms salt, water

and Sulphur dioxide.

v) Reaction with sulphides- Salt and Hydrogen sulphides

vi) Reaction with chlorides and nitrates- Only few (Ba, Pb)
reacts with dil HCl rest ( Na, K) reacts only with Conc HCl.

General Uses of Some Acids

 Acid Use
1. Boric acid Eye-wash/antiseptic.
2. Citric acid Food preservation.
Vitamin C preparation.
3. Oxalic acid Ink stain remover.
4. Carbonic acid Flavoured drinks.
5. Tartaric acid Baking powder.
6. Acetic acid Table vinegar and in cooking.
7. Hydrochloric acid Cleaning of metal items
(pickling)
8. Benzoic acid Preservation of food and
making of perfumes and
medicines.
9. Nitric acid Explosives.
10. Phosphoric acid Fertilizers.

BASES:
A base is either a metallic oxide or a metallic hydroxide or
ammonium hydroxide which reacts with hydronium ions of an
acid to form salt and water only.

Basic Oxide: A basic oxide is a metallic oxide which contains the

ion O2- and reacts with an acid to form salt and water only.

Basic Hydroxide: It is a metallic hydroxide which contains OH-

and will react with an acid to give salt and wate (b) A only.

Alkalis: An alkali is a basic hydroxide which when b dissolved in

water produces hydroxyl (OH-) ions as the only negatively
charged ions.

Classification of Bases:
1. On the basis of their strength
 i) Strong Alkali – Ionises completely to produce high
concentration of OH- ions. KOH, NaOH
ii) Weak Alkali - Ionises completely to produce low
concentration of OH- ions. NH4OH, Ca(OH)2

2. On the basis of their acidity (No. of hydroxyl ions produced

in complete ionisation of one molecule of a base):
i) Monoacidic Base- NaOH
iii) Diacidic Base- Ca(OH)2
ii) Triacidic Base- Al(OH)3

Preparation of bases
The common methods of preparation are:
(1) From metals: Metals when react with oxygen give bases.

(2) By the action of water on reactive metals like sodium,

potassium and calcium.

(3) By the action of water on soluble metallic oxides like oxides

of sodium, potassium and calcium.
(4) By double decomposition: Aqueous solutions of salts with a
base (alkali) precipitate the respective metallic hydroxide.

(5) By the action of oxygen on metal sulphides

(6) By decomposition of salts

(7) Ammonium hydroxide can be prepared by simply dissolving
ammonia gas in water. Ammonia is extremely soluble in water.

Properties of Bases/Alkalis:
Physical Properties:-
i) They have a sharp and bitter taste.
ii) They change the colour of indicators.- R-L-B, Mo-Yellow,
CPh-Pink
iii) They are soapy substances, i.e., they are slippery to touch.
iv) They are strong electrolytes.

Chemical properties:-
i) Strong alkalis absorb carbon dioxide from the air to form
carbonates.
ii) They neutralise acids to form salt and water.
iii) They precipitate as insoluble metallic hydroxides when
added to the solutions of the salts of the heavy metals,Ex
copper, iron, zinc, etc.
iv) When alkalies are warmed with an ammonium salt,
ammonia gas is given out.

General Uses of Some Bases:

Base Use
1. Sodium Manufacture of
Hydroxide soaps
2. Potassium Manufacture of
Hydroxide bleaching
powder
3. Magnesia In making
refractory
bricks
4. Calcium Drying Agent,
Oxide basic flux
5. Aluminium As a foaming
Hydroxide agent in fire
extinguishers.
6. Ammonium To remove
hydroxide grease stains
from clothes.
7. Magnesia In making
(MgO) refractory
bricks.
8. Calcium Drying agent,
oxide basic flux.

Strength of Acidic and Basic Solutions:

The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of
the hydrogen ion concentration expressed in moles per litre.
• The universal indicator is a mixture of indicator dyes that
gives a spectrum of colours depending on how acidic or
alkaline a solution is, Universal indicators gives different
colours at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a
solution.

Importance of pH in everyday life

1. Our body works within a narrow pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Plants
and animals also survive in a narrow range.
2. In agriculture: Every crop grows better in a particular pH
range. For example, rice grows better in slightly acidic soil,
sugarcane in neutral and citrus fruits in alkaline soil.

3. If pH is less than 5-6 of rain water it is said to be acid rain.

This water contains acids like sulphuric acid, nitric acid and
carbonic acid which are formed by atmospheric pollutants
mainly sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Acid rain
reduces fertility of soil, destroys marine life and causes damage
to monuments.

4. In medicines: Certain diseases are diagnosed only on the

basis of the pH value of blood and urine.

5. In digestive system: Hydrochloric acid is produced in the

stomach which helps in the digestion of food. To get rid of this
ANTACIDS like milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2) is generally used to
adjust the pH.

6. In preventing tooth decay: Substances like chocolates and

sweets are degraded by bacteria present in our mouth. When
the pH falls to 5.5 tooth decay starts. Tooth enamel (calcium)
phosphate) is the hardest substance in our body and it gets
corroded.

7. Bee sting leaves acid in the body. If baking soda, a base, is

applied on the stung area, it gives relief.
SALTS AND THEIR PREPARATIONS
SALTS:
Salt is a compound formed by the partial or total replacement of
the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid by a metallic ion or an
ammonium ion.

Classification of Salts:
1. Normal Salts: Normal salts are the salts formed by the
complete replacement of the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an
acid by a metallic or an ammonium ion.
For example:- Hydrochloric acid yields sodium chloride,
Sulphuric acid gives sodium sulphate.

2. Acid Salts: Acid salts are formed by the partial replacement of

the ionisable hydrogen atoms of a polybasic acid by a metal or
an ammonium ion.
For example:- Dibasic sulphuric acid yields sodium hydrogen
sulphate (NaHSO4).

3. Basic Salts: Basic salts are formed by the partial replacement

of the hydroxyl group of a di- or a tri- acidic base by an acid
radical.
For example:- Basic lead chloride [Pb(OH)Cl],
Basic Magnesium chloride [Mg(OH)CI]
Preparation of insoluble salts
1. By direct combination
2. By the combination of an acidic oxide with a basic oxide.

3. By the precipitation reaction (DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION)

(i) Silver chloride and barium sulphate.

Silver chloride is usually prepared by the reaction of aqueous
silver nitrate with dilute hydrochloric acid and precipitate of
silver chloride is obtained.

(ii) Carbonates.
Most of the carbonates are insoluble. They can be prepared by
boiling that metal salt with sodium carbonate solution in water.
Carbonate ion of sodium gets attached to the other metal ion by
leaving sodium ion in solution. Thus metal carbonates are
precipitated.

(iii) Insoluble lead sulphate is prepared from insoluble lead

carbonate or insoluble lead oxide, by first converting either of
them into soluble lead nitrate (with the help of dilute nitric
acid).

Laboratory Preparation of some salts

1. Iron (III) chloride [FeCl3]

Method of preparation: Synthesis, i.e., direct combination of

elements.

Reaction:

2. Zinc sulphate and Iron (II) sulphate

Method of preparation: Displacement By the action of dilute

acid (dil H2SO4) on an active metal (Zinc, Iron).

(a) Zinc sulphate (or white vitriol)

Reaction:
(b) Iron (II) sulphate (or green vitriol)
Iron (II) sulphate is prepared by displacement (Action of acid
on reactive metal).

Reaction:

3. Lead Chloride (PbCl2) and Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

Method of preparation: Double decomposition (Precipitation)

(a) Lead chloride (PbCl2)

It is prepared by adding either dilute hydrochloric acid or
sodium chloride solution to a solution of lead nitrate.

Reaction:

(b) Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

It is prepared by adding sodium carbonate solution to a hot
solution of calcium chloride in a beaker, till the former is in
excess.

Reaction:
4. Preparation of an acid salt sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

Reaction:

5. Neutralisation
Neutralisation is the process by which H+ ions of an acid react
completely with the [OH-] ions of a base to give salt and water
only.

6. Preparation of copper (II) sulphate (or blue vitriol)

Method of preparation: Neutralisation of insoluble base

Reaction:

7. Preparation of sodium sulphate crystals (Na2SO4.10H2O)

Principle: Neutralisation of an alkali (caustic soda) with acid

(dilute sulphuric acid).

Reaction:
 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Analysis means determination of chemical components.

Qualitative Analysis- finding unknown substance
Quantitative Analysis- finding composition of mixture
Alkalis are added to salt solution, coloured precipitate of metal
hydroxide are formed.
Reagent is a substance that reacts with another substance.
Action of alkali on metal cations results in the formation of
their hydroxides which often appear as precipitates.
Precipitation is the process of formation of an insoluble solid
when solutions are mixed. The solid thus formed is called
precipitate.

COLOURS OF THE SALTS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

The salts of 'representative elements' of the periodic table, i.e.,
the elements of the Groups 1, 2, and 13 to 17 are generally
colourless, while those of the 'transition elements', i.e., salts of
elements of Groups 3 to 12 are generally coloured.
Different colours of coloured salts help in their identification
during qualitative analysis. Some examples of colourless and
coloured ions are given below:
Cations:
Anions:
 MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry measures quantitative relationships, and is used
to determine the amount of products/reactants that are
produced/ needed in a given reaction. Describing the
quantitative relationships among substances as they participate
in chemical reactions is known as reaction stoichiometry.

Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes

According to this law, "when gases react, they do so in volumes
which bear a simple ratio to one another and to the volume of
the gaseous product, provided that all the volumes are
measured at the same temperature and pressure".
Note: Gay-Lussac's law is applicable only for gases. The
volumes of liquids and solids are considered to be zero.

The law may be illustrated by the following examples involving

gases or vapours:

1. Reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia

Experimentally it is noticed that one volume of nitrogen
combined with three volumes of hydrogen gives two volumes of
ammonia at the same temperature and pressure.
N₂ + 3H2 -> 2NH3
Thus, the ratio 1:3:2 is simple.

2. Formation of carbon dioxide

Two volumes of carbon monoxide on combustion with one
volume of oxygen gives two volumes of carbon dioxide at the
same temperature and pressure.
2CO + O2 -> 2CO2
Thus, the ratio 2:1:2 is simple.

Avogadro's Law
Avogadro's law states that "equal volumes of all gases under
similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules."

Atomicity
The number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called its
atomicity.
(a) Monoatomic
Monoatomic molecule is composed of only one atom.
Examples: Inert gases like Helium, Neon, Argon, etc.

(b) Diatomic
Diatomic molecule is composed of two similar atoms.
Examples: H2,O2, Cl2 ,N2, etc.

(c) Triatomic
Triatomic molecule is composed of three similar atoms.
Example: Ozone gas O3

(d) Tetratomic
Tetratomic molecule is composed of four similar atoms.
Example: Phosphorus (P4)

(e) Octatomic
Octatomic molecule is composed of eight similar atoms.
Example: Sulphur (S8)

Molecules made up of same type of atoms are homoatomic

molecules, e.g. phosphorus (P), ozone (O3) etc. while molecules
made up of different types of atoms are hetero-atomic
molecules, e.g. HCl, NH3, etc.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (ATOMIC WEIGHT)

The relative atomic mass or atomic weight of an element is the
number of times one atom of the element is heavier than 1/12
times of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Thus,
Relative Molecular Mass = Mass of 1 atom of the element /
1/12th mass of one C-12 atom
Atomic mass is expressed in atomic mass units [a.m.u.]. Atomic
mass unit is defined as 1/12 the mass of carbon atom C-12.

Fractional atomic masses

It is observed that most atomic masses are not whole numbers.
The reason is that most natural elements are a mixture of
constant composition containing two or more isotopes.

For example, chlorine consists of a mixture of two isotopes of

masses 35 and 37 in the ratio of 3:1.

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS (MOLECULAR WEIGHT)

The relative molecular mass (or molecular weight) of an
element or a compound is the number that represents how
many times one molecule of the substance is heavier than 1/12
of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

GRAM ATOMIC MASS

The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called
gram atomic mass.
The quantity of the element which weighs equal to its gram
atomic mass is called one gram atom of that element.

For example 16 g of oxygen is equal to one gram atom of oxygen.

Similarly,
1 g atom of sodium = 23 g of sodium
⇒ 1 g atom of He = 4 g of helium

GRAM MOLECULAR MASS

The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called
gram molecular mass or molar mass. A sample of a substance
with its mass equal to its gram molecular mass is called one
gram molecule of the substance.

MOLE CONCEPT
It is not practically possible to find the mass of a minute particle
like an atom, a molecule, or an ion etc. Therefore, a collection of
6.022 × 10^23 elementary particles called Mole is taken for all
practical purposes.
A mole is the amount of pure substance containing the same
number of chemical units as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams
of carbon -12.

Avogadro's number is defined as the number of atoms present

in 12 g (gram atomic mass) of C-12 isotope, i.e., 6.022 x 1023
atoms.

OR

Avogadro's number is the number of elementary units, i.e.,

atoms, ions or molecules present in one mole of a substance.
It is denoted by NA.

VAPOUR DENSITY AND ITS RELATION TO RELATIVE

MOLECULAR MASS

The Relative Vapour Density of a gas (or a vapour) is:

The ratio between the masses of equal volumes of gas (or
vapour) and hydrogen under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Relative V.D.= 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 ′𝐯′ 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 ′𝐯′ 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

Relative V.D. = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 1 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐯𝐚𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐫

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 2 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧

(Molecule of hydrogen contains 2 atoms) By multiplying both

sides by 2

2 x Rel. V.D. = 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 1 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐯𝐚𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐫

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 1 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧

2 x Rel. V.D. = Rel. molecular mass of a gas or vapour.

The relative molecular mass of a gas or vapour is twice its

vapour density.

The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one gram-

molecular mass or simply, by one mole of the gas at S.T.P. It is
equal to 22.4 dm³.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION:
Percentage composition of a compound, is the percentage by
weight of each element present in it.

Percentage of an element in a compound

=
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐭.𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞
𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐦 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
× 100

EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF A COMPOUND

The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula,
which gives the simplest ratio in whole numbers of atoms of
different elements present in one molecule of the compound.

MOLECULAR FORMULA
The molecular formula of a compound denotes the actual
number of atoms of different elements present in one molecule
of the compound.

Molecular formula of Blue Vitriol is CuSO4.5H2O

It gives the information that a molecule of blue vitriol is made
of-
1. One atom of copper,
2. One atom of sulphur,
3. Four atoms of oxygen,
4. Five molecules of water of crystallization.

Steps to find the Molecular formula of a compound:

(1) Calculate the empirical weight of the compound from its
empirical formula.
(2) Divide its molecular weight by empirical weight which gives
the number (n).
(3) Multiply the empirical formula by this number to get the
molecular formula.

Molecular formula = empirical formula x n

Where n = Molecular Weight / Empirical formula weight

Note: The value of n must be rounded off to its nearest whole

number.

VAPOUR DENSITY
Vapour density is the ratio of the mass of a volume of a gas, to
the mass of an equal volume of hydrogen, measured under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure.
Molecular mass = V.D. × 2

ELECTROLYSIS
The word electrolysis is made up of two words “electro” which means
the flow of electrons, and “lysis” which means SEPERATING.
Most metals and alloys are conductors because they allow electricity to
pass through them while non metals are non conductors of electricity.
Electrolysis is the process by which a chemical compound in the fused
state or in aqueous solution undergoes a chemical change on the
passage of current.
Electrolytes are chemical compound which conducts electricity in
molten or aqueous state. Ex- NaCl
During electrolysis, a chemical change is brought about by electric
energy.
An ionic compound or electrovalent compound is formed when metallic
atoms donate electrons and non-metallic ions accept electrons.

Difference between Cu wire and Copper sulphate solution

OR
Differences between metallic and electrolytic conductors

Metallic Conductors (Cu Electrolytic Conductors(copper

Wire) Sulphate sol.)

Flow of electrons from Flow of ions in solution to the

negative pole to positive pole respective electrodes is responsible
is responsible for conduction. for conduction.

Shown by aqueous solution of ionic

Shown by metals and alloys compounds

Present in both solid and Present in molten or aqueous

liquid state of metals solution of the ionic compounds

Physical process Chemical process

DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

(i) Electrolysis: It is the process of decomposition of a chemical
compound in aqueous solution or in molten state accompanied by a
chemical change by using direct electric current.
(ii) Electrolytes are compounds which either in aqueous solution or in
molten state allow electric current to pass through them.
Electrolytes are molten salts or solutions of salts in water or solutions of
acids and alkalis.
Examples of electrolytes:
Acids - H2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4, HCI;
Bases - NaOH, KOH, NH4OH,
Salts - NaCl, CuSO4, PbBг2; Ca(OH)2;

Electrolytes are of two types, based on their conductivity and ability to

dissociate into ions.
1. Strong Electrolyte
2. Weak Electrolyte

Differences between strong and weak electrolytes

Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes

Allows large amount of Allows small amount of electricity

electricity to flow through them to flow through them

Good conductors Poor conductors

Undergo complete dissociation Undergo partial dissociation in

in molten or aqueous solution molten or aqueous solution

Contain free mobile ions Contains ions and molecules

Examples are HCl, H2SO4, Examples are H2CO3, CH3COOH,

HNO3, NaOH, KOH, NaCl, HCOOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2,
CuSO4, etc. (NH4)2CO3,

(iii) Non-electrolyte : It is a compound which neither in solution nor in

the molten state allows an electric current to pass through it. It also
does not decompose at the electrodes.
Non-electrolytes do not have ions even in solution. They contain only
molecules.

Examples of non-electrolytes
Distilled water, alcohol, kerosene, carbon disulphide, cane sugar,
benzene, glucose and urea.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS AS ELECTROLYTES

Acids and alkalis ionise when dissolved in water, whereas bases and
salts dissociate in fused (molten) state or in their aqueous solutions into
free mobile ions.

(iv) Electrolytic cell or voltameter A non- conducting vessel containing

two electrode immersed in a solution of electrolytes used to bring about
a chemical reaction.
Electrolytic cells require an outside source of electricity (DC source) to
initiate the movement of ions between two electrodes where the
chemical change takes place. It converts electrical energy into chemical

energy.

(v) Electrochemical cell: It is a device used to convert chemical energy

into electrical energy.
Examples: Simple voltaic cell, Daniel cell, etc.
(vi) Electrodes: Two metal plates or wires or graphite rods or gas
carbon rods immersed in the electrolyte through which the current
enters and leaves the electrolytic cell are called electrodes.

Anode: The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is

called anode.
Cathode: The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery
is called cathode.
Differences between cathode and Anode
Anode Cathode

Connected to positive terminal of Connected to negative terminal of

the battery the battery

Migration of anion occurs Migration of cations occurs

Oxidation occurs Reduction occurs

(vii) Ions: The atoms or groups of atoms which carry a positive or a
negative charge are known as ions.
Atoms which carry positive charge are called cations and the atoms
which carry negative charge are called anions.
The charge on an ion, positive or negative is equal to the valency of the
atom or the ion.
(viii) Oxidation: In the electronic concept, oxidation is defined as a
process in which an atom or an ion loses electron(s).
Element:
Zn - 2e– → Zn²+

Oxidation is also defined as a chemical process which involves addition

of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.

(a) Addition of oxygen:

Element + Oxygen → Oxide
C + O2 → CO2
(b) Removal of hydrogen:
H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S

Oxidising Agents:
An oxidising agent is one that oxidises other substances by either
accepting electrons or by providing oxygen or an electronegative ion for
by removing hydrogen or an electropositive ion.

Some examples of oxidising agents:

1. Solids: Manganese dioxide, red lead, lead dioxide, etc.
2. Liquids: Hydrogen peroxide, conc. nitric acid, conc. sulphuric acid,
bromine, etc.
3. Gaseous: Oxygen, ozone, chlorine, sulphur dioxide, etc.

(ix) Reduction: In the electronic concept, reduction is defined as a

process in which an atom or an ion gains electron(s).
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Reduction is also defined as a chemical process which involves removal
of oxygen or addition of hydrogen.
(a) Removal of oxygen:
Oxide + Element → Metal
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
(b) Addition of Hydrogen :
Cl2 + H2S → S + 2HCl

Reducing Agents:
A reducing agent is one that reduces other substances by providing
electrons, or by providing hydrogen or an electropositive ion, (or by
removing oxygen or an electronegative ion). Thus, in the above
examples, hydrogen, carbon, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia are the
reducing agents.

Some examples of reducing agents

1. Solids: Carbon, metals like Zn, Al, Cu and Na, stannous chloride,
glucose, etc.
2. Liquids: Hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen iodide, hydrogen bromide,
etc.
3. Gaseous: Hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide sulphur dioxide, etc.
Differences between cation and anion
Cation Anion

Positively charged Negatively charged

Migrate to cathode Migrate to anode

Get reduced to form neutral Get oxidised to form neutral

atom atom

Examples, Na+, Al3+ Examples, Cl−, OH−

Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation

It was put forward by Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist. Following
are the points given by him:
Mechanism of electrolysis
• An electrolyte is a substance which in an aqueous solution breaks
into positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.
• The movement of ions within the electrolyte is responsible for the
flow of electric current.
• The degree of dissociation refers to the extent to which electrolyte
dissociates into ions.
 • Cations and anions unite to form neutral ion, setting up
equilibrium.
• An electrolyte is electrically neutral.

Electrolysis of water
Add a small amount of salt to water and pour this solution into a beaker.
Connect two electrical wires to the terminal of the battery as shown in
the figure. The two ends of the wires will serve as electrodes when the
insulating cladding is removed from them. Take two test tubes and fill
them with the solution of salt and water. Invert these test tubes on the
electrodes and restrict the formation of air bubbles. Switch on the
power supply.

Observe the two test tubes when the electric current is passed through
it. The volume of the gas formed in one test tube is double than that of
the gas formed in the other test tube.
The gas formed at the cathode is hydrogen while the gas formed at the
anode is oxygen.
Cathode: 2H2O (l) + 2e- →H2 (g) + 2OH-(aq)
Anode: 2H2O (l) → O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-

CONDUCTION IN COMPOUNDS
The electrovalent compounds consist of aggregate of oppositely charged
ions held in their positions by the strong electrostatic forces of
attraction. Hence, in the solid state, an electrovalent compound like
sodium chloride cannot conduct electricity despite the presence of ions.
When the electrovalent compounds are melted or dissolved in water,
the forces of attraction between their ions are broken and the ions then
move about and conduct electricity.
Covalent compounds which are polar in nature also ionise in aqueous
solution and conduct electricity e.g. HCI, NH3, H₂O.
Characteristics of electrolysis
• On passing the electric current, cations migrate towards cathode
while the anions migrate towards the anode.
• The number of electrons accepted by an anode is equal to the
number of electrons donated by the cathode.
• The products of electrolysis are formed on the surface of the
cathode where the exchange of electrons occurs.
• The preferential discharge of ions depends upon their position in
electrochemical series and the concentration of ions.
• Neutral atoms of metals and hydrogen are liberated at the cathode.
Therefore, they are called electropositive elements.
• Neutral atoms of non-metals are liberated at the anode. Therefore,
they are called electronegative elements.
• According to Faraday's law of electrolysis, the mass of a substance
discharged at an electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolyte.
• Direct current is suitable to carry out electrolysis.
• Electrolysis is a redox reaction, where reduction occurs at cathode
and oxidation occurs at anode.

Electrolytic Dissociation
In a solid ionic compound, ions are held together by strong electrostatic
forces. Hence, the ions are not free to migrate. Therefore, solid ionic
compounds do not conduct electricity.
But fused ionic compound and an aqueous solution of a compound have
free ions produced by electrolytic dissociation of the ionic compound.
These ions are free to conduct electricity.
Example- Solid ionic lead bromide does not conduct electricity as lead
ions and bromide ions are not free to migrate. This is because they are
held together by strong electrostatic forces.
But when lead bromide is heated, ions gain kinetic energy. At one point,
ions have more kinetic energy than the electrostatic bonds holding them
and they start moving freely. Hence, the fused compound conducts
electricity.

In an aqueous solution of compounds, say lead bromide, the slight

positive charge on hydrogen atom pulls the bromine ions and slight
negative charge on oxygen atom pulls the lead ions. This weakens the
electrostatic attraction between lead and bromide ions. Thus, free ions
are migrated towards cathode and anode and thus, it conducts
electricity.

Ionisation:
Covalent compounds such as molten wax or kerosene oil do not conduct
electricity as they do not produce free ions even on heating or in
solution form. There are certain covalent compounds that form ions
when dissolved in water and thus conduct electricity.
The process of conversion of polar covalent compounds into ions in
aqueous solution is known as ionisation. For example, pure hydrogen
chloride does not contain any ion. It does not conduct electricity.
However, due to the difference in the electronegativities of H and Cl,
there exists a small charge distribution, making it a polar covalent
compound. Addition of this pure hydrogen chloride to water helps in
charge separation causing the formation of ions in the solution.

Electrochemical Series
Depending on the ease with which metals lose or gain electrons to form
ions, they are arranged in a vertical column called electrochemical
series.

Electropositive series
Depending on the ease with which metals lose electrons to form ions,
they are arranged in a vertical column called electropositive series.
Metals, which ionise very easily such as potassium, are placed at the top
of electropositive series. The cations formed are not discharged easily
during electrolysis.
Metals, which do not ionise easily such as silver ion, are placed at the
bottom of electropositive series. The cations formed are discharged
very easily during electrolysis.
Electronegative series
Depending on the ease with which non-metals or group of non-metals
gain electrons to form ions, they are arranged in a vertical column
called electronegative series.
Non-metals or group of non-metals, which accept electrons very easily
such as fluorine, are placed at the top of electronegative series. The
anions formed are not discharged easily during electrolysis.
Non-metals or group of non-metals, which do not accept electrons easily
such as hydroxyl ion, are placed at the bottom of electronegative series.
The cations formed are discharged with very difficulty during
electrolysis.
Selective discharge of ions

It refers to the preferential discharge of one particular cation at cathode

and one particular anion at anode when an electrolyte contains two or
more anions or cations.

Let us study the factors which influence selective discharge of ions.

1. Relative positions of cations and anions in electrochemical series
Ions which are present at lower position in the electrochemical series
have greater tendency of their discharge at respective electrode to form
an element.
For example, in an electrolyte containing silver ion and hydrogen ion,
both will migrate to cathode, but silver ions are discharged
preferentially due to its lower position in electrochemical series.
In an electrolyte containing chloride ion and hydroxyl ion, both will
migrate to cathode, but hydroxyl ions are discharged preferentially due
to its lower position in electrochemical series.

2. Concentration of ions
Higher the concentration, greater are the chances of their discharge on
respective electrodes.

3. Nature of anode
The selective discharge of anions migrating towards anode depends of
the nature of anode. The anode can be chemically inert such as iron,
graphite, etc. do not take part in electrolytic reaction.
Active Electrodes like Cu, Ni, Ag take part in electrolytic reaction.

Electrolysis of some Common Electrolytes

1. Electrolysis of lead bromide
It is carried out under following conditions:
Electrolytic cell- Silica crucible, containing fused lead bromide and
graphite electrodes, is used as it is non-reactive and a bad conductor of
electricity.
Electrolyte- Molten fused lead bromide is used as solid lead bromide is a
bad conductor of electricity while molten fused lead bromide is a good
conductor of electricity.
Electrodes- Inert electrodes are used because they do not react with the
products formed. Graphite is used as cathode and anode in preference
to platinum because bromine evolved at anode can react with platinum.
Temperature- A temperature of 380ºC or above is maintained by
external heating, which is the melting point of lead bromide.

Dissociation of electrolyte
PbBr2 ↔ Pb2+ + 2Br-
Lead ions and bromide ions are formed in the process.
On passage of electric current, lead ions are attracted towards cathode
while bromide ions migrate towards anode.
At cathode
Cathode acts as electron donor. Therefore, the following reaction takes
place.
Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb
Lead metal is formed at cathode, which settles down at the base of
crucible.
At anode
Anode acts as electron acceptor. Therefore, the following reaction takes
place.
Br- → Br + e-
Br + Br → Br2
Therefore, bromine vapours are formed at anode.

2. Electrolysis of acidulated water

It is carried out under the following conditions:
Electrolytic cell- Hofmann’s voltameter is used. It consists of three
interconnected glass tubes. The central tube is used for pouring
acidulated water while products are collected from side tubes.
Electrolyte − Distilled water containing 2% sulphuric acid is used.
Sulphuric acid is used because it helps in dissociation of water.
Electrodes- Inert electrodes are used because they do not react with the
products formed. Platinum strip is used as cathode and anode because
the products formed at anode do not react with platinum.
Temperature- The electrolysis is carried out at room temperature.

Dissociation of electrolyte
H2O ↔ H+ + OH-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
On passage of electric current, H+ ions are attracted towards cathode
while OH-and SO42- ions migrate towards anode.
At cathode
Cathode acts as electron donor. Therefore, the following reaction takes
place.
H+ + e- → H ] × 4
2H + 2H → 2H2
Hydrogen atoms are formed at cathode.
At anode
Anode acts as an electron acceptor. Therefore, the following reaction
takes place.
OH- → OH + e- ] × 4
4OH → 2H2O + O2 Commented [Hriday Ru1]:

Hence, oxygen gas is liberated at anode.

3. Electrolysis of aqueous acidulated copper sulphate solution using

COPPER ELECTRODES
It is carried out under the following conditions:
Electrolytic cell- A glass container is used as it is a bad conductor of
electricity. It contains saturated copper sulphate solution and two
copper electrodes.
Electrolyte − Saturated aqueous copper sulphate solution acidified with
sulphuric acid is used. It is acidified to prevent hydrolysis of copper
sulphate.
Electrodes- Inert electrodes are used because they do not react with the
products formed. Copper plate or copper rod is used as cathode and
anode.
Temperature- The electrolysis is carried out at room temperature.

Dissociation of electrolyte
H2O- ↔ H+ + OH-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
CuSO4 ↔ Cu2+ + SO42-
On the passage of electric current, H+ and Cu2+ ions are attracted
towards cathode while OH- and SO42- ions migrate towards anode.
At cathode
Cathode acts as electron donor. Therefore, the following reaction takes
place.
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Copper metal is formed at cathode.
At anode
Anode acts as an electron acceptor. Therefore, the following reaction
takes place.
Cu – 2e- → Cu2+
The concentration of Cu2+ ions does not change. It is because the
number of ions deposited at the cathode is equal to the number of
copper atoms, which ionise at the anode.

4. Electrolysis of aqueous acidulated copper sulphate solution using

platinum anode and copper or platinum cathode

It is carried out under the following conditions:

Electrolytic cell- A glass container is used as it is a bad conductor of
electricity. It contains saturated copper sulphate solution and platinum
or copper electrodes.
Electrolyte − Saturated aqueous copper sulphate solution acidified with
sulphuric acid is used. It is acidified to prevent hydrolysis of copper
sulphate.
Electrodes- Inert electrodes are used because they do not react with the
products formed. Copper plate or copper/platinum rod is used as
cathode and platinum anode.
Temperature- The electrolysis is carried out at room temperature.
Dissociation of electrolyte
H2O ↔ H+ + OH- H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
CuSO4 ↔ Cu + SO42-
3+

On passage of electric current, H+ and Cu2+ ions are attracted towards

cathode while OH- and SO42- ions migrate towards anode.
At cathode
Cathode acts as electron donor. Therefore, the following reaction takes
place.
Cu 2+ + 2e- → Cu
Copper metal is formed at cathode.
At anode
Anode acts as electron acceptor. Since OH−ions are low in
electrochemical series than SO42- ions, hence they will be discharged at
anode to give off oxygen gas as shown below:
4 OH- - 4e- → 4OH
2OH + 2OH → 2H2O + O2
Note: Once the electrolysis of copper sulphate is complete, then the
electrolysis of water starts in and hydrogen gas is liberated at cathode,
while oxygen is liberated at anode. Also, in this electrolysis the blue
colour of the electrolyte fades away due to decrease in the concentration
of Cu2+ ions.

Applications of Electrolysis
Electrolysis is used for the following purposes:
• Electroplating

• Electro-refining
• Extraction of metals by electrolysis

Electroplating
The process of depositing a thin and compact layer of superior metal
over the inferior metal by the process of electrolysis is
called electroplating. It can be of many types such as silver plating and
nickel plating.
It is done for the following reasons:
Decoration purposes: For example, brass objects are frequently plated
with silver to give them the shining appearance and beauty of a silver
article (expensive look).
To protect from rusting and corrosion: Iron tools and instruments are
often electroplated with nickel or chromium or zinc to protect against
rusting.

Conditions of electroplating
• Articles to be electroplated must be very clean.

• Articles to be electroplated are made cathode while the metal to be

electroplated is made anode.
• The metal to be electroplated is to be replaced periodically as it is
consumed.
 • The electrolyte must be in the form of an aqueous saturated
solution and it must contain ions of metals to be electroplated.
• The electrolyte must be acidulated with some acid containing
negative ions so as to prevent hydrolysis.
• Low and direct current should be used so that the electrolyte is not
heated up.
1. Silver Plating
The electrolyte used is the saturated aqueous solution of sodium
argento cyanide acidified with hydrocyanic acid. A highly cleaned article
is used as a cathode while a hollow cylinder of silver surrounding
cathode is used as an anode.

Electrolyte dissociates as follows:

NaAg(CN)2 ↔ Na+ + Ag+ + 2CN-
HCN ↔ H+ + CN-
H2O ↔ H+ + OH-
At the cathode, silver ions discharge because of their low reduction
potential.
Ag+ + e- → Ag
At the anode, silver atoms discharge to form silver ions because of their
low reduction potential.
Ag - e- → Ag+

2. Nickel plating
The electrolyte used is the saturated aqueous solution of nickel sulphate
acidified with sulphuric acid. A highly cleaned article is used as a
cathode while a hollow cylinder of nickel surrounding cathode is used
as an anode.
Electrolyte dissociates as follows:
NiSO4 ↔ Ni2+ + SO42-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO4 2-
H2O ↔ H+ + OH-
At the cathode, nickel ions discharge because of their low reduction
potential.
Ni2+ + 2e- → Ni
At the anode, nickel atoms discharge to form nickel ions because of
their low reduction potential.
Ni – e- → Ni2+

Electro-refining of Metals
Electro-refining is the process by which impurities are removed from an
impure metal. Metals such as silver and copper are refined using
electro-refining.

Electro-refining of copper.
The electrolyte used is the saturated aqueous solution of copper
sulphate acidified with sulphuric acid. Pure copper thin sheets
connected in parallel are used as a cathode while impure copper thin
sheets connected in parallel are used as an anode.
Electrolyte dissociates as follows:
CuSO4 ↔ Cu2+ + SO42-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
H2O ↔ H+ + OH-
At the cathode, copper ions discharge because of their low reduction
potential.
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
At the anode, copper atoms discharge to form copper ions because of
their low reduction potential.
Cu – e- → Cu2+

METALLURGY
THE PROCESS USED FOR EXTRACTION OF METALS IN THEIR PURE FORM FROM
THEIR ORES IS REFERRED TO AS METALLURGY . METALLURGY DEALS WITH
THE PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF METALS AND MANUFACTURE OF
ALLOYS.
Total Elements Known to us are 118.
Metals are those elements which can be drawn into sheets or
pulled into wires, have high densities, high melting and boiling
points and high tensile strength and are good conductors of
heat and electricity.
Copper was the first metal used by man. Metals are defined as
the elements which forms the positive ions by loss of electrons.
Hydrogen is non-metal which forms positive ions.
Non-Metals are the elements which forms the negative ions by
gain of electron. Hydrogen is lightest known element. Nitrogen
is most abundant element.

Occurrence of Metals
The earth's crust is the biggest source of metals. Metals can
either occur in their native (free) state or in a combined state.
Occurrence of metals can be explained basis of activity series.
• Metals which are less reactive and do not react under
normal conditions with oxygen, water, carbon dioxide and
other common reagents, occur in native state. Ex-Gold and
platinum.

• Most of the metals are reactive so they occur in combined

state in the form of their chlorides, oxides, carbonates etc.
mixed with mud, clay, sand and stone. Ex-sodium and
potassium occur mainly as their chlorides, calcium and
magnesium as carbonates, aluminium as its oxide.

Minerals and Ores:

Minerals: Minerals are the naturally occurring compounds of
metals which are generally mixed with other substances such as
soil, mud, sand, silica (SiO₂) limestone, rocks, etc. These earthly
impurities are called gangue or matrix.
Ores: Ores are those minerals from which metals are extracted
commercially at a comparatively lower cost and with minimum
effort.

Common Ores of Aluminium, Iron and Zinc

Main ore of aluminium is bauxite (Al2O3.2H₂O) from which it
iextracted.
Iron is mainly extracted from its chief ore haematite.

Stages Involved in the Extraction of Metals

Extraction of a metal from its ore consists of the following steps.
1. Crushing and grinding of the ore- Ores are crushed into a fine
powder in big jaw crushers and ball mills. This process is called
Pulverisation.
2. Concentration or dressing or benefaction of the ore.
3. Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide by roasting or
calcination.
4. Reduction of metallic oxides (smelting).
5. Refining or purification of metals.
DRESSING (CONCENTRATION) OF ORES

The process of removing gangue, the rocky impurities like SiO2

present in an ore, is called Concentration of an ore or Ore
Dressing and the purified ore is called concentrated ore.
Concentration methods :
(i) Hydraulic washing or Gravity separation or Levigation
The ore is poured over a sloping, vibrating
corrugated table with grooves and a jet of water
is allowed to flow over it. The denser ore
particles settle down in the grooves and lighter
gangue particles are washed down by water.
Oxide ores of iron and tin are concentrated by this method.

(ii) Magnetic Separation

The crushed ore is placed over a
conveyer belt, which rotates around
two metal wheels, one of which is
magnetic. The magnetic particles are
attracted to the magnetic wheel and
fall separately apart from the
non-magnetic particles.
This method is used to concentrate tin stone (SnO2). It contains
magnetic oxide of iron (Fe3O4) as impurity.

(iii) Froth floatation

Principle: This process depends on the
preferential wettability of the ore with
oil (pine oil) and the gangue particles
by water.
The impurities get wetted by water and
remain behind in the tank.
Since the ore is lighter, it comes on the surface with the froth
and impurities are left behind.
Sulphide ores like zinc blende (ZnS) and Galena (PbS) are
lighter than the impurities present.

CONVERSION OF CONCENTRATED ORE TO ITS OXIDE

Concentrated ore is converted to its oxide because oxides are
easier to reduce into metals. Depending upon the nature of the
ores, two methods are used to convert the ore into its oxide: (i)
roasting and (ii) calcination.

(i) Roasting is a process of heating the concentrated ore to a

high temperature in presence of air.
During roasting
(i) Moisture is removed.
(ii) Organic matter is oxidised and removed.
(iii) Impurities of sulphur, phosphorus and arsenic are oxidised
and removed as volatile impurities.
S + O₂ →SO₂
P4 + 5O2 → P4O10
(iv) Metal sulphides are oxidised to metal oxides.
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
2PbS + 3O2 →2PbO + 2SO2
(v) Roasting makes the ore porous and so ore gets heated
uniformly.

(ii) Calcination: If an ore is a carbonate or a hydrated oxide, it is

heated in the absence of air to a temperature that is high but
insufficient to melt the ore. The process is known as
Calcination.
Thus on calcination, metal carbonates and metal hydroxides get
decomposed to give metal oxide.
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO₂
CaCO3 → CaO + CO₂
Moisture, water of hydration and other volatile impurities
present in the ore get removed. Ore becomes porous and
heating of ore is uniform.
REDUCTION OF METAL OXIDES TO METALS
The metal oxide is reduced by heating it with reducing agents
like carbon, carbon monoxide or hydrogen to obtain the crude
metal.
(i) Oxides of highly active metals like potassium, sodium,
calcium, magnesium and aluminium have great affinity towards
oxygen and so cannot be reduced by common reducing agents.
These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction.
For example:
Potassium
Electrolyte : Fused potassium bromide
Reaction: KBr ⇌ K+ + Br-
Reaction at cathode : K+ + e- → K
Reaction at anode : Br- - e- → Br
Br + Br → Br2
Aluminium is also obtained from its oxide by electrolysis.

(ii) The metals in the middle of the activity series such as zinc,
iron, lead, copper, etc., are moderately reactive.
Sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating in excess of
air (roasting) as oxides are easy to reduce.
The carbonate ores are heated in a limited supply of air
(calcination) to convert them into oxides.
The metal oxides are then reduced by using suitable reducing
agents (carbon reduction process).

Ex- Iron, lead and copper are obtained by the reduction of their
oxides with carbon, carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
The highly reactive metals can be used as reducing agents
because they can displace metals of lower reactivity from their
compounds. For example, in order to obtain manganese, its
oxide is heated with aluminium powder.
3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s)→ 3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3(s) + Heat
Aluminium is a powerful reducing agent. When a mixture of
aluminium powder and iron oxide is ignited, the latter is
reduced to metal. This process is called Aluminothermy.
Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3 + Heat
These displacement reactions are highly exothermic. The
amount of heat evolved produces metals in the molten state.

(iii) Metals low in the activity series are very less reactive. The
oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heating
alone.

ELECTRO REFINING
In this method, an electrolytic cell is used which utilizes
electrical energy to drive a chemical reaction. This electrolytic
cell has three components: an electrolyte and two conducting
electrodes (a cathode and an anode) contained in a non-
conducting vessel.
The impure metal is made the anode, while a thin sheet of pure
metal is made the cathode.
Electrolyte used is a salt solution of the metal, which is to be
refined.
Pure metal deposits at the cathode and impurities settle down
forming anode mud.
Metals like copper, silver, gold, nickel, aluminium and zinc are
refined by this process.

Extraction of Aluminium:
Extraction of Aluminum Hall and Héroult, in 1885, developed
the process for the extraction of aluminum.
Aluminum is extracted from its main ore bauxite Al2O3.2H2O.
Bauxite contains 60% Al2O3 , the rest being sand, ferric oxide
and titanium oxide.
It is concentrated or purified by chemical method.

Purification of bauxite ore (conversion of bauxite into alumina)

(Bayer's process)
Step I :- Bauxite is grinded finely and heated to remove volatile
impurities.
Step II :- Heated under pressure with conc. caustic soda
solution. Al₂O3.2H₂O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO₂ + 3H₂O.
Bauxite dissolves and forms sodium meta-aluminate. Red Mud
is impurities formed during the process is removed by
filtration.
Step III :- On adding water at 50C diluting sodium meta-
aluminate, it gets hydrolysed to give aluminium hydroxide.
Soluble impurities remain dissolved in Sodium Hydroxide.
NaAlO2 +2H2O → NaOH + Al(OH)3↓
Step IV :- The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and ignited
at 1000°C to get alumina (Al₂O3).
2AI(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O
Aluminium oxide due to its great affinity for oxygen is a very
stable compound. It is not reduce easily by common reducing
agents like carbon, carbon monoxide or hydrogen. Hence,
electrolytic reduction was chosen as the method for reducing
alumina.
Hall discovered that aluminium can be extracted by adding to
Alumina(20%), Cryolite-Sodium floro-Aluminate(60%) and
Fluorspar-Calcium Floride(20%). This reduced cost of
Aluminium extraction.

Positive ions formed in the solution are Na+ Ca2+ and Al3+ while
negative ions formed in the solution are F-, O2-. Aluminium
being lower in electrochemical series is preferentially
discharged at the cathode while oxygen at the anode.

Electrolytic reduction of fused alumina (Hall-Héroult's process)

Electrolytic cell: Rectangular iron tank with sloping bottom. The
tank is lined with gas carbon.
Electrolyte: It is the mixture of molten alumina 20%, cryolite
60% and fluorspar 20%. Powdered coke.
Temperature: 950°C.
Voltage used: 5 to 6 volts.
Cathode: 4Al3+ +12e- → 4Al
Anode: Thick rods of graphite are suspended into the fused
electrolyte. Anode is oxidized to carbon monoxide, which
further forms carbon dioxide. The anode has got to be replaced
from time to time, as it gets oxidized by the oxygen evolved at
the anode.

Uses:
1. Cryolite: Lowers the fusion temperature from 2050 degrees C
to 950 degrees C and enhances conductivity.
2. Fluorspar and cryolite
(i) act as a solvent for the electrolytic mixture.
(ii) increases its conductivity since pure alumina is almost a
non-conductor of
electricity.
3. Powdered coke is
sprinkled over the
surface of the
electrolytic mixture. It:
(i) reduces heat loss by radiation.
(ii) prevents the burning of anode.

Alloys:
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or of
one or more metals with certain non-metallic elements.
Gold is too soft to be used without a small percentage of copper.
Amorphous alloys (used in transformer coils) are made by
quick quenching of the molten metals.
Alloys melting in the range of about 51°C to 260°C, usually
contain bismuth, lead, tin, etc. These alloys are called fusible
alloys.
A steel containing up to 10% of elements such as chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, etc., usually with a low percentage of
carbon is known as alloy steel.

Amalgam: A mixture or an alloy of mercury with a number of

metals or alloys such as sodium, zinc, gold and silver as well as
with some non-metals is known as amalgam.
Dental amalgam is a mixture of mercury and a silver-tin alloy.

Purpose of making alloys:

Alloys are made to change the property of their major
constituents to achieve a specific objective.
For example:
(i) Strength of iron is increased by making steel.
(ii) Brass is stronger than its components copper and zinc.
(iii) Aluminium bronze looks like gold.
(iv) Nichrome, an alloy of Ni, Fe and Cr, is more resistant to
electricity.
(v) Carboloy, an alloy of tungsten, carbon and cobalt, is as hard
as diamond.
(vi) Bell metal (Cu-78%, Sn-22%) is more sonorous than copper
or tin.
(vii) Alnico, an alloy containing aluminium, nickel and cobalt,
can lift 60 times its own mass.
(viii) Solder, an alloy of lead and tin. Tin lowers melting point of
alloy, it melts at 180°C. It is useful for making electrical
connections (soldering purposes) because its melting point is
lower than the individual melting points of both the component
metals.
(ix) Type metal (an alloy of lead-75%, tin-10%, and antimony-
15%) has a low melting point and can easily be cast. It is used for
printing.
(x) Sodium amalgam is much less reactive than sodium. It is a
liquid alloy at room temperature.
The purpose of an alloy is to improve the specific usefulness of
the primary component and not to adulterate and degrade it.

Reasons for Alloying

Depending upon the purpose for which the particular alloy is
used:
1. To modify appearance and colour:
e.g. Aluminium bronze (Al + Cu) resembles gold as it is bright
yellow.
2. To modify chemical activity
e.g. Sodium amalgam (Na + Hg) is less reactive than sodium.
3. To modify casting ability
e.g. Type metal (Pb + Sn + Sb) expands on solidification and is
easily cast.
4. To lower the melting point.
e.g. Solder (Pb + Sn) melts at 180°C which lower than the
melting point of lead or tin.
5. To increase hardness, and tensile strength.
e.g. Brass (Cu + Zn) is harder than copper. Duralumin (Al + Cu)
has a strength up to six times greater than pure aluminium.
6. To increase resistance to electricity.
e.g. Nichrome (Ni + Fe + Cr) has more resistance (can produce
much heat) to electricity than copper.

Method of making alloys

1. By fusing the metals together.
For example, brass is made by melting zinc and copper.

2. By compressing finely divided metals.

For example, wood metal : an alloy of lead, tin, bismuth and
cadmium powder is a fusible alloy. This alloy is used in
automatic sprinkler which provides a spray of water to prevent
fires from spreading.

Alloys as solid solutions

Alloys can be considered solid solutions in which the metal with
a high concentration is solvent and other metals are solute. For
example, brass is a solid of zinc (solute) in copper (solvent).

Common Alloys, their compositions, properties and uses

Principa Alloy’s Compositi Properties Used for

l Metal name on making
Alumini 1. 95% Al Light, hard 1. Bodies of
um Duralumin 4% Cu and aircraft,
0.5% Mg resistant to buses and
0.5% Mn corrosion. tube trains.
Highly 2. Light
ductile. tools.
Al-imparts 3. Pressure
lightness. cooker.
Mg-imparts
strength.
Iron 1. Stainless 73% Fe Resists 1. Utensils
Steel 18% Cr corrosion. 2. Cutlery
8% Ni Lustrous, 3.
1% C hard. Ornamental
Resistant to pieces
acids and 4. Surgical
 alkalis. instruments
Ni, Cr
imparts
lustre.
C-imparts
hardness.
Zinc or 1. Brass 60 - 70% Malleable 1.
Copper Cu and ductile. Decorative
40 - 30% Can be hardware,
Zn easily cast. utensils.
Resists 2. Screws
corrosion. and
Yellow/Silve handles.
ry in colour. 3. Cartridge,
containers.
4. Parts of
watches and
taps.
5. Musical
instruments
.
6. Electrical
goods.
7. Marine
engines.
Zinc or 2. Bronze 80% Cu Hard and 1. Medals.
Copper 18% Sn easily cast. 2. Statues.
2% Zn Can take up 3. Utensils.
polish. 4. Bearing
Resists 5. Coins.
corrosion
Lead 1. Solder Pb 50% Low m.p., 1. Soldering
or Fuse Sn 50% 180°C purposes
Metal High tensile 2. Fuse
strength
 HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Occurrence:
Glauber prepared the acid in
1648 by heating common salt
(NaCl) with concentrated
sulphuric acid. Lavoisier
named it muriatic acid. Davy
in 1810 named it as
hydrochloric acid.
1. Hydrogen chloride gas
occurs in free state in volcanic
emissions.
2. Hydrochloric acid (0.2 - 0.4
percent) is present in gastric
juice of mammals and it helps
in digestion.

GENERAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS

1. By synthesis (Direct combination)
H2(g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g)
(The reaction takes place in diffused sunlight as in direct sunlight it is explosive.)

2. By heating metallic chloride with conc. sulphuric acid

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride

Gas
Reactants: Sodium chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid.
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl↑
The temp is usually below 200 C as reaction is reversible. HCl escapes
slowly till sodium sulphate is formed.
• NaCl is cheap so it is used in place of other metal chloride
• Conc. Nitric acid is not used as it is volatile.
• HCl is highly soluble in water so not collected over water
• HCl is collected by upward displacement of air.

Purification of HCl Gas

It is dried by passing through conc. sulphuric acid. The other drying
agents like phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5) and quick lime (CaO) cannot
be used, since they react with hydrogen chloride.
2P2O5 + 3HCl → POCl3 + 3HPO3
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O |

Collection:
1. Hydrogen chloride gas is collected by the downward delivery (upward
displacement of air) as it is 1.28 times heavier than air.
2. It is not collected over water, since it is highly soluble in water.

Identification:
When hydrogen chloride gas is exposed to air, it gives white fumes, due
to the formation of hydrochloric acid on dissolving in atmospheric
water vapour. A glass rod dipped in Ammonium hydroxide produces
dense white fumes.

Precautions:
(a) The lower end of the thistle funnel must be dipped in conc. sulphuric
acid.
(b) Delivery tube should be dipped in drying agent i.e., conc. H₂SO4.
(c) Temperature is maintained at nearly 200°C.

At higher temperature i.e., above 200°C.

a) the apparatus which is made of glass may crack.
b) fuel is wasted.
c) sodium sulphate formed, forms a hard crust which sticks to the glass
and is difficult to remove.
Experiment to demonstrate density: To show that HCl gas is heavier
than air.
It can be proved by pouring the gas in a jar
with a burning candle. The candle gets
extinguished because HCl gas being heavier
occupies the lower portion of the jar and
forces the air out of it. This experiment also
proves that HCl gas is neither combustible nor
a supporter of combustion.

Experiment to demonstrate high solubility: To show that HCl gas is highly

soluble.
The great solubility of the gas can be demonstrated by means of Fountain
Experiment

Chemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride Gas:

1. Combustibility – neither combustible nor supports combustion.
2. Thermal Dissociation-at temp. above 500 C it dissociates into
Hydrogen and Chlorine.
3. With Metals – it reacts with active metals to produce metal chlorides
and Hydrogen gas
4. Reaction with Ammonia - combine with Ammonia to form dense
white fumes of Ammonium Chloride.

Hydrochloric Acid
When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, hydrochloric acid is
formed. The covalent compound ionises in water due to its polar nature.
HCl + H₂O → H3O+ + Cl-
Dry HCl and liquified HCl doesn’t show acidic property as hydrogen
ions are not formed. It shows only covalent property.

Laboratory method of preparation of hydrochloric acid

The aqueous solution of HCl gas is
known as Hydrochloric Acid. It is
prepared by dissolving hydrogen
chloride gas in water.

The gas is passed into water until no

more gas is absorbed. The product is
concentrated and contains about
36% of hydrogen chloride by mass.

Mechanism by which back suction is avoided or minimized:

The funnel arrangement-
(a) prevents or minimizes back-suction of water.
(b) provides a large surface area for absorption of HCl gas.

A constant boiling mixture or azeotrope is a solution which boils

without any change in its composition. HCl acid forms constant boiling
mixture at 110°C.

Properties of Hydrochloric Acid

Physical Properties:
1. Colour Colourless
2. Smell Pungent choking smell
3. Taste Sour (acidic)
4. Effect on Skin Concentrated acid is corrosive
and causes blisters on the skin
5. Solubility Readily soluble in water in all
 proportions
6. Boiling Point 110°C (volatile acid)

Chemical Properties:
1. Nature - Aqueous solution is strongly acidic, and shows all properties
of acids.
Moist Litmus changes blue color to red.
Methyl orange to pink and Phenolphatlein Colourless.

2. Action on metals - Hydrochloric acid reacts with metals above

hydrogen in the activity. series forming metallic chlorides and evolving
hydrogen.
Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2 ↑

3. Actions on oxides and hydroxides - It reacts with oxides and

hydroxides (bases) to form salt and water only.
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O

4. With salts of weaker acids - It decomposes salts of weaker acids e.g.,

carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, sulphites and sulphides.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2↑

5. Precipitation Reaction - Dil. HCI does not normally react with

nitrates. However, lead nitrate and mercury (I) nitrate react with
hydrochloric acid to give white precipitate of lead chloride and mercury
(I) chloride.
Pb (NO3)2 + 2HCl → PbCl2↓ + 2HNO3
With Silver Nitrate it produces White Silver chloride.

Silver nitrate solution react with hydrochloric acid and it gives a thick
curdy white precipitate of, silver chloride which combine with
Ammonium hydroxide to form Complex Salt Diammine Silver Chloride
AgNO3 + HCI → AgCl ⬇ + HNO3

Uses of Hydrochloric Acid:

I. General uses
In the laboratory as a reagent and for preparation of aqua regia.
II. Industrial Uses
(1) In the manufacture of
(a) chlorine and chlorides, e.g., ammonium chloride used in dry cells.
(b) dyes, drugs, paints and photographic chemicals (silver chloride).
(c) glucose from starch.

(2) In industry to pickle steel (clean metal surface by using acid), as HCl
dissolves the oxides. Steel before being plated with tin or chromium has
to be purified by pickling in HCl and some inhibitors.
(3) For purifying bone black, because HCI dissolves the calcium
phosphate present in bones.
(4) To remove rust from iron sheets.

III. Medicine
Dilute HCl is prescribed to patients with decreased activity of their
gastric juices.

TESTS FOR HYDROGEN CHLORIDE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID

(1) HCI gas possesses a characteristic irritating smell.

(2) HCl gas gives thick white fumes of ammonium chloride, when a glass
rod dipped in ammonia solution is held near the vapours of the acid.
NH3 + HCI→ NH4Cl

(3) With silver nitrate solution, both the gas and the acid give a white
precipitate of silver chloride.
AgNO3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO3
The precipitate is insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in ammonium
hydroxide.

(4) A greenish-yellow gas i.e., chlorine, is liberated when concentrated

hydro-chloric acid is heated when an oxidising agent like manganese
dioxide.
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
The gas liberated turns moist starch iodide paper blue black.

AMMONIA
The pungent smell at decaying heap of organic matter or washroom is
due to NH3. It is produced due to bacterial decomposition of Urea (NH₂
CONH₂)

OCCURRENCE
Free state: Ammonia is present in small amounts in air and in traces in
natural water.
Combined state: In nature, ammonia occurs in combined form in many
compounds such as ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate, etc.
Note: It is produced due to bacterial decomposition of urea
(NH2CONH2), present in the urine.
CO(NH2)2 + 2H2O→ 2NH3 + H2O + CO₂

FORMS OF AMMONIA -
i) Gaseous ammonia - (dry ammonia gas)
ii) Liquid ammonia - When dry ammonia is liquefied by applying high
pressure it is called liquid ammonia.
iii) Liquor ammonia fortis - is a saturated solution of ammonia in water.
It is called 880 ammonia.
(iv) Laboratory bench reagent - Dilute solution of liquor ammonia is
used as a laboratory reagent.

PREPARATION OF AMMONIA GAS

General methods of preparation
Ammonia gas can be prepared by warming an ammonium salt with
caustic alkali, such as slaked lime or caustic soda or caustic potash.
Lab Preparation of Ammonia
1) From Ammonium Chloride

Amm. Salt + Alkali → Salt + H2O + NH3

Reaction: 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
Reactants are taken 2:3 by wt. and finely grinded & heated.
Precautions: The flask is tilted in such a way that the water formed in
the reaction does not trickle back into the heated flask and thus break it.
Drying of Ammonia Gas: Quicklime (CaO). Conc Sulphuric acid,
phosphorus pentoxide and calcium chloride reacts with ammonia so
they are not used.
Collection:It is collected by downward displacement of air. As it is
lighter than air and soluble in water.

2) From Metal Nitrides

Mg3N2 + 6H2O → 3Mg (OH)2 + 2NH3↑

or
AIN + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + NH3↑
Warm water is added slowly on Mg3N2 which produces Mg(OH)2 & NH3.

Preparation of Aqueous Ammonia:

An aqueous solution of ammonia is prepared by dissolving ammonia in
water. The rate of dissolution of ammonia in water is very high,
therefore, back suction of water is possible. To avoid this, a funnel is
attached to the outer end of the delivery tube with rubber tubing.

Manufacture of Ammonia - Haber's Process

Sources of Reactants:
Nitrogen Gas: is obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air.
Hydrogen Gas: is obtained from water gas (Bosch process) or from
natural gas.

Reaction: N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 + Heat

This reaction is reversible, exothermic and proceeds with a decrease in
volume.
Favourable conditions:
Temperature: Optimum temperature is 450-500 °C.
Pressure: Above 200 atm.
Catalyst: Finely divided iron.
Promoter: Traces of molybdenum or Al2O3.

Rate of conversion: About 15% of the reacting gases get converted to

ammonia.

Recovery of ammonia:
Ammonia is separated from the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen by:
1. Liquefaction - Ammonia is liquified easily as compared to nitrogen
and hydrogen.
2. Absorbing in water because NH3 is highly soluble in water, while N2
and H2 are very slightly soluble.

Process:
Step1.Nitrogen and hydrogen are dried, purified and then mixed in the
ratio of 1:3 respectively, at a relatively high pressure.
Step2. This mixture is passed in an electrically heated catalytic chamber
containing finely divided iron with aluminium oxide or a little amount
of molybdenum at a temperature of 500°C.
Step3.Mixture of ammonia(15%) formed along with residual nitrogen
and hydrogen exchanges their heat with the incoming unreacted
nitrogen and hydrogen mixture.
Step4. The mixture is passed through the cooling pipes (condenser).
Ammonia liquefies first, whereas nitrogen and hydrogen do not liquefy
easily.
Step5.The unchanged nitrogen and hydrogen are recirculated through
the plant to get more ammonia. By re-circulating in this way, an
eventual yield of 98% can be achieved. The ammonia produced is stored
as liquid under pressure.

Note:
(i) The reaction is exothermic, hence low temperature will favour the
synthesis. However, at low temperature, the reaction proceeds slowly.
In practice, the optimum temperature has been found to be in the range
of 450°C to 500°C.
(ii) Four volumes of reactants produce two volumes of product; hence
high pressure favours the formation of ammonia.
The optimum pressure is found to be 200 to 900 atm. Practically, a
pressure of about 250 atm. is used.
(iii) Catalyst and promoter: The speed of the reaction can be improved
by using a catalyst, which is finely divided iron, obtained by the
reduction of iron oxide.
A promoter molybdenum or Al2O3 is used to increase the efficiency of
the catalyst.
(iv) Since the reaction is exothermic, the heat evolved further maintains
the temperature. External heating is, therefore, not required after the
reactants are initially heated.

Note: The purification of nitrogen and hydrogen is necessary as

impurities like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and traces of sulphur
compounds (H2S) poison the catalyst. The removal of these catalytic
poisons from nitrogen and hydrogen is very essential.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA

1. Colour: Colourless.
2. Odour: Strong, pungent choking smell.
3. Taste: Slightly bitter (alkaline) taste.
4. Physiological action: Non-poisonous.
If inhaled, affects the respiratory system and brings
tears to eyes. It is a powerful heart stimulant and may cause death when
inhaled in large quantities.
5. Density: Vapour density = 8.5 [Lighter than air]
6. Nature: Alkaline nature
7. Liquefaction: Easily liquefied at 10°C by compressing it at 6 atm.
pressure.
8. Boiling point: Liquid ammonia boils at -33.5°C.
9. Freezing point: Solid NH3 melts at -77.7°C.
10. Solubility: Highly soluble in water, 1 vol. of water dissolves about
702 vols. of ammonia at 20°C and 1 atm. pressure.

FOUNTAIN EXPERIMENT
To demonstrate the high solubility of ammonia gas in water.

Note: A bottle of liquor ammonia should be opened very carefully, only

after cooling it in ice or cold water. There is high pressure inside the
bottle of ammonia and on cooling the pressure drops. This prevents
sudden flushing out of the gas.

Chemical Properties of NH3:

1) Thermal Dissociation - On heating or Electric spark NH3 breaks in N2
& H2.
2NH3 ⇌ N2 + 3H2

2) Basic Properties - Dry ammonia is neutral in liquid form. Aqueous

NH3 is weak base due to lone pair of electrons on its Nitrogen atom.
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4OH

3) Burning of ammonia in Oxygen - Ammonia is not a

supporter of
combustion. It
extinguishes a
burning splint and
does not burn in air.
It burns in oxygen
with greenish yellow
flame.
4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 +
6H2O
This reaction is
irreversible and strongly exothermic.it shows Ammonia contains N2
and H2.

4) Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia: In the presence of platinum at

800°C, ammonia reacts with oxygen to give nitric oxide and water
vapour.
4NH3 + 5O2 → 6H2O + 4NO
↑ + Heat
2NO + O2 → 2NO2 (Brown gas)

5) Ammonia as a reducing
agent -
i) Reduction of Metallic Oxide by Ammonia-
Ammonia reduces heated metallic oxides to give metals, water vapour
and nitrogen.
Reaction: 2NH3 + 3CuO (Black solid) → 3Cu (Reddish brown solid) +
3H2O +N2↑

ii) Reduction of Chlorine to Hydrogen chloride-

When chlorine reacts with ammonia, it is reduced to HCI, which further
combines with excess of ammonia and forms NH4 Cl.
(a) When ammonia is in excess
8NH3 + 3Cl2 → N2 + 6NH4Cl
(b) When chlorine is in excess
NH3 + 3Cl2 → 3HCl + NCl3

These reactions show that :

• Chlorine has a great affinity for hydrogen.
• Ammonia is a reducing agent.

6. Reaction with acids: Ammonia being a weak base accepts protons

[hydrogen ions] to form ammonium ions.
It reacts with acids to form ammonium salts. Ammonium chloride is a
good example, where two colourless gases react to form a white solid,
directly.
Note: Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride both show thermal
dissociation reaction.
NH4Cl ⇌ NH3 + HCl
NH4NO3 ⇌ N2O + 2H2O
AQUEOUS SOLUTION OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is dissolved in water to form its aqueous solution
(ammonium hydroxide).
NH3 + H2O → NH4OH
Ammonium hydroxide reacts with acids to form salt and water.

7. Reaction of aqueous solution of ammonia with soluble metal salts:

Ammonium hydroxide reacts with soluble salts of metals to give
insoluble precipitates of their respective metallic hydroxides, (except
sodium and potassium). This behaviour is similar to NaOH solution and
solution.

Test for Ammonia Gas:

Ammonia gas can easily be recognised by the following characteristics :
(1) It has a sharp characteristic odour.
(2) It turns
• moist red litmus blue,
• moist turmeric paper brown
• phenolphthalein solution pink.
(3) It gives dense white fumes with conc. hydrochloric acid.
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
(4) When NH3 gas is passed through copper sulphate solution blue
precipitate is formed which changes to deep blue solution on passing
the gas in excess.
(5) All ammonium salts generally produce ammonia gas when warmed
with alkali like sodium hydroxide.
(6) Ammonium salt gives brown colour or precipitates with Nessler's
solution K2HgI4 (a slightly alkaline solution of potassium mercuric
iodide made by adding KOH).

USES OF AMMONIA
1. Liquid ammonia is used as a refrigerant in ice plants. Liquid
ammonia takes a lot of energy to vaporize (5700 calories per mole at -
33°C). This heat is taken from the surrounding bodies which are
consequently cooled down.
Anhydrous ammonia is a clear, colourless liquid under pressure. It
evaporates rapidly and produces cooling effect. This makes ammonia a
good refrigerant.
The main refrigerants used are freon chlorofluoro carbon (CFC). They
deplete ozone layer and also contribute to global warming. Thus these
refrigerants are harmful to life. The chlorofluoro carbons are
decomposed by the ultraviolet rays to highly reactive chlorine which is
produced in the atomic form.
CF2CL2(g) → Ultraviolet CF2CL(g) + Cl(g) free radical
The free radical [CI] reacts with ozone and chlorine monoxide is
formed.
Cl(g) + O3(g) → CIO(g) + O2(g)
This causes depletion of ozone. Chlorine monoxide further reacts with
atomic oxygen and produces more free chlorine radicals.
CIO(g) + O(g) → Cl(g) + O2(g)
Again this free radical [Cl] destroys ozone and the process continues
thereby giving rise to ozone depletion.

Advantages of Ammonia as refrigerant

(i) Ammonia is environmentally compatible. It does not deplete ozone
layer and does not contribute towards the global warming.
(ii) It has superior thermodynamic qualities as a result ammonia
refrigeration systems use less electricity.
(iii) Ammonia has a recognizable odour and so leaks are not likely to
escape. It being lighter than air goes up in the atmosphere not affecting
the life too much on earth.

Ammonia has some disadvantages.

It is not compatible with copper, so it cannot be used in any system with
copper pipes. Ammonia is poisonous in high concentration.

2. Ammonia solution is used as an important laboratory reagent in

qualitative analysis as it gives characteristic coloured metallic
hydroxide precipitates.
3. Aqueous NH3 emulsifies or dissolves fats, grease, etc. so it is used:
(i) to remove grease and perspiration stains from clothes,
(ii) for cleaning tiles, windows.
4. Ammonia is used in the manufacture of :
(a) nitrogenous fertilisers like ammonium sulphate, diammonium
hydrogen phosphate, ammonium nitrate and urea.
Ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide at 150°C and 150 atm. pressure to
give urea which is a valuable nitrogenous fertiliser.
2NH3 + CO2 → NH2CONH2 + H2O
(b) explosives like ammonium nitrate. Ammonium nitrate decomposes
explosively leaving no residue behind
NH4NO3 → N₂O(g) + 2H2O(vap.)
(c) other ammonium salts such as ammonium carbonate (used as
smelling salt for reviving a fainted person), ammonium chloride used in
dry cells and in the preparation of nitrogen gas.
(d) nylon and rayon, and sodium cyanamide, plastics, dyes, organic
chemicals, explosives and wood pulp.
(e) sodium carbonate by Solvay process. This the interaction of process
involves the interaction of ammonia, carbon dioxide, and sodium
chloride in water solution resulting in the precipitation of sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
NaCl + NH3 + CO2 + H2O→ NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
The sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated and ignited to obtain
sodium carbonate.
s2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO₂↑
(f) nitric acid by Ostwald process, where ammonia is the starting
material

NITRIC ACID
In free state : it is found in rain water.
In combined state: it is found in in the form of metallic nitrates
ex: sodium nitrate.
Nitric Acid is also known as “Aqua Fortis” meaning 'Strong
Water' as it reacts with nearly all metals and convert them to
soluble nitrates.

FORMATION OF NITRIC ACID IN NATURE

1) Nitrogen combines with O2 in atmosphere during lightning
discharge to form Nitric Oxide.
N2 + O2 → 2NO (Nitric Oxide)
2) Nitric Oxide to further oxidised to
Nitrogen dioxide.
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
3) Nitrogen dioxide dissolve in rain water
with O2 and form Nitric Acid.
 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 4HNO3
The conversion of free atmospheric N2 into useful Nitrogenous
compound is called 'fixation of atmospheric Nitrogen'.

LAB PREPARATION OF NITRIC ACID

Procedure : Equal weight of both Nitre/Chile Saltpetre + Conc.

H2SO4
is heated gently to 180 C – 200 C in glass retort.
Reactions:
Nitre/Chile Saltpetre + Conc. H2SO4 → Pot./Sod. Bisulphate +
HNO3
KNO3 + H2SO4 → KHSO4 + HNO3
NaNO3 + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HNO3
Collection : The vapours of Nitric acid are condensed by chilling
with ice cold water. HNO3 is light yellow because of presence of
NO2 (Reddish Brown Gas).

Pure Acid is colourless. To remove yellow colour of Lab HNO3:

i) Dry Air or CO2 is passed, it oxides NO2 to Nitric Acid.
ii) Adding excess of H2O which dissolves NO2.

Precautions:
(1)All glass apparatus should be used as Nitric acid vapour
attacks rubber and cork.
(2)Conc. HCl is not used in place of Conc. H2SO4, as it is volatile.
(3)Temp. should not exceed 200°C as it may damage the
apparatus & HNO3 may decompose. Even product forms hard
crust which sticks to the walls of the glass.

Manufacture of Nitric
Acid

Step I:- Catalytic

Oxidation of Ammonia
Dry Air and Dry Ammonia in 10:1 by volume is compressed
passed in Catalytic chamber containing platinum as catalyst at
800 C.
4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O + Heat
Step II:- Oxidation of Nitric Oxide in oxidation of chamber-
Nitric oxide combines with O2 at 50 C to form Nitrogen oxide.
2NO(g) + O2(g) →2NO2(g)
Step III:- Absorption of nitrogen dioxide in water- The nitric
acid is collected at the bottom at 50% concentration which is
distilled to form 68% concentration.
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3 (aq.)
Concentration of Nitric Acid
Nitric acid up to 98% (fuming nitric acid) is obtained by
distilling 68% HNO3 over conc. sulphuric acid. It may
concentrate upto 100% by strongly cooling at - 42 C.

Physical Properties:
1) Colour - pure HNO3 is colourless but commercial HNO3 is
yellowish brown.
2) Odour – Suffocating smell
3) Taste - Acidic.
4) Nature - Hygroscopic and fumes in air. So bottle is always
stoppered.
5) Physiological Nature – Non poisonous. It form blisters on
reacting with skin and gives yellow stains due to formation of
Xanthoproteic Acid.
6) Solubility : Soluble in water in all proportion.
7) Boiling and Melting point : Aqueous solution of Nitric acid
forms constant boiling mixture at 121 C. Nitric acid boils at 86 C.

Chemical Properties:
1) Stability - It is unstable to heat/sunlight. It decomposes into
NO2 and H2O and O2. That's why it is stored in coloured bottles.
2) Acidic property: It is monobasic acid. It ionises into H+ and
NO3- ions.
a) It turn BLR And MOP and PRC.
b) It reacts with Alkali to form salt and water only.
c) It reacts with carbonates/bicarbonates to give salt, water &
CO2.
d) it reacts with metalic sulphites/bisulphites to give metal
nitrate, water and SO2.
3) Oxidising Property - HNO3 oxidises metal/nonmetal,
organic/inorganic substances. It has powerful oxidising
property due to Nascent Oxygen (O) produced on
decomposition.
For Ex:
Action on Non-Metal:
C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO2 (Carbon oxidised to CO2)
S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2 (Sulphur oxidised to H2SO4)
Action on Metals:
All metals react with Nitric acid except gold and platinum.
a) Cold and Dil Nitric Acid - oxides metals to nitrates and
nitric oxide
3Cu + Dil. 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO.
b) Hot and Conc Nitric acid – liberates Nitrogen oxide
Cu + Conc. 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
c) Metals like Iron, Al, Ni & Co become passive on reacting
with Conc. HNO3 - due to formation of thin layer of
insoluble Metallic Oxide which stops the reaction. Passivity
can be removed by rubbing with sand paper or reacting with
strong reducing agent.

d) Very dilute Nitric Acid reacts with Magnesium and

Manganese at room temp to give nitrates and Hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2
This reaction proves that nitric acid contains Hydrogen.
Reaction as Aqua Regia : 1:3 Con.Nitric acid and
Con.Hydrochloric acid.
HNO3 + HCl → NOCl + 2H2O + 2Cl
This mixture can react with platinum and gold due to nascent
Chlorine.

USES OF NITRIC ACID

1. To etch designs on copper and brassware.
2. To purify gold.
3. Act as rocket fuel and used in preparation of nitric acid.

Tests For Nitric Acid:

1. Conc. Nitric Acid produces Nitrogen dioxide brown fumes
on heating.
2. Brown Ring Test. --Freshly prepared solution of Iron II
sulphate is added to nitric acid then add conc. Sulphuric
acid is carefully added to the sides. Cool the test tube.
A brown Ring is produced at the junction of 2 liquids. The
Brown ring is of Nitroso ferrous sulphate.

Precaution :
Freshly prepared solution of iron II sulphate is used as it get
oxidised.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON NITRATES

(i) Sodium and potassium nitrates or alkali metal nitrates.
When heated, they melt into colourless liquids which
decompose on heating to give oxygen gas.
2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2

(ii) All other nitrates except those of silver and mercury

decompose into their oxides, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
1. Calcium Nitrate- white crystals on heating produce white ppt
with brown gas.
2Ca(NO3)2 → 2CaO + 4NO2(g) + O2
2. Zinc Nitrate – on heating produces yellow when hot and
white on cooling solid with brown gas
2Zn (NO3)2 → 2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2
3. Lead Nitrate- on heating produces yellow solid with brown
gas
2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO+ 4NO2 + O2
4. Copper Nitrate on heating produces black compound with
brown gas
2Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + 4NO₂ + O2

(iii) Silver and mercury nitrates: On heating produce respective

metals, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
1. Silver nitrate (Lunar caustic)
2AgNO3 → 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
2. Mercuric nitrate
Hg (NO3)2 → Hg + 2NO2 + O2

(iv) Ammonium nitrate: Ammonium nitrate decomposes

explosively leaving behind no residue.
NH4NO3 → N₂O[g] + 2H2O [vap.]

SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid is rightly called the 'King of Chemicals because there is

no other manufactured compound which is used by such a large number
of key industries. It has been known for a long time.

In the later Middle Ages, it was obtained as an oily viscous liquid by

heating crystals of green vitriol, and was, therefore, known by the name
of oil of vitriol.
In the free state, sulphuric acid is found in certain mineral springs.
In the combined state, as Barytes [BaSO4] Gypsum [CaSO4. 2H2O] and
Kieserite [MgSO4.H2O] etc.
PREPARATION OF SULPHURIC ACID
(1) By oxidation of an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide with oxygen,
chlorine or bromine.
SO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 2H2SO4
SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2 → H2SO4 +2HCl
SO2 + 2H2O + Br2 → H2SO4 + 2HBr
The colour of Cl2 and Br2 fades.

(2) Sulphur with conc. nitric acid

S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O
MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID (CONTACT PROCESS)
The various steps in the Contact process are as follows:
(1) Production of sulphur dioxide: Sulphur dioxide is produced by
roasting metallic sulphides in air
4FeS2 (Iron pyrites) + 1102→ 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2.
OR
by burning Louisiana sulphur (99.5% pure) in purified air.
S+O → SO2

(2) Purification of gases: The mixture of sulphur dioxide and air

contains various impurities which must be removed, otherwise the
catalyst loses its efficiency.
The mixture is passed through a purifier called electric precipitator,
consisting of a chamber with wires at high electric potential. The
electric charge attracts solid particles which are removed.
The mixture is then led to a water scrubber where it is completely freed
from dust particles.
It is then dried by a spray of concentrated sulphuric acid in another
chamber.
It then goes into the arsenic purifier where every trace of arsenic oxide
is removed.

(3) Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide. The clean dried gaseous

mixture of sulphur dioxide and air is passed through tower loosely
packed with vanadium pentoxide or platinum on perforated shelves.
The catalyst is placed in vertical iron pipes inside a cylindrical iron
tower called the converter. Here, the preheated mixture of sulphur
dioxide and air (oxygen) on passing through catalyst pipes forms
sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 + ∆
Since the reaction is highly exothermic, the catalyst is heated only in the
beginning to about 450°C.This temperature is maintained by the heat
evolved during the reaction.

(4) Absorption of sulphur trioxide in sulphuric acid. The gas is cooled in

a heat exchanger and is then absorbed in absorption tower in
concentrated sulphuric acid (98%).
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (oleum or pyrosulphuric acid)

(5) Dilution of oleum to obtain sulphuric acid. It is diluted in dilution

tank by adding calculated amount of water to obtain sulphuric acid of
the desired strength.
H2S2O7+ H2O → 2H2SO4

Favourable conditions for the conversion of SO2 process to SO3

(contact process)
(i) Exothermic reactions are favoured at low temperature: The
temperature should be as low as possible. The yield has been found to
be maximum at about 410-450°C.
(ii) High pressure: High pressure favours the reaction because the
product formed has less volume than reactant. Pressure of 1 - 2
atmosphere is used.
(iii) Excess of oxygen: This increases the production of sulphur trioxide.
(iv) A suitable catalyst: Platinum is more efficient as a catalyst than
vanadium pentoxide but platinum is more expensive and also it easily
In gets poisoned by impurities like arsenic (III) oxide.
So Vanadium pentoxide is used as a catalyst.
Summary of all reactions in Contact Process
S + O2 → SO2 (Formation of Sulphur dioxide)
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 (Conversion of SO2 to SO3)
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (Conversion of SO3 to Oleum)
H2S2O7 + H2O → H2SO4 (Dilution of Oleum to H2SO4)

PROPERTIES OF SULPHURIC ACID

Physical Properties:
1) Colourless, Odourless, slightly sour in taste.
2) It is hygroscopic liquid so it absorbs moisture. Hence, it is always
stoppered.
3) Pure Acid is non-conductor but Dil. Acid is good conductor.
4) At 338°C it forms constant boiling mixture having 98.5% of acid.
5) Conc. H2SO4 is corrosive so it chars the skin black.

Chemical Properties of Dilute H2SO4:

Pure (100% H2SO4) hydrogen sulphate is not an acid as it does not
ionise.. It is a dibasic acid so it ionizes in 2 steps and form 2 salts.

Dilution of H2SO4 : Water is never poured on acid to dilute it as large

amount of heat is evolved which changes poured water to steam. The
steam so formed causes spurting of acid which can cause burn injuries,
so dilution is done by pouring acid on a given amount of water in a
controlled manner by continuous stirring, else acid being heavier will
settle down. The evolved heat is dissipated in the water itself.

(a) Properties of dilute sulphuric acid

Acidic property:
(1) Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metals, which are above hydrogen
in the activity series to form metallic sulphate and hydrogen.
(2) It neutralises bases (metal oxides and metal hydroxides) to form
salts and water.
(3) It liberates carbon dioxide from metallic carbonates and
bicarbonates.
(4) It evolves hydrogen sulphide from metal sulphides.
(5) It evolves sulphur dioxide from sulphites and hydrogen sulphites
(bisulphites).

(b) Properties of concentrated sulphuric acid

(1) Non-volatile nature
Concentrated sulphuric acid has a high boiling point (338°C) and so, it
is considered to be a non-volatile acid. It is, therefore, used for
preparing volatile acids like hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and acetic
acid .

(2) As an oxidising agent

The oxidising property of concentrated sulphuric acid is due to the fact
that on thermal decomposition, it yields nascent oxygen [O].
H2SO4 → H2O + SO2 + [O]
Nascent oxygen oxidises non-metals, metals and inorganic compounds.

(3) As a dehydrating agent

H2SO4 has a great affinity for water. It readily removes elements of
water from other compounds i.e., it acts as a dehydrating agent.
(a) Conc. sulphuric acid removes water of crystallisation from salts.
(b) All carbohydrates such as glucose, sugar, and cellulose (paper,
cotton, wood, etc.) react immediately to give a black spongy mass of
carbon which rises up.
(c) Organic acids and organic compounds are dehydrated by conc.
H2SO4

(4) Preparation of insoluble sulphates

Sulphuric acid precipitates the insoluble sulphates of lead, barium and
calcium from the solutions of their salts.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 -----BaSO4+ 2HCI
(White prep is insoluble in any acid.)

Uses of Sulphuric Acid

• In the preparation of halogens, CO, CO₂ and SO₂.
• Extraction of metals: Leaching of metallic compounds produces
sulphates which give the metal in pure form on electrolysis.
• Pickling of metals: Removes metallic impurities from the surface of
metals before galvanising.
• Industrial uses
(i) In the manufacture of fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate
[(NH4)2SO4 ] and superphosphate of lime [Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4].
(ii) In the manufacture of explosives such as trinitrotoluene and picric
acid.

TESTS FOR SULPHURIC ACID AND SULPHATES

(1) When barium chloride solution is added to psulphuric acid or any
soluble metal sulphate, white precipitate of barium sulphate is formed.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 -----BaSO4+ 2HCI

The white precipitate of barium sulphate is insoluble in any mineral

acid like hydrochloric acid or nitric acid.
(2) Conc. sulphuric acid on heating with copper evolves sulphur dioxide.
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO₂ ↑ (Conc.)
Sulphur dioxide turns acidified potassium dichromate solution green
(Reducing property of SO2).

(3) Conc. sulphuric acid on heating with NaCl evolves pungent fumes of
HCl gas.
NaCl + H2SO4 (Conc.) → NaHSO4 + HCl ↑(White Fumes)

HCI gas gives dense white fumes of ammonium chloride, with a glass
rod dipped in ammonium hydroxide.

HCI + NH4OH ⇌ NH4CI+ H2O (dense white fumes)

Difference Between Dilute H2SO4 & Concentrated H2SO4

Dilute H2SO4 Concentrated H2SO4
i) It ionises and behave as strong i) It is a weak acid.
acid.
ii) Strong electrolyte. ii) Weak electrolyte.
iii) Don't act as an oxidising iii) Act as an oxidising agent.
agent.
iv) Don't act as drying or iv) Act as drying or dehydrating
dehydrating Agent. Agent.

Test for Sulphuric Acid:

Cu + H2SO4 (Conc.) → CuSO4 + H2O + SO2↑
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl ↑
3) Preparation of Insoluble Sulphites - H2SO4 precipitates the insoluble
sulphate of lead, barium and calcium.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4↓ (white)

Properties of Conc. Sulphuric Acid:

Non-Volatile Nature:
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl
KNO3 + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl

MEANING OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

The word organic means pertaining to life.
Substances that could be obtained only from living sources like
plants and animals are called organic compounds and the
chemistry dealing with them was named organic chemistry.
Substances which could be produced from minerals and non-
living sources, were called inorganic compounds and the
chemistry dealing with them was called inorganic chemistry.
Earlier it was believed that they were the products of some
“vital force” of nature. This theory was soon discarded when a
German chemist named Friedrich Wöhler showed that it was
possible to obtain an organic compound urea, from the
laboratory process.
NH4CNO → CO(NH2)2
Organic Compounds:
Organic compounds are the compounds of carbon and organic
chemistry is the study of carbon compounds, excluding oxides
of carbon, metallic carbonates and related compounds like
metal cyanides, metal carbides.

Sources of Organic Compounds:

1. Plants - sugar, starch
2. Animals - urea, protein
3. Coal - dyes, drugs
4.Petroleum - petrol, gasoline, fuel gases
5. Fermentation – ethyl alcohol, acetic acid
6.Wood - methyl alcohol, acetone

Application of organic chemistry:

Organic compounds are extremely useful to us in our daily life.
The soaps and shampoos we use while taking bath, the powders,
perfumes, we apply on the body, the clothes we wear, food we
eat, fuels we use, medicines, explosives, dyes, insecticides, are
all organic compounds. There is hardly any walk of life where
we do not need organic compounds.
Unique nature of carbon atoms:
Carbon shows unique properties of tetravalency, catenation and
Isomerism:
(i) Tetravalency of the carbon atom: Carbon has four valence
electrons (At. no. of C = 6; Elec. Config. = 2, 4). Since it can
neither lose nor gain electrons to attain octet, it forms covalent
bonds by sharing its four electrons with other atoms. It forms
four covalent bonds, is called the tetravalency of carbon.
(ii) Catenation: Carbon atoms possess a unique property to link
together (self-linking) to form very long chains. This property is
referred to as catenation.
The property of self-linking of atoms of an element through
covalent bonds in order to form straight chains, branched
chains and cyclic chains of different sizes is known as
catenation.
(iii) Isomerism : It show property of isomerism which means
phenomenon having same molecular formula but different
structural formula. Isomers differ in Physical / Chemical
properties.

Types of organic compounds:

1. Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are compounds that are made

up only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Classification of hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are sub-divided
into two main groups, the aliphatic (open) and cyclic (closed)
chain compounds.
Aliphatic (open) Compounds
Saturated Compounds: The simplest open chain hydrocarbon is
alkane. It is represented by the formula CnH2n+2, where n
represents a natural number. It is a saturated hydrocarbon, as
all four valencies of carbon are satisfied by a single covalent
bond.
Unsaturated Compounds: The hydrocarbons that have double
or triple covalent bonds between two adjacent carbon atoms are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
These unsaturated compounds are further classified as Alkenes
which are, the hydrocarbons with double bond and Alkynes
which are the hydrocarbons with triple bond between two
carbon atoms.

Cyclic or closed chain or ring chain compounds:

These compounds contain three or more carbon atoms in their
molecules. These have properties similar to open chain
hydrocarbons. They are also called carbocyclic compounds.
The cyclic compounds are of two types:
(i) Alicyclic compounds: These are ringed carbon compounds
containing three or more atoms of carbon arranged in a closed
structure.
(ii) Aromatic compounds: Some hydro carbons contain at least
one benzene ring in their molecules. The benzene ring is a
specific type of ring structure
of six carbon atoms having
carbon single and carbon-
carbon double bonds in
alternate positions.

Homologous Series: A
homologous series is a group of organic compounds having a
similar structure and similar chemical properties in which the
successive compounds differ by a CH2 group.
E.g. Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes.

Characteristics of a homologous series:

1. All members of a homologous series share the general
formula.
2. Each member of the series differs from the preceding one by
the addition of CH2 group and by molecular mass of 14 a.m.u.
3. The physical properties of the members change gradually.
4. Members of a homologous series have similar chemical
properties.
5. All the members of a homologous series can be prepared by
using the same general method of preparation.

Significance of the homologous series:

(i) The nature of any member of that family of compounds can
be found.
(ii) It helps to predict the properties of even those members of
the series that are yet to be prepared.
(iii) It saves learning time.

Nomenclature: Nomenclature is the system of assignment of

names to organic compounds.
System of nomenclature are Trivial system and IUPAC,
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system.
According to the rules of this system, the name of an organic
compound consists of three parts:
(i) Root Word: It depends upon the number of carbon atoms
present in the longest carbon chain selected.
(ii) Suffix: The root word is followed by an appropriate suffix,
which represents the nature of the bond in a carbon - carbon
atom.
(iii) Prefix: It denotes the substituent, alkyl or functional group
and its position in the carbon chain.

ALKYL GROUP:
An alkyl group is obtained by removing one atom of hydrogen
from an alkane molecule.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP:
The functional group is defined as an atom or group of atoms
joined in a specific manner which is responsible for the
characteristic chemical properties of the organic compounds.
For example: hydroxyl group (-OH), aldehyde group (-CHO),
carboxylic acid group (-COOH).

Characteristics of functional groups:

(i) The chemical properties of the compounds containing the
same functional group are similar.
(ii) The physical and chemical properties of the compounds of
different functional groups are different.
(iii) There exists a homologous series of compounds containing
a particular type of functional group.
STRUCTURE
The formula that shows how atoms of different elements are

linked together in a molecule is known as structural formula.

Eg: Butane

A molecule having the bigger structural formula is often

cumbersome. We represent it by abbreviated formula.

A structure that shows only the linking of carbon atoms in a

molecule is called the carbon skeleton.

Rules of Nomenclature of Organic Compounds:

Rule1. Selection of carbon chains: Select Longest carbon Chain
as word root.
Rule 2 The branch chains are considered to be substituents, and
their positions are indicated by the number of carbon atoms to
which they are attached.

Rule 3The carbon atoms of the longest chain are numbered in

such a way that the alkyl groups (substituents) get the smallest
possible number.

Rule 4The position(s) of

alkyl group(s) are
indicated by writing the position and name of the alkyl group
just before the name of parent hydrocarbon.

Rule 5Multiple alkyl groups are labelled with the Greek

numerical prefixes.

Rule 6 Any functional group is also present in the chain, then

the carbon atoms are
numbered in such a
way that the
functional group gets
the smallest possible
number.
Rule 7 In case,
different types of
substituents are
attached to the chain,
they are arranged
and named
alphabetically.
ISOMERS
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different
structural formula are known as ISOMERS and the
phenomenon is known as ISOMERISM (iso = same, meros =
parts). Isomers differ in physical properties or chemical
properties or both.

Main causes of isomerism:

1. Difference in the mode of linking of atoms.
(i) Chain Isomerism: When two or more compounds have
a similar molecular formula but are different in the
arrangement of carbon atoms in straight or branched
chains the compounds are referred to as chain isomers
and the phenomenon is termed as chain isomerism.
For example: Pentane C5H12

ii) Position isomerism: When two or more compounds

with the same molecular formula differ in the position of
substituent atom or functional group on the carbon atom,
they are called position isomers and this phenomenon is
termed position isomerism.
For example:
C4H6 (Butyne) has two isomers.
 HYDRCARBONS: ALKANES
Alkanes
Alkanes are Aliphatic / open chain hydrocarbons in which all
the linkages between the
carbon atoms are single
covalent bonds.
These compounds are
known as saturated
hydrocarbons since all the
four valencies of carbon
are fully satisfied in the
formula CnH2n+2 by a
single bond.
These hydrocarbons are
relatively unreactive under
ordinary conditions and so,
they are also known as
paraffins (parum-little,
affinis - affinity).

Sources of Alkanes:
The principal sources of
alkanes are natural gas and
petroleum.
Isomerism in alkanes, i.e., single bond hydrocarbons
Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms form isomers.
They show chain isomerism. Examples:
Isomers of butane (C4H10):
Butane has four carbon atoms. There are two isomers of
butane.
Isomers of pentane (C5H12)
Pentane has five carbon atoms. They can form three isomers.

Methane and Ethane:

𝑶𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆:
Methane (Marsh Gas):
(i) Marsh gas is formed at the bottom of marshes due to the
fermentation of cellulose by a special type of bacteria.
(ii) It is present in the air exhaled by animals whose food
contains cellulose.
(iii) It is contained in intestinal gases and in the blood of
animals and human beings.
(iv) Cavities in coal contain 90% methane. It is called 'fire-
damp'.
(v) Methane is produced also by dry distillation of wood, peat
(coal).
Ethane:
It occurs to the extent of 10-20 percent along with methane.
Structure of Methane: The shape is tetrahedron.

Laboratory preparation of methane:

Reactants:
Sodium
ethanoate
(sodium
acetate)
and soda
lime.
Procedure:
A mixture
of sodium
ethanoate
(sodium
acetate) and soda lime is taken in a hard glass test tube and
heated over a bunsen burner.
Reaction:
CH3COONa + NaOH → Na2CO3 + CH4↑
Collection: The gas evolved is collected by downward
displacement of water since it is slightly soluble in water and is
lighter than air.

Laboratory preparation of ethane

Reactants: Sodium propanoate (sodium propionate) and soda
lime.
Procedure: A mixture of sodium propionate and soda lime is
taken in a boiling tube and heated over a bunsen burner

METHODS OF PREPARATION OF METHANE AND ETHANE

I. Iodomethane (methyl iodide) and bromoethane (ethyl
bromide) are reduced by nascent hydrogen at ordinary room
temperature.
CH3I + 2[H] → CH4 + HI
C2H5Br + 2[H] → C2H6 + HBr
Nascent hydrogen is produced by the action of Zn powder and
dil. HCl.

II. When water is added at room temperature to aluminium

carbide, methane is prepared.
Al4C3 + 12H2O → 3CH4 + 4Al(OH)3

III. Ethane from alkyl halides:

When methyl iodide or methyl bromide is warmed with sodium
metal in the presence of dry ether, ethane is produced.
2CH3I + 2Na → H3C - CH3 + 2NaI
This reaction is referred to as Wurtz reaction.

Physical Properties:
Methane:
(i) It is a colourless and an odourless gas.
(ii) Its melting point is-183 °C and its boiling point is -162 °C.
(iii) It is negligibly soluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents.

Ethane:
(i) It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-poisonous gas.
(ii) Its m.p. is -172 °C and its b.p. is -89 °C.
(iii) It is sparingly soluble in water but wholly soluble in organic
solvents like alcohols, acetone and ether.

Chemical Properties:
1. Combustion:
(i) Complete Combustion:
Methane and ethane burn in air with a bluish non sooty flame
to form carbon dioxide and water vapour.

(ii) Combustion in insufficient supply of air:

When alkanes burn in an insufficient supply of air (oxygen),
they form carbon monoxide and water.

2. Substitution Reaction:
Reaction with Halogens:
Alkanes react with chlorine, bromine or iodine in the presence
of sunlight or ultraviolet light to give halogen substituted
products that are known as alkyl halides.
Methane reacts with chlorine in diffused sunlight, or when
heated to 600 K, to give chloromethane.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

In this reaction, CH3Cl is formed by the substitution of

hydrogen atom of a methane molecule, by a chlorine atom.
CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl

3. Catalytic oxidation of alkanes

Alkanes give alcohols or aldehydes or carboxylic acids,
depending upon the reaction conditions.
(i) When a mixture of methane and oxygen in the ratio 9:1 by
volume is compressed to about 120 atm pressure and passed
over copper tubes at 475 K, methyl alcohol is formed.
2CH4 + O2 → 2CH3OH

(ii) When a mixture of methane and oxygen is passed through

heated molybdenum oxide (MoO), the mixture is oxidised to
Methanal (formaldehyde).
CH4 + O2 → HCHO + H2O
(iii) When a manganese-based catalyst is used at 100°C,
methane can be oxidised to methanoic acid (formic acid).
2CH4 + 3O2 → 2HCOOH + 2H2O

HYDRCARBONS: ALKENES
Alkenes: Alkenes are also called olefins (oil-forming) because
the lower members of alkenes form oily products when they are
treated with chlorine or bromine.

Occurrence: Since alkenes are reactive, they seldom occur free

in nature. Lower alkenes occur in minute quantities in coal gas.
They are produced on a large scale by the cracking of
petroleum.

Ethene:
It is the first member of the alkene series. It is present in
natural gas. In small amounts, it occurs as a plant hormone and
is responsible for the ripening of fruits.
Structure of Ethene: It is a planar molecule.

Preparation of ethene (ethylene)

(i) Dehydration of ethyl alcohol
Reactants: Ethanol and conc. sulphuric acid.
Procedure: Take one
part of ethyl alcohol in
a flask. Add two parts
of concentrated
sulphuric acid and
heat gradually to
about 170°C. Ethene
gas is evolved. The gas
is passed through
NaOH solution which
removes CO2 and SO2 (impurities formed by oxidation of the
acid). Ethene is collected by downward displacement of water
(add some aluminium sulphate to the water in order to avoid
frothing).

Reaction:
Collection:
The gas is collected by downward displacement of water
because:
(i) it is an inflammable gas.
(ii) it is insoluble in water.

Ethene is also prepared by passing ethanol vapours through a

tube containing alumina (Al2O3) at 350°C.
C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O

(ii) Dehydrohalogenation:
Ethene is prepared by dehydrohalogenation of ethylhalide or
haloethane by alcoholic hot conc. potassium hydroxide.
C2H5Cl + KOH → C2H4 + KCl + H₂O

Properties of Alkenes:
Physical Properties:
(i) Its melting point is -169°C and boiling point is -102°C.
(ii) It is sparingly soluble in water but highly soluble in organic
solvents like alcohol, ether and chloroform.

Chemical Properties:
1. Additional Reactions:
(i) Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation): When ethene and
hydrogen are passed over finely divided catalysts such as
platinum or palladium at ordinary temperature or nickel at 200
degrees C, the two atoms of hydrogen molecule are added to the
unsaturated molecule, which thus becomes a saturated one.
C2H4 + H2--------- C2H6
(ii) Addition of halogens (halogenation): Reaction with fluorine
is explosive, hence the compound formed is not stable.
 HYDRCARBONS: ALKYNES

Alkynes: The aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond

(-C ≡ C-), i.e., acetylenic bond, between two carbon atoms are
known as alkynes.

Ethyne:
Ethyne is the first member of the alkyne series. Ethyne being an
unsaturated hydrocarbon, is not found in free state.
Sources: Traces of ethyne are present in coal gas
Structure of Ethyne: The shape of ethyne molecule is linear.

Laboratory preparation of
ethyne
Reactants: Water and
calcium carbide.
Procedure: Take a few
pieces of calcium carbide
in a conical flask. Add a
few drops of water
through the thistle funnel. Calcium carbide reacts with water to
produce colourless gas with sweet smelling (ether - like) odour
(ethyne gas). The reaction is exothermic.
Reaction: CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 (Acetylene)
Note: Flask should not contain air as ethyne forms explosive
mixture with air. The air of the flask is displaced with oil or
some inert gas.

Properties of Ethyne:
Physical Properties:
(i) Ethyne is a colourless gas with an ether - like sweet odour
when it is pure (the one prepared from calcium carbide has
garlic odour due to the presence of traces of phosphine and
hydrogen sulphide).
(ii) It is negligibly soluble in water but highly soluble in
organic solvents like acetone and alcohol.

Chemical Properties:
1. Addition Reactions: The breaking up of a triple bond gives a
product that is still unsaturated (double bond). Further
breaking up of the double bond gives a saturated product.
(i) Addition of hydrogen (catalytic hydrogenation):
First stage of reaction: C2 H2 + H2 → C2H4 ( Ethene)
Second stage of reaction: C2H4 + H2 → C2H6 (Ethane)

(ii) Addition of Halogens:

C2H2 + Cl2 → 2C + 2HCl

ALCOHOLS

ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are the hydroxyl (-OH) derivatives of alkanes. They are
formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of the alkane
with an OH group. Homologous series of alcohols and their
structural formulae are given in Table.
Alcohols can be monohydric, i.e., with one(-OH) group attached
to the carbon atom.
Example: Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH).

They can be dihydric, i.e., with two -OH groups attached to the
carbon atom.
Example: Glycol C2H4(OH)2 .
IUPAC name: 1, 2-ethanediol

They can be trihydric, i.e., with three -OH group attached to the
carbon atom.
Example: Glycerol

ETHANOL (C2H5OH)

Occurrence
Since alcohols are not found naturally in the earth's
atmosphere, they are obtained by artificial synthesis in the
laboratory.
For example, methanol (wood spirit) is obtained from
destructive distillation of wood, while ethanol is obtained by
fermentation of sugar.

Laboratory Preparation
Alcohol can be prepared by the hydrolysis of alkyl halides
(haloalkanes) on reaction with a hot dilute alkali or when an
alkyl halide is boiled with aqueous alkalis.
RX + KOH (aqueous) → ROH + KX
CH3Br + KOH (aqueous) →CH3OH + KBr

Industrial method (large scale method)

Hydration of ethene: When concentrated sulphuric acid is
added to ethene (obtained from cracking of petroleum) at a
temperature of 80°C and pressure of 30 atm, ethyl hydrogen
sulphate is produced. Ethyl hydrogen sulphate, on hydrolysis
with boiling water, gives ethanol.
C2H4 (Ethene) + H2SO4 → C2H5H2SO4

Properties of alcohols

A. Physical properties:
(i) Nature: They are inflammable volatile liquids.
(ii) Boiling point: Their boiling point increases with an increase
in molecular weight.
(iii) Solubility: They are soluble in water as well as in organic
solvents.
(iv) Density: Ethanol is lighter than water. Its specific gravity is
0.79 at 293 K.
(v) They are colourless, have a faint odour and a burning taste.
(vi) Some are toxic.
For example: methyl alcohol, if consumed, causes blindness and
even death.

B. Chemical properties:
Alcohols are a reactive class of compounds.
1. Combustion (burning)
Alcohol burns readily in air to produce carbon dioxide and
water vapours. A lot of heat is produced during the combustion
of alcohols.
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O + △
Ethanol burns with a pale blue flame.

2. Oxidation with acidified potassium dichromate (oxidising

agents)
Alcohols react with oxidising agents like acidified potassium
dichromate and acidified potassium manganate.
These oxidising agents supply nascent oxygen [O] for oxidation
and thus alcohols first get converted into aldehydes and later
change into their respective acids.

3. Action with sodium

When sodium reacts with methyl alcohol or ethyl alcohol at
room temperature, hydrogen is evolved with the formation of
sodium methoxide and sodium ethoxide respectively.
2CH3OH + 2Na → 2CH3ONa + H2↑

4. Reactions with acetic acid

When alcohols react with ethanoic (acetic) acid in the presence
of conc. H2SO4 at high temperature, the respective esters are
produced and the process is known as esterification.
CH3OH + CH3COOH → CH3COOCH3 (Methyl Acetate) + H2O

5. Dehydration with conc. sulphuric acid

When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to ethyl alcohol and
the mixture is heated upto 170°C, it causes dehydration of ethyl
alcohol to give ethene.
C2H5OH → CH2 = CH2 + H2O

Uses of ethyl alcohol

(i) It is a good solvent for gums and resins.
(ii) It is used in thermometers and as a preservative for
biological specimens due to its low freezing point.
(iii) It is used in the manufacture of chemicals such as
chloroform, iodoform, ether, acetic acid and synthetic products
like dyes, esters (perfumes), antiseptics, preservatives.
(iv) Ethyl alcohol is used in alcoholic drinks (beverages) like
whisky, wine and beer. Beers contain about 4% ethanol, wines
about 11% and spirits (rum, brandy and whisky) 40% or more.
(v) As a fuel in powdered form and as an antifreeze for
automobile radiators.

Different commercial forms of ethanol

The alcohol obtained by distillation is 95% pure. It forms a
constant boiling mixture of 5% water and 95% ethanol. Absolute
alcohol may be obtained by distilling moist alcohol with
benzene (an organic solvent). The mixture of water and benzene
distills off and anhydrous alcohol is left behind.

1. Denatured alcohol or methylated spirit

Ethyl alcohol is a part of drinking beverages and is also a widely
used solvent in industries. In order to make it undrinkable,
certain poisonous substances like pyridine, methyl alcohol and
copper sulphate are added to it.
Methylated spirit or denatured alcohol is ethyl alcohol with 5%
methyl alcohol, a coloured dye and some pyridine. It is used for
industrial applications.

2. Spurious Alcohol
This is illicit liquor made by improper distillation. It contains
large proportions of methanol in a mixture of alcohols. It is
fatal for human consumption.
Spurious alcohol, though impure, can be used as a solvent for
paints and varnishes.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
An organic compound containing
the carboxyl group (-COOH) is
known as carboxylic acid. These
compounds possess acidic
properties.
General formula: CnH2n+1COOH (or
RCOOH)
Functional Group:

IUPAC name: IUPAC name is given by replacing the 'e' of the

corresponding alkane by 'oic acid', because they are derived
from alkanes by replacing one hydrogen atom with the carboxyl
(-COOH) group. Thus, they are also known as Alkanoic acids.
ETHANOIC ACID (ACETIC ACID) CH3COOH

Structural formula:

The name acetic acid comes from the latin word 'ACETUM'.
Acetic acid (IUPAC name, ethanoic acid) occurs in free state in
many fruits and as esters in a number of essential oils.

Dilute (4-5 percent) solution of ethanoic acid is also called

vinegar. The presence of a colouring matter gives vinegar a
greyish colour while the presence of some other organic
compound imparts it the usual taste and flavour. Vinegar is
used for flavouring and preserving foods.

Physical properties
1. Physical state: Pure ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid.
2. Odour: Characteristic pungent smell. (Smell of vinegar)
3. Melting point: The anhydrous acid on cooling forms a
crystalline mass resembling ice; melting point is 17°C and for
this reason, it is called glacial acetic acid.
4. Boiling point: It boils at 118°C.
5. Nature: It is hygroscopic liquid, sp. gr. at 0°C is 1.08.
6. Solubility: It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether in all
proportions.

Chemical properties
1. It is a weak acid, hence
(i) turns moist blue litmus red.
(ii) reacts with active metals (i.e., Zn and Mg) revolving
hydrogen.
(iii) reacts with alkalis to form salt and water.
(iv) liberates brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide with
carbonates or hydrogen carbonates.

2. Ethanoic acid forms an ester (pleasant fruity smelling

compound) on reacting with alcohol in the presence of a
dehydrating agent like conc. H2SO4.

The reaction is known as reaction of esterification.

Reversible reaction may be prevented by using conc. H2SO4
when the reaction is about to complete by removing H2O.

Structure of Ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate)

3. It forms acetic anhydride on heating with phosphorus
pentoxide as it loses a water molecule.
4. Reduction: A strong reducing agent such as lithium
aluminium hydride (LiAIH4) will reduce ethanoic acid to
ethanol.

Test
1. On adding ethanoic acid to carbonates and bicarbonates,
carbon dioxide is evolved.
2. When warmed with ethyl alcohol and conc. sulphuric acid, a
pleasant fruity smell of ethyl acetate is produced.
3. On adding neutral iron (III) chloride, wine red colour is
produced.

Uses of Ethanoic Acid

Ethanoic acid is used:
1. as a solvent for phosphorus, sulphur, iodine, resins, cellulose,
etc.
2. as a laboratory reagent.
3. as vinegar.
4. in dyes, perfumes and medicines.
5. in the production of dyes, perfumes, esters, etc.
6. for coagulating rubber from latex.
7. for the manufacture of :
• cellulose acetate which is used for making packaging
materials, varnishes, rayon.
• amyl acetate (used as a flavouring agent for chewing gums).
• acetic anhydride (used in aspirin).
• cellulose acetate (used in synthetic form).