Periodic Table – Periodic Properties and Variations of

Properties
Introduction

 It is a table which classifies all the known elements in accordance with their properties in such a way
that elements with similar properties are grouped together in the same vertical column and dissimilar
elements are separated.
 The 115 known elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of their increasing atomic
number.
 The vertical columns are called groups.
 The horizontal rows are called periods.

Approaches to Periodic Classification of Elements

Dobereiner’s Triads
In 1817, Dobereiner classified elements with similar chemical properties into groups of three called triads.
He noted that the atomic mass of the middle element in a triad is the arithmetic mean of the other two.
This is called Dobereiner’s Law of Triads.

7
Li 23
Na 39
K
7 + 39
At. mass of sodium = = 23
2
40 87 137
Ca Sr Ba
137 + 40
At. mass of strontium = = 88·5
2
35·5
Cl 79
Br 127
I
35·5 + 127
At. mass of bromine = = 81·25
2

Newlands’ Law of Octaves

In 1864, Newlands arranged elements in the increasing order of atomic mass and noticed that the eighth
element was similar in physical and chemical properties to the first element, just like the eight nodes in
music. This relationship is called the Law of Octaves.

Lother Meyer’s Law

In 1869, Lother Meyer classified that atomic volume is the periodic function of atomic mass.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law
In 1869, Mendeleev stated the law of chemical periodicity.
The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses; i.e. when
the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses, the elements with similar
properties are repeated after certain regular intervals.
This is called Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.

Certain anomalies of Mendeleev’s table were

(i) Position of hydrogen (ii) Position of rare earths
(iii) Position of isotopes (iv) Position of Noble gases
(v) Anomalous pairs of elements (vi) Cause of periodicity

Modern Periodic Law

The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.

Long Form of the Periodic Table

It is based upon the modern periodic law, i.e. elements are arranged according to the increasing order of
their atomic number.

Periods
 The horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table are called periods. There are seven periods in the
long form of the periodic table.
 The first period consists of 2 elements called the shortest period.
 The second and third periods consist of 8 elements called short periods.
 The fourth and fifth periods contain 18 elements each and are called long periods.
 The sixth period consists of 32 elements and it is the longest period.
 The seventh period is yet an incomplete period.

Groups
 The modern periodic table has eighteen vertical columns known as groups, arranged from left to right
in the order: IA, IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIII (three columns), IB, IIB, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and
Zero.
 A group is determined by the number of electrons present in the outermost shell.
 Elements in groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are called normal elements.
 Elements in groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.
 Group 18 at the extreme right contains noble or inert gases.
 Reactive metals are placed in groups 1 and 2.
 Transition elements [metals] are placed in the middle.
 Non-metals are placed in the upper right corner of the periodic table.
Periodicity

The properties which reappear at regular intervals, or in which there is gradual variation at regular
intervals, are called periodic properties, and the phenomenon is known as the periodicity of elements.

Shells/Orbits

Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in certain selected but fixed concentric circular paths
called shells or orbits. These are associated with a definite amount of energy and are also called energy
levels.

Valency

 It denotes the combining capacity of the atom of an element. It is equal to the number of electrons an
atom can donate or accept or share.
 On moving from left to right in a period, the number of valence electrons increases from 1 to 8.
 Certain elements lose electrons in steps and hence show variable valency, e.g. Cu, Fe, Ag, Au etc.
 On moving down a group, the valence electrons and valency of all the elements in a group remain the
same.

Periodic Properties of Elements

 Atomic size (atomic radii)

It is the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and its outermost shell.
 Metallic Character
Those elements which have a tendency to lose their valence electrons and form a positive ion are
considered as metals.
Na − e− → Na+
 Non-metallic Character
Those elements which have a tendency to gain electrons in order to attain an octet in their outermost
orbit are considered as non-metals.
Example: Cl + e−  Cl−
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)
 Chemical Reactivity
In metals, greater the tendency to lose electrons, greater is the reactivity.
In non-metals, greater the tendency to gain electrons, greater is the reactivity.
 Ionisation Energy
The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral isolated gaseous atom and convert it into a
positively charged gaseous ion is called ionisation energy (IE) or first ionisation energy (IE1).
 Electron Affinity (EA) or Electron Gain Enthalpy
The amount of energy released while converting a neutral gaseous isolated atom into a negatively
charged gaseous ion by the addition of electrons is called electron affinity.
 Electronegativity
The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is called its
electronegativity.
 Atomic Number (Z)
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
The atomic number is a unique property of an element, because no two elements have the same
atomic number.
 Mass Number (A)
The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
the atom of the element.

Variation of Periodic Properties in the Periodic Table

Periodic Properties In Group In Period

Atomic size The atomic radii of elements The atomic radii of elements
increase in a group on moving decrease in a period from left
from top to bottom. to right with an increase in
atomic number.

Ionisation energy The ionisation potential The ionisation potential

decreases in a group on going increases in a period on going
from top to bottom. from left to right.

Electron affinity On going down a group, The electron affinity increases

electron affinity decreases. in going from left to right in a
period.
Electronegativity Electronegativity of elements Electronegativity of elements
gradually decreases from top to increases in going from left to
bottom. right across the period.
Metallic character The metallic character of The metallic character of
elements increases down a elements gradually decreases
group. on moving from left to right.
Non-metallic The non-metallic character The non-metallic character
character decreases down the group. increases across a period.
Basic nature of The basic nature of the oxides The basic nature of the oxides
oxides of the metals increases down a decreases across the period
group. and finally becomes acidic.
Chemical reactivity The chemical reactivity of the The chemical reactivity of
metal increases and of non- elements first decreases and
metal decreases on going then increases from left to right
down the group. in a period.
 Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bond

A chemical bond is defined as the force of attraction between any two atoms in a molecule to maintain
stability.

Noble Gases
 Have stable electronic configuration, i.e. their outermost shell is complete.
 They have 2 electrons in the outermost shell or 8 electrons in the outermost shell.
 They do not lose, gain or share electrons and are inert or unreactive.

Atoms of Elements – Other than Noble Gases

 Have unstable electronic configuration, i.e. their outermost shell is incomplete.
 They can lose, gain or share electrons and are chemically reactive.

Reasons for Chemical Bonding

 The driving force for atoms to combine is related to the tendency of each atom to attain stable
electronic configuration of the nearest inert noble gas.
 For an atom to achieve stable electronic configuration, it must have
Two electrons in the outermost shell (nearest noble gas He) – Duplet rule
Eight electrons in the outermost shell (all noble gases other than He) – Octet rule

Methods for achieving Chemical Bonding

There are three methods in which atoms can achieve a stable configuration:
 Electrovalent bond
 Covalent bond
 Coordinate bond

Electrovalent (or Ionic) Bond

 Ionic bond
The chemical bond formed between two atoms by transfer of one or more electrons from the atom of a
metallic electropositive element to an atom of a non-metallic electronegative element.
 Ionic compound
The chemical compound formed as a result of transfer of one or more electrons from the atom of a
metallic electropositive element to an atom of a non-metallic electronegative element.
 Electrovalency
The number of electrons donated or accepted by the valence shell of an atom of an element so as to
achieve stable electronic configuration is called electrovalency.
Conditions for the formation of an Ionic Bond
Ionisation potential (IP): Lower the value of IP of a metallic atom, greater the ease of formation of the
cation.
Electron affinity: Higher the value of EA of a non-metallic atom, greater the ease of formation of the
anion.
Electronegativity: Larger the differences in electronegativity between the combining atoms, greater the
ease of electron transfer.

Formation of electrovalent compounds

Formation of Sodium Chloride

1] Ionic equation

Na − 1e− → Na+
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
Cl + 1e− → Cl−
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)
___________________________________

Na + Cl → Na+ Cl−→ NaCl

2] Electron dot structural diagram

Covalent Bond

 Covalent bond: The chemical bond formed due to mutual sharing of electrons between the given
pairs of atoms of non-metallic elements.

 Covalent compound: The chemical compound formed due to mutual sharing of electrons between
the given pairs of atoms, thereby forming a covalent bond between them.

 Covalency: The number of electron pairs which an atom shares with one or more atoms of the same
kind or different kind to achieve stable electronic configuration is called covalency.

 Non-polar covalent compounds: Covalent compounds are said to be non-polar when the shared
pair of electrons are equally distributed between the two atoms.
Examples: H2, Cl2, O2, N2, CH4, CCl4

 Polar covalent compounds: Covalent compounds are said to be polar when a shared pair of
electrons are unequally distributed between the two atoms.
Examples: H2O, NH3, HCl
Conditions for formation of covalent compound
Ionisation potential, electron affinity and electronegativity: High between both the atoms.
Electronegativity difference: Should be negligible between the two combining atoms.

Formation of methane molecule – Non-polar covalent compound

Atom Electronic Nearest noble To attain stable

configuration gas electronic
configuration of
nearest noble gas
12
Carbon 6C [2,4] Neon [2,8] Carbon needs four
electrons to complete
the octet.
1
Hydrogen 1H [1] Helium [2] Hydrogen needs one
electron to complete the
duplet.

One atom of carbon shares four electron pairs, one with each of the four atoms of hydrogen.

Coordinate Bond

The bond formed between two atoms by sharing a pair of electrons provided entirely by one of the
combining atoms but shared by both is called a coordinate bond or dative bond.
Examples: Ammonium ion (NH4+), hydronium ion (H3O+)
A coordinate bond has properties of both covalent and ionic bonds. So, it is also called a co-ionic bond.
 Lone pair of electrons: A pair of electrons which is not shared with any other atom is known as a
lone pair of electrons. It is provided to the other atom for the formation of a coordinate bond.
 Conditions for the formation of coordinate bond
1. One of the two atoms must have at least one lone pair of electrons. Examples: Ammonia (NH3),
water (H2O)
2. Another atom should be short of at least one lone pair of electrons. Example: Hydrogen ion (H +)
 Formation of hydronium ion [H3O+]

Water Hydrogen ion Hydronium ion

H2O + H+  H3O+ (Hydronium ion)

- In water, the O atom contains two lone pairs of electrons after completing its octet.
- The hydrogen ion accepts one lone pair of electrons of the oxygen atom of the water
molecule, leading to the formation of a coordinate bond.

 Properties and comparison of electrovalent and covalent compounds

Electrovalent compounds Covalent compounds
These are hard solids consisting of ions. These are gases, liquids or soft solids.
These are non-volatile, with high boiling and These are volatile, with low boiling and low
high melting points. melting points.
They are good conductors of electricity in They are non-conductors of electricity in
the fused state. solid, molten or aqueous state.
The dissociation of molecules into ions The dissociation of molecules into ions does
occurs when the current passes through not occur.
them.
These are soluble in water but insoluble in These are insoluble in water but dissolve in
organic solvents. organic solvents.
They show rapid speed of chemical They show slow speed of chemical reactions
reactions in aqueous solutions. in aqueous solutions.

Redox Reaction

 Oxidation: When an atom or ion loses an electron or electrons, oxidation takes place.
 Reduction: When an atom or ion gains an electron or electrons, reduction takes place.
 Oxidising agents: The atom or ion which gains an electron or electrons is an oxidising agent.
 Reducing agents: The atom or ion which loses an electron or electrons is a reducing agent.
 Redox reaction: A chemical reaction in which the loss and gain of electrons take place
simultaneously is called a redox reaction.
Example:
 Acids, Bases and Salts
Acid

An acid is a compound which when dissolved in water yields hydronium ions (H 3O+) as the only positively
charged ions.
+ –
Examples: HCl H + Cl
+ +
H + H2O H3O
Hydrogen ion Hydronium ion

Classification of Acids
1. Depending on sources
Organic acid: Acids which are usually obtained from plants are called organic acids. They contain
carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Examples:
Organic Acids Occurrence
Acetic acid Vinegar
Citric acid Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons)

Inorganic (Mineral) acids: Acids which are obtained from minerals are known as inorganic acids.
Examples:
Inorganic Acids Chemical Formulae
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Nitric acid HNO3

2. Depending on strength
(a) Strength of an acid: The strength of an acid depends on the concentration of the hydronium ions
(H3O+) present in the aqueous solution of an acid.
i. Strong acids: A strong acid vigorously ionises in aqueous solution, thereby producing a high
concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+).
Examples: HNO3, HCl, H2SO4
ii. Weak acids: Weak acids ionise only partially in aqueous solution to produce ions and molecules.
Examples: H2CO3, CH3COOH, HCOOH

3. Depending on basicity
Basicity of an acid: The number of hydronium ions (H3O+) which can be produced by the ionisation of
one molecule of that acid in aqueous solution.
i. Monobasic acids: Acids which on ionisation in water produce one hydronium ion (H 3O+) per
molecule of the acid are known as monobasic acids.
Example: HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl− [Basicity = 1]
ii. Dibasic acids: Acids which on ionisation in water produce two hydronium ions (H3O+) per
molecule of the acid are known as dibasic acids.
–
Examples: H2SO4+ H2O H3O+ + HSO4
– 2–
HSO4 + H2O H3O+ + SO4 [Basicity = 2]
 iii. Tribasic acids: Acids which on ionisation in water produce three hydronium ions (H 3O+) per
molecule of the acid are known as tribasic acids.
–
Examples: H3PO4+ H2O H3O+ + H2PO4
– 2–
H2PO4 + H2O H3O+ + HPO4
2– 3–
HPO4 H3O+ + PO4 [Basicity = 3]

4. Depending on concentration
The concentration of an acid means the amount of acid present in a definite amount of its aqueous
solution.
i. Concentrated acid: An acid which contains a very small amount of water or no water is called a
concentrated acid.
ii. Dilute acid: An acid which contains far more amount of water than its own mass is known as a
dilute acid.

5. Depending on molecular composition

i. Hydracids: Acids which contain hydrogen, a non-metallic element and no oxygen are called
hydracids. Examples: HCl, H2S, HBr, HI
ii. Oxyacids: Acids which contain oxygen, hydrogen and a non-metallic element are called
oxyacids. Examples: H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3

Preparation of Acids
1. By synthesis
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl

2. By the action of water on non-metallic or acidic oxides

SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3

3. By oxidation of non-metals
S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2
P + H3PO4 → H3PO4 + H2O + 5O2

4. By displacement
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4+ HCl
NaNO3+ H2SO4 → NaHSO4+ HNO3

Properties of Acids
Physical properties
i. Sour in taste in aqueous solution.
ii. Turns blue litmus red.
iii. Some acids are solids and some are liquids at room temperature.
iv. All strong mineral acids have corrosive action on the skin and cause painful burns.
v. They are electrolytes, i.e. they conduct electricity in the aqueous state.
Chemical Properties
1. Reaction with active metals
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

2. Reaction with bases - Neutralisation

NaOH + H2SO4 → NaNO3 + H2O

3. Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2+ H2O + CO2

4. Reaction with sulphites and bisulphites

CaSO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2+ H2O + SO2
NaHSO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + SO2

5. Reaction with sulphides

ZnS + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2S

6. Reaction with chlorides

7. Reaction with nitrates

Pb (NO3)2 + 2HCl → PbCl2 + 2HNO3

Uses of Some Acids

Acid Use
Boric acid Eye wash/antiseptic
Citric acid Food preservation
Oxalic acid Ink stain remover
Carbonic acid Flavoured drinks

Bases

A base is either a metallic oxide or a metallic hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide which reacts with
hydronium ions of an acid to form salt and water only.

Basic Oxide
A basic oxide is a metallic oxide which contains the ion O2− and reacts with an acid to form salt and water.

Alkalis
An alkali is a basic hydroxide which when dissolved in water produces hydroxyl (OH−) ions as the only
negatively charged ions.
NaOH (aq) Na+ + OH–
Note: All alkalis are bases, but all bases are not alkalis.
Classification of Bases
1. On the basis of strength
i. Strong base: It undergoes almost complete ionisation in aqueous solution to produce a high
concentration of OH− ions.
−
Example: NaOH (aq) Na+(aq) + OH (aq)
ii. Weak base: It undergoes only partial ionisation in aqueous solution to produce a low concentration
of OH− in solution.
Example: NH4OH (aq) NH+(aq) + OH–(aq)

2. On the basis of acidity

–
a. Acidity of a base: The number of hydroxyl ions (OH ) which can be produced per molecule of the
base in aqueous solution.
i. Monoacidic base: Bases which dissociate in aqueous solution to produce one hydroxyl ion
–
(OH ) per molecule of the base are called monoacidic bases.
Example: NaOH Na+ + OH– [Acidity = 1]
–
ii. Diacidic base: Bases which dissociate in aqueous solution to produce two hydroxyl ions (OH )
per molecule of the base are called diacidic bases.
2+
Example: Ca(OH)2 Ca + 2OH– [Acidity = 2]
–
iii. Triacidic base: Bases which dissociate in aqueous solution to produce three hydroxyl ions (OH )
per molecule of the base are called triacidic bases.
3+
Example: Al (OH)3 Al + 3OH– [Acidity = 3]
iv. By oxidation of non-metals
  H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2
Boiling
S + 6HNO3

3. On the basis of composition

Concentrated alkali: It is an alkali with a relatively high percentage of alkali in its aqueous solution.
Dilute alkali: It is an alkali with a relatively low percentage of alkali in its aqueous solution.

Preparation of Bases
i. From Metals
2Mg + O2   2MgO
ii. By action of water or steam on reactive metals
2Na + 2H2O   2NaOH + H2
iii. By the action of water on soluble metallic oxides
Na2O + H2O   2NaOH
iv. By double decomposition
FeCl3 + 3NaOH   Fe (OH) 3 + 3NaCl
v. By the action of oxygen on metal sulphides
2ZnS + 3O2   2ZnO + 2SO2
vi. By decomposition of salts
CaCO3   CaO + CO2
Properties of Bases

Physical properties
1. They have sharp and bitter taste.
2. They change red litmus blue.
3. Soapy substances, i.e. they are slippery to touch.
4. They are strong electrolytes.
5. They show mild corrosive action on the skin.

Chemical properties
1. Reaction with carbon dioxide
2NaOH + CO2  Na2CO3 + H2O
2. Reaction with acids - Neutralisation
Ca (OH) 2 + 2HCl   CaCl2 + 2H2O
3. Reaction with metallic salts
CuSO4 + 2NH4OH   (NH4)2SO4 + Cu (OH) 2

Uses of Some Bases

Base Use
Sodium hydroxide Manufacture of soaps
Potassium hydroxide Manufacture of salts
and soaps
In batteries
Magnesium hydroxide An antacid
Magnesia In making refractory
bricks

pH Value

It represents the strength of acids and alkalis expressed in terms of hydrogen ion concentration.

pH of Solution
pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration expressed in
mole per litre.
pH = –log10 (H+)

pH Scale
It is a scale showing the relative strength of acids and alkalis.
The normal pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 as shown below.
Indicators

They are complex substances which acquire separate colours in acidic and basic media.

Types of Indicators
a. Acid–base indicators: Common acid–base indicators such as litmus, methyl orange and
phenolphthalein can distinguish between acid and basic solutions, but they cannot determine the
strength of the solution.
b. Universal indicator: A universal indicator is a mixture of organic dyes which gives a definite colour
change over a wide range of pH.

Salts

A salt is a compound formed by the partial or total replacement of the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid
by a metallic ion or an ammonium ion.

Classification of Salts
1. Normal salts: The salts formed by the complete replacement of the replaceable hydrogen ion of an
acid molecule by a basic radical.
Example:
HCl + NaOH   NaCl + H2O
2. Acid salts: The salts formed by partial replacement of the replaceable hydrogen ion of an acid
molecule by a basic radical.
Example:
NaOH + H2SO4   NaHSO4 + H2O
3. Basic salts: The salts formed by the partial replacement of the hydroxyl group of a di- or tri-acidic
base by an acidic radical.
Example:
Mg (OH) 2 + HCl   Mg (OH) Cl + H2O
4. Double salts: The salts formed by the union of two simple salts which dissolve in water and
crystallise.
Example:
Potash alum: K2SO4. Al2 (SO4)3. 24H2O
5. Mixed salts: Mixed salts are those salts which contain more than one basic or acidic radical.
Example:
Sodium potassium carbonate NaKCO3
6. Complex salts: Complex salts are those salts which on dissociation give one simple ion and one
complex ion.
Example:
Na [Ag (CN) 2] Na+ + [Ag (CN)2]−
Preparation of Soluble Salts

Method Reaction
Metal + Non-metal   Salt
1. Direct combination 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
Active metal + Acid  Salt + Hydrogen
2. Simple displacement Zn + H2SO4   ZnSO4 + H2

NaHCO3 + HCl 
 NaCl + H2O + CO2
3. Decomposition
a. Decomposition of bicarbonates CuCO3 + 2HCl 
 2CuCl2 + H2O + CO2
b. Decomposition of carbonates
c. Decomposition of chlorides
d. Decomposition of nitrates

4. Neutralisation HNO3 + NaOH 

 NaNO3 + H2O

Preparation of Insoluble Salts

1. By direct combination
Reaction: Pb + S   PbS
2. By combination of an acidic oxide with a basic oxide
Reaction: SO2 + CaO   CaSO3
3. Double decomposition
Reactions: BaCl2 + H2SO4   BaSO4 + 2HCl

Laboratory Preparation of some Normal and Acid Salts

1. Iron (III) chloride or anhydrous ferric chloride

It is prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over heated iron.
Fe + Cl2   FeCl3

2. Copper (II) sulphate

It is prepared by the reaction of copper oxide, copper hydroxides or copper carbonates with dilute
sulphuric acid.
CuO + H2SO4   CuSO4 + H2O
Cu (OH)2 + H2SO4   CuSO4 + 2H2O
CuCO3 + H2SO4   CuSO4 + H2O
CuSO4 + 5H2O   CuSO4.5H2O

3. Zinc sulphate and iron (II) sulphate

It is prepared by the reaction of metals with dilute sulphuric acid.
Zn + H2SO4   ZnSO4 + H2O
ZnSO4 + 7H2O   FeSO4.7H2O

4. Lead chloride
It is prepared by adding either dilute hydrochloric acid or sodium chloride solution to a solution of lead
nitrate.
Pb (NO3)2 + 2HCl   PbCl2 + 2HNO3
5. Calcium carbonate
It is prepared by adding sodium carbonate solution to a hot solution of calcium chloride.
CaCl2 + Na2CO3   CaCO3 + 2NaCl

6. Sodium bicarbonate
It is prepared by passing excess of carbon dioxide gas through a saturated solution of sodium
carbonate.
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O   2 NaHCO3

7. Neutralisation
It is the process by which H+ ions of an acid react completely with the [OH−] ions of a base to give salt
and water only.
Example: HCl (Acid) + NaOH (Base)   NaCl (Salt) + H2O (water)

Water of Crystallisation
It is the amount of water molecules which enter into loose chemical combination with one molecule of the
substance on crystallisation from its aqueous solution.

Hydrated Salt
The salts which contain a definite number of water molecules as water of crystallisation are called
hydrated salts.
Examples: Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda), CuSO4.5H2O (blue vitriol)

Anhydrous Salt
A salt which does not contain any water of crystallisation is called an anhydrous salt.
Examples: NaCl, NaNO3, Pb(NO3)2

Deliquescence
Water soluble salts which on exposure to the atmosphere absorb moisture from the atmosphere, dissolve
in the same and change into a solution. The phenomenon is called deliquescence and the salts
deliquescent.
Examples: CaCl2, MgCl2, ZnCl2

Efflorescence
Crystalline hydrated salts which on exposure to the atmosphere lose their water of crystallisation partly or
completely and change into a powder. This phenomenon is called efflorescent and the salts efflorescent.
Examples: CuSO4.5H2O, MgSO4.7H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O
 Analytical Chemistry – Uses of Ammonium Hydroxide and
Sodium Hydroxide
Introduction

The determination of the chemical components in a given sample is called analysis.

Types of Analysis
 Qualitative Analysis: It involves the identification of unknown substances.
 Quantitative Analysis: It involves the identification of the composition of a mixture.

Reagents
 Reagent: It is a substance which reacts with another substance.
 Alkalis are important laboratory reagents.
 Sodium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide are the most commonly used alkalis, which give
characteristic tests with various metal cations, and thus, a cation can be identified.

Colours of Salts and their Solutions

Salts of representative elements (normal elements), i.e. the elements of Group IA to Group VII A are
generally colourless.

Salts of transition elements, i.e. salts of elements of Group IB to VIIB and Group VIII are generally
coloured.

Colourless ions Coloured ions

Cation Symbol Cation Symbol Colour

Ammonium ion NH4+ Cupric ion Cu2+ Blue
Sodium ion Na+ Ferrous ion Fe2+ Light green
Potassium ion K+ Ferric ion Fe3+ Yellowish brown
Calcium ion Ca2+ Nickel ion Ni2+ Green
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Chromium ion Cr 3+
Green
Aluminium ion Al3+ Manganese ion Mn2+ Pink
Lead ion Pb2+
Zinc ion Zn2+

Anion Symbol Anion Symbol Colour

Chloride ion Cl− Permanganate ion MnO4− Pink or purple
Sulphate ion SO42−
Carbonate ion CO32− Dichromate Cr2O72− Orange
Hydrogen HCO3− ion
carbonate ion Chromate ion CrO42− Yellow
2−
Sulphide ion S
Bromide ion Br−
Acetate ion CH3COO−
Precipitation
It is the process of formation of an insoluble solid when solutions are mixed. The solid thus formed is
known as a precipitate.

Action of Sodium Hydroxide Solution on Metallic Salt Solutions

Salt + Alkali → Metallic + Salt Solubility of the ppt. in excess of

formed alkali
solution hydroxide in solution
(ppt.)
1. Calcium salt [Ca2+ ion] Sparingly soluble
Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → Ca(OH)2 + 2NaNO3
(White ppt.) (colourless)
2. Iron Insoluble
(A) Ferrous salt [Fe2+ion]
FeSO4 + 2NaOH → Fe(OH)2 + Na2SO4
(dirty green, (colourless)
gelatinous ppt.)
(B) Ferric salt [Fe3+ ion]
FeCl3 + 3NaOH → Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl
(Reddish brown ppt.) (colourless)
3. Copper salt [Cu2+] Insoluble
CuSO4 + 2NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
(Pale blue ppt.) (colourless)
4. Zinc salt [Zn2+ ion] Soluble
ZnSO4 + 2NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na2SO4 Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH (excess) →
(white, (colourless)
gelatinous ppt.) Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
(colourless)
5. Lead salt [Pb2+ ion] Soluble
Pb(NO)3 + 2NaOH → Pb(OH)2 + 2NaNO3 Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH (excess) →
(White ppt.) (colourless)
Na2PbO2 + 2H2O
(colourless)
6. Ammonium salt [NH4+]
NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + NH3
Action of Ammonium Hydroxide on certain Salt Solutions

Salt + Ammonium → Metal + Salt formed in Solubility of the ppt. in excess

Solution hydroxide hydroxide solution of ammonium hydroxide
1. Calcium salt
Ca(OH)2 does not precipitate even with the addition of excess of NH4OH.

2. Iron
(A) Iron (II) salt [Fe2+ ion]
FeSO4 + 2NH4OH → Fe(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 Insoluble
(dirty green ppt.) (colourless)
(B) Iron (III) salt [Fe3+ ion]
FeCl3 + 3NH4OH → Fe(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl
(reddish (colourless)
brown ppt.)
3. Copper (II) salt [Cu2+ion] Soluble
CuSO4 + 2NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
(pale blue ppt.) (colourless in solution)
With excess of NH4OH, the ppt. dissolves
Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + 2NH4OH → [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 + 4H2O
Tetrammine
Copper (II) sulphate
(deep blue solution)
2+
4. Zinc salt [Zn ion] Soluble
ZnSO4 + 2NH4OH → Zn(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
(white, gelatinous (colourless)
ppt.)

Action of Alkalis on certain Metals

Metal + Alkali → Salt + Hydrogen

1. Zinc
Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
Sodium zincate
(colourless)
2. Aluminium
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + H2
Sodium meta aluminate
(colourless)
3. Lead
Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2
Sodium plumbate
(colourless)
Action of Alkalis on Metal Oxides

Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides: Compounds which react with both acids and alkalis to form salt
and water are called amphoteric oxides and hydroxides.

Amphoteric oxide/hydroxide Oxide/hydroxide + Alkali → Salt + Water

1. Zinc oxide/Zinc hydroxide i. ZnO + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
Sodium zincate
(colourless)
ii. Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
Sodium zincate
(colourless)

2. Aluminium oxide/Aluminium i. Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2Na AlO2 + H2O

hydroxide Sodium meta
aluminate
(white)
ii. Al(OH)3 + NaOH → Na AlO2 + 2H2O
3. Lead oxide/Lead i. PbO + 2NaOH → Na2 PbO2 + H2O
hydroxide Sodium plumbate
(colourless)
ii. Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2 PbO2 + 2H2O
 Mole Concept and Stoichiometry
Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law
The volume of a given mass of a dry gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at a constant
temperature.
P1VI = P2V2 = k at constant temperature

Charles’s Law
The volume of a given mass of a dry gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the pressure
is kept constant.
V1 = V2 = k at constant pressure
T1 T2

Gas Equation
The volume of a given mass of a dry gas is inversely proportional to the pressure and directly proportional
to the absolute temperature.
V  1 × T or PV = k
P T

Standard or Normal Temperature and Pressure

For temperature: 0°C or 273 K
For pressure: 760 mm or 76 cm of Hg

Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes

At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of gases taking part in a chemical reaction as either
reactants or products bears a whole number ratio to one another.
Example: H2(g) + Cl2(g)   2HCl(g)
1 vol. 1 vol. 2 vols.
The ratio of reacting gases and products is 1:1:2, which is a simple ratio.

Avogadro’s Law
Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all the gases contain the same
number of molecules.
Example: A molecule of NH3 is made of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)   2NH3(g)
1 vol. 3 vols. 2 vols.
1 molecule 3 molecules 2 molecules
Nitrogen Hydrogen Ammonia
Atomicity

The number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity.

a. Monatomic: It is composed of only one atom.
Examples: Inert gases such as Helium, Neon etc.
b. Diatomic: It is composed of two identical atoms.
Examples: H2, O2, Cl2 etc.
c. Triatomic: It is composed of three identical atoms.
Example: Ozone (O3)
d. Tetratomic: It is composed of four identical atoms.
Example: Phosphorus (P4)
e. Octatomic: It is composed of eight identical atoms.
Example: Sulphur (S8)

Atomic Mass or Relative Atomic Mass

It is the number which represents how many times one atom of an element is heavier than 1/12th the mass
of an atom of carbon-12 (12C).
Relative atomic mass = Mass of an atom of an element
1/12th the mass of one C-12 atom

Molecular Mass or Relative Molecular Mass

It is the number which represents how many times one molecule of an element is heavier than 1/12 th the
mass of an atom of carbon-12 (12C).
Relative molecular mass = Mass of one molecule of an element
1/12th the mass of one C-12 atom

Gram Atomic Mass

The atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is called gram atomic mass.
Example: Gram atomic mass of oxygen is 16 gram.

Gram Molecular Mass

The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called gram molecular mass or molar mass.
Example: Gram molecular mass of water is 18 gram.
Mole Concept

A mole is a collection of 6.022 × 1023 particles.

A mole is defined as the amount of a substance containing elementary particles such as atoms, molecules
or ions in 12 gram of carbon-12 (12C).

Avogadro’s Number
It is defined as the number of atoms present in 12 gram of C-12 isotope, i.e. 6·023 × 1023 atoms. It is
denoted by NA or L.
NA = 6·023 × 1023
1 mole of atoms = 6·023 × 1023 atoms
1 mole of molecules = 6·023 × 1023 molecules
1 mole of electrons =6·023 × 1023 electrons
1 mole of a gas = 22·4 litre at STP

Applications of Avogadro’s Law

i. It explains Gay-Lussac’s law.
ii. It determines atomicity of the gases.
iii. It determines the molecular formula of a gas.
iv. It determines the relation between molecular mass and vapour density.
v. It gives the relationship between gram molecular mass and gram molar volume.

Relative Vapour Density (VD)

Relative vapour density is the ratio between the masses of equal volumes of a gas (or vapour) and
hydrogen under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.

Relative VD = Mass of volume ‘v’ of the gas under similar conditions

Mass of volume ‘v’ of hydrogen gas under similar conditions
Relative molecular mass of a gas or vapour = 2 × VD
Important Formulae

Mole and Gram Atomic Mass: One mole of atoms = 6.022 ×10 23 atoms
= Gram atomic mass of an element
= 1 gram atom of the element

Mole and Gram Molecular Mass: One mole of molecules = 6.022 ×10 23 molecules
= Gram molecular mass
= 1 gram molecule of the compound

Mole in terms of volume: One mole of a gas = 22.4 litres at STP

Moles of an element = Mass of the element Moles of a compound = Mass of the compound
Atomic mass or GAW Molecular mass or GMW

Mass of one atom = Atomic Mass or GAW Mass of one molecule = Molecular Mass or GAW
6.022 × 1023 6.022 × 1023
Number of molecules = Moles × 6.022 ×1023 Number of atoms = Moles × 6.022 ×1023

Percentage Composition
The percentage by weight of each element present in a compound is called percentage composition of the
compound.
Weight of anelement in a molecule of acompound
Percentage = x 100
Gram molecular weight of compound

Empirical Formula
It is the chemical formula which gives the simplest ratio in whole numbers of atoms of different elements
present in one molecule of the compound.

Empirical Formula Mass

It is the sum of atomic masses of various elements present in the empirical formula.

Empirical Formula Weight (EFW)

The empirical formula weight is the atomic masses of the elements present in the empirical formula.
EFW of H2O2 = 2 × (H) + 2 × (0)
= 2 × 1 + 2 × 16
= 34 amu

Molecular Formula
It denotes the actual number of atoms of different elements present in one molecule of the compound.
Molecular formula = Empirical formula × n
Where n = Molecular weight
Empirical formula weight
Relationship between Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
Molecular formula = Empirical formula × n
Where ‘n’ is a positive whole number
Molecular mass
n =
Empirical formula mass

Chemical Equation
A shorthand notation of describing an actual chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formula along with
the number of atoms and molecules of the reactants and products is called a chemical equation.

A chemical equation is a balanced account of a chemical transaction.

MnO
2KClO3(s)  2
 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
 Electrolysis

Electrolysis
It is the process of decomposition of a chemical compound in aqueous solution or in a molten state,
accompanied by a chemical change using direct current.

Electrolyte
It is an ionic compound which in the fused state or in the aqueous solution allows the passage of an
electric current and is decomposed by it.

Strong Electrolytes
The compounds which in their aqueous solution or in the fused state are almost completely ionised are
called strong electrolytes.
Examples: Mineral acids, alkalis and salts

Weak Electrolytes
The compounds which in their fused state or aqueous solution are feebly ionised and are poor conductors
of electricity are called weak electrolytes.
Examples: Acetic acid, oxalic acid

Non-electrolytes
The compounds which neither in solution nor in the molten state allow an electric current to pass through
them are called non-electrolytes.
Examples: Kerosene, carbon disulphide

Electrolytic Cell
It is a device used to convert electrical energy into chemical energy.

Electrochemical Cell
It is a device used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.

Electrodes
The graphite, metal plates or gas carbon rods immersed in the electrolyte through which current enters
and leaves the electrolytic cell are called electrodes.

Cathode
The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery is called a cathode.

Anode
The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is called an anode.

Ions
The atoms or groups of atoms which carry a positive or negative charge are known as ions.

Cations
Atoms which carry a positive charge are called cations.
Anions
Atoms which carry a negative charge are called anions.

Oxidation
It is a chemical process which involves the addition of oxygen or the removal of hydrogen.

Oxidising Agents
It is a substance which oxidises other substances either by accepting electrons or by providing oxygen or
an electronegative ion.

Reduction
It is a chemical process which involves the removal of oxygen or the addition of hydrogen.

Reducing Agent
It is a substance which reduces other substances by providing electrons, hydrogen or an electropositive
ion.

Dissociation
The process due to which an ionic compound dissociates into ions in the fused state or in the aqueous
solution is called electrolytic dissociation.
Example: Electrovalent compound such as NaCl.
NaCl → Na+ + Cl–

Ionisation
The process by which polar covalent compounds are converted into ions in water solution is called
ionisation.
HCl H+ + Cl–

Electrochemical Series
It is a series in which metals are arranged based on the ease with which atoms of metals lose electrons to
form positively charged ions.
Cation Anion
K +
Discharged Discharged SO42−
with most with most
Ca 2+
difficulty difficulty NO31−
+
Na
Mg2+ Cl1−
Al3+
Zn2+ Br1−
Fe2+
Pb2+ I1−
H+
Cu2+
Hg2+
Ag+ Discharged Discharged OH1−
most easily most
easily
Selective Discharge of Ions
The preferential discharge of ions present in an electrolyte at the respective electrodes is known as
selective discharge of ions.
It depends on the following factors:
i. Relative position of ions in an electrochemical series
ii. Concentration of the ions
iii. Nature of the electrode

Electrolysis of Fused Lead Bromide

Electrolyte: Molten lead bromide (PbBr2)

Anode: Graphite
Cathode: Graphite
Overall reaction: PbBr2   Pb2+ + 2Br–

Reaction at the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e− 

 Pb
Reaction at the anode: Br– − e 
−
 Br
Br + Br 
 Br2

Electrolysis of Acidified Water

Electrolyte: Acidified water
 Anode: Platinum
Cathode: Platinum
Ionisation of acidified water: H2O H+ + OH–
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42–
Ions present: H+, SO42–, OH–
Reaction at the cathode: H+ + e−  H
H + H   H2 (Hydrogen molecule)
–
Reaction at the anode: OH − e−  OH × 4
–
OH ion discharge in preference to SO42–
4OH 
 2H2O + O2 (Oxygen molecule)

Electrolysis of Aqueous Copper Sulphate

Electrolyte: Aqueous copper sulphate solution

Anode: Copper
Cathode: Copper
Dissociation of aqueous copper sulphate:
CuSO4 Cu2+ + SO42–
H2O H+ + OH–
Reaction at the cathode: Cu2+ + 2e−   Cu
Cu being lower in the electrochemical series.
Reaction at the anode: Cu − 2e–   Cu
2+

2–
SO4 and OH– are not discharged.

Applications of Electrolysis
i. Electroplating with metals
ii. Electrorefining of metals
iii. Extraction of metals
Electroplating
It is a process in which a thin film of a metal, such as gold, silver or nickel, gets deposited on another
metallic article with the help of electricity.

Reasons for Electroplating

i. Decoration purposes
ii. To protect from rusting and corrosion

Electroplating with Nickel

Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of nickel sulphate

Dissociation: NiSO4 Ni2+ + SO42−

H2O H+ + OH−
Cathode: Article to be electroplated
Anode: Block of pure nickel
Reaction at cathode: Ni2+ + 2e−→ Ni (deposited)
Reaction at anode: Ni − 2e−→ Ni2+
Note: Article to be electroplated is always kept at the cathode.

Electrolytic refining of metals

It is a process by which metals containing impurities are purified electrolytically to give a pure metal.

Electrolytic refining of copper

Electrolyte: Copper sulphate solution and dil. sulphuric acid

Cathode: Thin strip of pure copper

Anode: Impure copper
Reaction at cathode: Cu2+ + 2e−→ Cu
Reaction at anode: Cu − 2e− → Cu2+
Electrometallurgy
It is the process of extraction of metals by electrolysis.

Activity Series

Acids, Bases and Salts as Electrolytes

They can be classified as strong or weak electrolytes depending on the degree of dissociation.
Degree of dissociation = Number of molecules dissociated × 100
Total number of molecules
 Metallurgy
Metals and Non-metals

Position and characteristics of metals in the periodic table

Characteristics of Alkali Metals and Alkaline Earth Metals

Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals

Position  Group I [IA]  Group II [IIA]
Properties
 Density  Low density  Higher density
 Melting point  Low melting point  Higher melting point
 Boiling point  Low boiling point  Higher boiling point
 Flame test  Characteristic colour  Mg and Be do not give
 Electropositive character  Strongly electropositive characteristic colour
 Reactivity character  Less electropositive
 Highly reactive nature
 Less reactive
Action of air M + O2 →M2O→MOH  Tarnish slowly and form
a layer of oxide when
exposed to moist air
M + 2H2O→M(OH)2 + H2
Action of water 2M + 2H2O→ 2MOH + H2 M + H2SO4→MSO4 + H2
Action of acids M + 2HCl →MCl2 + H2

Comparison of Metals and Non-metals

 Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals
Metals Non-metals
 Metals are generally hard solids and  Non-metals are generally soft
vaporise only at high temperature. and usually gases or liquids.
 Metals have a lustre called metallic  Non-metals lack lustre.
lustre and can be polished.
 Their melting and boiling points are  Non-metals usually have low
high (except alkali metals and Hg). melting and boiling points.
 Metals have high density except alkali  Non-metals generally have low
metals such as Na, K etc. density.
 Metals are generally malleable and  Non-metals are non-malleable
ductile and have high tensile strength. and non-ductile.
 Metals form alloys and amalgams.  Non-metals do not form alloys.
Bronze is an alloy of Copper, Tin and
Zinc. Sodium amalgam is an alloy of
Mercury and Sodium.
 Metals are hard but not brittle.  Non-metals are brittle in nature.
 Metals are generally good conductors  Non-metals are bad conductors
of heat and electricity. of heat and electricity.
 Metals do not generally dissolve in  They are generally soluble in
liquids except by a chemical reaction. water or other solvents and do
not react with them chemically,
i.e. no chemical reaction occurs.
 Chemical properties of metals and non-metals
Metals Non-metals
 Electronic configurations of metals  Electronic configurations of non-
have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons. metals have 4, 5, 6 or 7 valence
electrons.
 Metals are electropositive in nature.  Non-metals are electronegative in
They readily lose electrons and form nature. They readily gain electrons
positively charged ions called and form negatively charged ions
cations. called anions
 Because metals lose electrons  Non-metals possess a property to
during a chemical reaction, they are gain electrons; hence, they are good
good reducing agents. oxidising agents.
 Oxides of metals may be basic in  Non-metals generally form acidic
nature and dissolve in water to form oxides and dissolve in water to form
an alkaline solution. an acidic solution.
 Metals do not usually react with H2.  Non-metals do not react with dilute
Metals placed above hydrogen in the acids to liberate hydrogen.
activity series react with dilute HCl
and dilute H2SO4 to liberate H2 gas.
M + 2HCl   MCl2 + H2
(dil.)
M + H2SO4   MSO4+ H2
(dil.)
 Metals react readily with Cl2 to form  Non-metals usually form chlorides,
chlorides. which are volatile covalent liquids or
gases.
 Metals form electrovalent or ionic  Non-metals form covalent
compounds. Metallic salts conduct compounds which do not conduct
electricity in the fused state or in electricity because there are no free
solution because of the free electrons or ions to carry the current.
electrons or ions. Examples: NaCl,
CaCl2, MgCl2. When electric current
is passed through molten calcium
chloride, calcium metal is liberated
at the cathode and chlorine at the
anode.
2+
CaCl 
2  Ca + 2Cl–
(molten)

At cathode:
2+
Ca + 2e–   Ca
At anode:
Cl– – e– 
 Cl
Cl + Cl 
 Cl2
Study of Activity Series of Metals

Activity Series of Metals

Metals differ in tendency to lose electrons and hence can be arranged in a series according to their
tendency to give up valence electrons.

Activity Series
It is a series of metals arranged according to their decreasing reactivity.
The metals at the top of the series are
 Most easily oxidised
 Most electropositive
 Capable of displacing the metal below from its salt solution

Reactions of Metals
Characteristics of Metallic Compounds

Oxides Hydroxides Carbonates

Nitrates
K, Na K, Na K, Na K, Na
K Stable to heat Stable to heat Stable to heat
Decomposes to
Na Soluble in water Soluble in give nitrite and
Soluble in
water water oxygen
2KNO3
→2KNO2 + O2
Ca Ca to Cu Ca to Cu Ca to Cu Ca to Cu
Mg Stable to heat Decomposes to Decomposes to Decomposes to
Al give metal give metal give metal
Zn oxide and oxide and CO2 oxide and NO2
Fe water CaCO3 →CaO
Sn Ca(OH)2 + CO2 2Ca(NO3)2
Pb →CaO + H2O →2CaO +
[H] 4NO2 + O2
Cu
Hg Hg to Au Hg to Au Hg to Au Hg to Au
Ag Decomposes to give Hydroxides do Decomposes to Decomposes to
Pt metal and oxygen not exist or are give metal, CO2 give metal, NO2
Au 2Hg →2Hg + O2 rarely formed and O2 and O2
Insoluble in Insoluble in 2AgNO3 →2Ag
water water + 2NO2 + O2

Corrosion

When the surface of a metal is exposed to air, moisture or any other substance around it, the metal is said
to corrode, and the phenomenon is known as corrosion.
 Corrosion of Iron
Corrosion of iron is known as rusting.
Rusting is the slow oxidation of iron by atmospheric oxygen in the presence of water.
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O →2Fe2O3.xH2O
 Conditions Necessary for Rusting
Presence of water (or moisture)
Presence of air (or oxygen)
 Prevention of Corrosion
Barrier protection: The process in which the metal surface is not allowed to come in contact with
atmospheric agents such as air or water is known as barrier protection.
For example, the metal (iron) is coated with another metal by using electricity in the process called
electroplating.
Sacrificial protection: The metal to be protected is covered with a more electropositive metal such
as zinc or magnesium. For example, iron is coated with zinc in the process called galvanisation.
Extraction of Metals Based on the Activity Series

Common terms used in extraction

 Metallurgy: The process used for the extraction of metals in their pure form from their ores is called
metallurgy.
 Minerals: The naturally occurring compounds of metals which are generally mixed with other matter
such as soil, sand, limestone and rocks are known as minerals.
 Gangue: Earthy impurities, including silica and mud, associated with the ore is called gangue.
 Ores: Those minerals from which metals are extracted commercially at a comparatively low cost and
with minimum effort are called ores.
 Flux: A flux is a substance which is added to the charge in a furnace to remove the gangue.
 Slag: It is the fusible product formed when flux reacts with impurities during the extraction of metals.
 Smelting: It is the process of reducing the roasted oxide ore and removing the gangue with the help of
an appropriate flux added with the ore.

Steps Involved in Extraction

Crushing and Grinding
Ores are crushed into a fine powder in big jaw crushers and ball mills. This process is called pulverisation.

Concentration of Ores
Gravity separation
Principle: Separation of

Process: The ore is poured over a vibrating sloped table with grooves, and a jet of water is allowed to
flow over it. The dense ore particles settle down in the grooves.

Magnetic separation

Principle: Separation of

Process: The pulverised ore is placed on a conveyor belt. The magnetic particles are attracted to the
magnetic wheel and fall away separately from the non-magnetic particles.
Froth flotation
Principle: Separation of

Process: This method is generally applied for sulphide ores. The ore is taken in a large tank containing oil
and water and is agitated with a current of compressed air. The ore is wetted by the oil and separates
from the gangue in the form of froth.

Roasting and Calcination (If the ore is not an oxide)

A] Roasting
The process of heating the concentrated ore to a high temperature in the presence of excess air.
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
B] Calcination
The process of heating the concentrated ore in the absence of air at a temperature not sufficient to
melt the ore.
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2

Reduction in Metallic Oxides

Reduction by electrolysis
Reduction in highly electropositive metals such as K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al oxides/halides.
Electrolysis of fused metallic salts
Al2O3 2Al+3 + 3O2−
Cathode: 2Al + 6e−→ 2Al
+3

Anode: 3O2− − 6e− → 3[O] → 3O2

Product at cathode: Pure aluminium metal
Product at anode: Oxygen gas

Reduction by reducing agents

ZnO + C → Zn + CO
2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO2
Refining of Impure Metal
1. Distillation: For refining volatile metals. Examples: Zinc, mercury
2. Liquation: For refining low-melting-point metals. Examples: Lead, tin
3. Oxidation: For refining metals by oxidation of their impurities. Example: Iron
4. Electrolytic refining: For refining impure metals by electrolysis. Examples: Cu, Al, Pb

Common Ores of Aluminium, Iron and Zinc

Ore of Al Chemical name Formula

Bauxite Hydrated aluminium oxide Al2O3.2H2O
Cryolite Sodium aluminium fluoride Na3AlF6
Corundum Anhydrous aluminium oxide Al2O3

Ore of Fe Chemical name Formula

Red haematite Anhydrous ferric oxide Fe2O3
Brown haematite Hydrated ferric oxide 2Fe2O3.3H2O
Magnetite Triferric tetraoxide Fe3O4
Iron pyrites Iron disulphide FeS2
Siderite Ferrous carbonate FeCO3

Ore of Zn Chemical name Formula

Zinc blende Zinc sulphide ZnS
Zincite Zinc oxide ZnO
Calamite Zinc carbonate ZnCO3

Extraction of Aluminium

Process for Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite

1. Concentration of Ore - Bayer process
i. Conversion of impure bauxite to sodium aluminate

ii. Conversion of sodium aluminate to aluminium hydroxide

iii. Conversion of Al(OH)3 to pure alumina

2. Electrolytic Reduction in Metallic oxide – Hall Heroult process
Electrolyte: Mixture of molten alumina 20%, cryolite 60% and fluorspar 20%.
Electrolytic cell: Rectangular steel tank with carbon lining.
Electrodes:
Cathode: Carbon lining (gas carbon)
Anode: Thick carbon (graphite)
Temperature: 950°C
Current: 100 amperes at 6–7 volts
Electrolytic reaction:
Cryolite: Na3AlF6 3Na1+ + Al3+ +6F1−
Fluorspar: CaF2 Ca2+ + 2F1−
Alumina: Al2O3 2Al3+ + 3O2−
3+ −
Cathode: 2Al + 6e → 2Al
Anode: 3O2− − 6e− → 3[O] →3O2
Products formed:
At cathode: Pure aluminium metal
At anode: Oxygen gas

Refining of Aluminium (Hoope’s electrolytic process)

Tank contains three immiscible layers
Upper layer: Pure molten Al with carbon electrodes serves as cathode.
Middle layer: Mixture of cryolite, BaF2, AlF and CaF2 serves as the electrolyte.
Lower layer: Impure Al at the bottom along with carbon lining acts as the anode.

Electrolytic reaction:
Cathode: Al3+ + 3e− → Al
Anode: Al – 3e− →Al3+

Collection: Pure Al [about 99.9% pure] is withdrawn from the tapping hole.
Properties of Aluminium
Physical properties
Nature: Silvery light metal, malleable and ductile
Conductivity: Good conductor of heat and electricity
Boiling point: 2050°C
Melting point: 660°C

Chemical Properties
 Action with Air
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
2Al + N2 → 2AlN
 Action with Water
2 Al + 3H2O (steam) → Al2O3 + 3H2
 Action with Non-metals
2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
2Al + 3S → Al2S
 Action with Alkalis
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O →2NaAlO2 + 3H2
 Action with Acids
2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2
2Al + 3H2SO4 (dil.) →Al2 (SO4)3 + 3H2
2Al + 3H2SO4 (conc.) →Al2 (SO4)3 + 6H2O + 3SO2
Nitric acid is rendered passive due to the formation of a thin aluminium oxide layer.
 Reducing Action
Reduces heated metallic oxides of Fe, Cr and Mn to metals.
Fe2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe

Uses of Metals and Alloys

Uses of Aluminium
i. Being a strong, light and corrosion-resistant metal, it is used in alloys.
ii. Being a good conductor of electricity, it is used in the manufacture of cables for power transmission.
iii. Ships are made of alloys of aluminium because it is unaffected by sea water.

Uses of iron
i. Cast iron is used in drain pipes, gutter covers, weights and railings.
ii. Wrought iron is used in chains, horse shoes and electromagnets.
iii. Steel is used in the construction of buildings, overhead structures, machines and in various alloys.

Uses of Zinc
i. Mostly used for coating iron and steel sheets to prevent them from rusting.
ii. For making useful alloys such as brass, bronze and German silver.
iii. Zinc dust is used as a reducing agent for many organic reactions.
iv. Zinc compounds are used in paints, electroplast, preservatives for leather and a mordant for the
dyeing of textiles.
Alloys
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or of one or more metals with
certain non-metallic elements.

 Reasons for Alloying

i. To modify appearance and colour
ii. To modify chemical reactivity
iii. To modify casting ability
iv. To lower the melting point
v. To increase hardness and tensile strength
vi. To increase resistance to electricity

Some Important Alloys and their Uses

Name Composition Uses

Brass Cu = 60–80% For making utensils, cartridges
Zn = 40–20%
Bronze Zn = 2%, Cu = 80% For making utensils, statues and coins
Sn = 18%
Duralumin Al = 95%, Cu = 4% For making bodies of aircrafts
Mn = 0·5%, Mg = 0·5%
Magnalium Al = 95%, Mg = 5% For making balance beams and light
instruments
Solder Pb = 50–40%, For soldering purposes
Sn = 50–60%
Stainless Steel Fe = 73%, For making cutlery, utensils
Cr = 18%
C = 1%,
Ni = 8%
Type metal Pb = 75%, Sn = 10%, For printing blocks
Sb = 15%
Manganese steel Fe = 84%, Mn = 15%, For making safes, armour plates, rock
C = 0·9–1·5% drills
Tungsten steel Fe = 77–89·5%, For making cutting tools and high-speed
W = 10–20%, lathes
C = 0·9–1·5%
Alnico Fe = 50%, Al = 20%, For making powerful magnets
Ni = 20%,Co = 10%
Gun metal Cu = 88%, Sn = 10%, For making barrels of cannons, gears
Zn = 1%, Pb = 1% and bearings
German silver Cu = 60–30%, For making rheostats, resistors and
Zn = 25–35%, electric heaters
Ni = 15–35%
Bell metal Cu = 80%, Sn = 20% For making bells and gongs
 Study of Compounds – Hydrogen Chloride
Hydrogen Chloride

Molecular formula: HCl

Molecular mass: 36.5 amu
Bond: Covalent

Lewis structure Orbital diagram

General Preparation of HCl gas

i. By synthesis
Moist hydrogen gas combines with chlorine in the presence of diffused sunlight.

ii. By heating metallic chloride with conc. sulphuric acid

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride

Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared by heating a metallic chloride (NaCl) with conc. sulphuric acid (H 2SO4).
Reactions:

Collection
 Hydrogen chloride gas is collected by the upward displacement of air as it is 1.28 times heavier than
air.
 It is not collected over water because it is highly soluble in water.

Physical Properties
 Colourless, pungent, choking odour, slight sour taste.
 It is 1.28 times heavier than water and highly soluble in water.
 Liquefies at temperature of about 10°C at 40 atmospheric pressure.
 Boiling point is −83°C, and freezing point is −113°C.
Chemical Properties of HCl
1. Combustibility: The gas is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.
2. Thermal dissociation: On heating above 500°C, it dissociates into hydrogen and chlorine.

3. With metals: Metals which come before hydrogen in the electrochemical series form chlorides with
the liberation of hydrogen.
Zn + 2HCl   ZnCl2 + H2 (g)
4. Reaction with ammonia: It combines with ammonia to form dense white fumes of ammonium
chloride.
NH3 (g) + HCl (g)  NH4Cl

Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water using a special funnel
arrangement because direct absorption of HCl gas in water using a delivery tube causes back suction.

Properties of Hydrochloric Acid

Physical Properties
 Colourless, slightly pungent with sharp sour taste.
 Corrosive in nature and causes blisters on the skin.
 Density is 1.2 gm/cc with boiling point of 110°C.

Chemical Properties
 Monobasic in nature
HCl dissociates in aqueous solution to produce one hydrogen ion [H+] per molecule of the acid.
HCl + H2O   H3O+ + Cl−
 Acidic nature
The presence of hydrogen ion [H+] in HCl imparts acidic properties to an aqueous solution of
hydrochloric acid.
 Action on metals
Ca + 2HCl   CaCl2 + H2
Mg + 2HCl   MgCl2 + H2
 Action on oxides and hydroxides
MgO + 2HCl   MgCl2 + H2O
Ca (OH)2 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O
 With salts of weaker acids
Na2CO3 + 2HCl   2NaCl + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl   NaCl + H2O + CO2
Na2SO3 + 2HCl   2NaCl + H2O + SO2
NaHSO3 + HCl 
 NaCl + H2O + SO2
Na2S + 2HCl 
 2NaCl + H2S
 Action on thiosulphates
Na2SO3 + 2HCl   2NaCl + H2O + SO2 + S
 Reaction with nitrates
AgNO3 + HCl   AgCl + HNO3

Oxidation of Hydrochloric Acid

MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 7H2O + 3Cl2

2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2

Pb3O4 + 8HCl 3 PbCl2 + 4H2O + Cl2

Formation of Aqua Regia

Aqua regia is a mixture of one part of conc. nitric acid and three parts of conc. hydrochloric acid.
HNO3 + 3HCl   NOCl + 2H2O + 2[Cl]
The nascent chlorine released reacts with noble metals such as gold and platinum to give their soluble
chlorides.
Au + 3[Cl]   AuCl3
Pt + 4[Cl] 
 PtCl4

Uses of Hydrochloric Acid

a. In the manufacture of dyes, drugs, paints and silver chloride.
b. For purifying bone black, because HCl dissolves the calcium phosphate present in bones.
c. To remove rust from iron sheets.
 Study of Compounds – Nitric Acid
Nitric Acid

Molecular formula: HNO3

Relative molecular mass: 63

Laboratory Preparation of Nitric Acid

Reactions:
KNO3 + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HNO3
NaNO3 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HNO3

Properties of Nitric Acid

(A) Physical Properties

 Pure acid (98% conc.) is colourless, suffocating and sour to taste.
 It is heavier than water, with a specific gravity of 1.54.
 Boiling point is 86°C, and freezing point is −42°C

(B) Chemical Properties

 Pure nitric acid is colourless, unstable and decomposes slightly even at room temperature and in the
presence of sunlight.
4HNO3 → 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2
 Nitric acid is a very strong monobasic acid and ionises almost completely in aqueous solution.
HNO3 H+ + NO3−
 Nitric acid neutralises alkalis to form salt and water.
CaO + 2HNO3   Ca (NO3)2 + H2O

CuO + 2HNO3 

 Cu (NO3)2 + H2O

NaOH + HNO3 

 NaNO3 + H2O
 Nitric acid reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3   2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2

NaHCO3 + HNO3   NaNO3 + H2O + CO2

 Nitric acid oxidises carbon, sulphur and phosphorus to their highest oxides or oxy-acids such as
carbon dioxide, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid.
C + 4HNO3   2H2O + 4NO2 + CO2
S + 6HNO3 
 H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2
P4 + 20HNO3 
 4H3PO4 + 4H2O + 20NO2
 Cold and dilute nitric acid oxidises metals to their nitrates and liberates nitric oxide.
3Cu + 8HNO3   Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2

3Zn + 8HNO3 

 3Zn (NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO2
 Concentrated nitric acid liberates nitrogen dioxide.
Cu + 4HNO3 
 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
Zn + 4HNO3   Zn (NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
 Nitric acid (1 part by volume) mixed with conc. hydrochloric acid (3 parts by volume) produces a
mixture called aqua regia.
HNO3 + 3HCl   NOCl + 2H2O + 2[Cl]
Aqua regia contains nascent chlorine and reacts with noble metals such as gold and platinum to
produce chlorides.
Pt + 4[Cl]   PtCl4

Au +3[Cl]   AuCl3

Uses of Nitric Acid

 To etch designs on copper and brassware because it acts as a solvent for several metals except the
noble metals.
 To purify gold with impurities of Cu, Ag and Zn which dissolve in nitric acid.
 It acts as a rocket fuel oxidant.
 In preparation of fertilisers such as Ca(NO3)2 and NH4NO3.
 In the preparation of aqua regia, which dissolves noble metals.
 Study of Compounds – Sulphuric Acid
Sulphuric Acid

Molecular formula: H2SO4

Relative molecular mass: 98
Structure:

General Methods of Preparation

 By the action of heat on nitric acid and sulphur.

S + 6HNO3 → 6NO2 + 2H2O + H2SO4
 By passing chlorine through an aqueous solution of sulphur trioxide.
Cl2 + SO2 + 2H2O →2HCl + H2SO4
 By dissolution of sulphur trioxide in water.
SO3 + H2O →H2SO4
 By hydrolysis of sulphuryl chloride.
SO2Cl2 + 2H2O →H2SO4 + 2HCl

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid [Contact Process]

Steps involved in the contact process

(1) Production of sulphur dioxide

SO2 is produced by roasting metallic sulphides in air.
4FeS2 +11O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2

(2) Purification of gases

To enhance the efficiency of a catalyst, various impurities present in the mixture of sulphur dioxide and air
are first removed.

(3) Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide

Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 at 450°C in the presence of catalyst vanadium pentaoxide.
(4) Absorption of sulphur trioxide in sulphuric acid
Sulphur trioxide vapours are absorbed by a stream of conc. sulphuric acid.
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (oleum or pyrosulphuric acid)

(5) Dilution of oleum to obtain sulphuric acid

A calculated amount of water is added to obtain sulphuric acid of desired strength.
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

Properties of Sulphuric Acid

(A) Physical Properties

 Colourless, odourless with slight sour taste.
 It is highly corrosive in nature and chars the skin black.
 It is heavier than water and soluble in water.
 Boiling point is 338°C, and melting point is 10.4°C.

(B) Chemical Properties

Properties of Dilute Sulphuric Acid
 Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metals to form metallic sulphate and hydrogen.
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
Fe + H2SO4 → Fe2SO4 + H2
 It neutralises bases to form salts and water.
NaOH + H2SO4 →NaHSO4 + H2O
 It liberates carbon dioxide from metallic carbonates and bicarbonates.
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
2KHCO3 + H2SO4 →K2SO4 + 2H2O +2CO2
 It evolves hydrogen sulphide from metal sulphides.
Na2S + H2SO4 →Na2SO4 + H2S
ZnS + H2SO4 →ZnSO4 +H2S
 It evolves sulphur dioxide from sulphites and hydrogen sulphites.
Na2SO3 +H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
2NaHSO3 +H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2SO2

Properties of Conc. Sulphuric Acid

 Non-volatile nature
It has a high boiling point so it is used to prepare volatile acids such as HCl, HNO3 and acetic acid
from their salts.
NaCl + H2SO4 →NaHSO4 + HCl
NaNO3 + H2SO4 →NaHSO4 + HNO3
 As an oxidising agent
C + 2H2SO4 → CO2 + 2H2O +2SO2
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O +SO2
2HBr + H2SO4 →Br2 + 2H2O + SO2
  As a dehydrating agent
H2SO4 has a great affinity for water, and therefore, it acts as a dehydrating agent.
C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O
C6H12O6 6C + 6H2O

Uses of Sulphuric Acid

 In the preparation of halogens, CO, CO2 and SO2.

 Extraction of metals: Leaching of metallic compounds produces sulphates which give the metal in pure
form on electrolysis.
 Pickling of metals: Removes metallic impurities from the surface of metals before galvanising.
 Industrial uses:
i. In the manufacture of fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate [(NH 4)2SO4] and superphosphate of
lime [Ca (H2PO4)2 +CaSO4].
ii. In the manufacture of explosives such as trinitrotoluene and picric acid.
 Organic Chemistry

Organic Chemistry

It is the chemistry of specific carbon compounds except oxides, carbonates and carbides.

Hydrocarbons

Organic compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen only.

Examples: Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6)

Unique Nature of Carbon

Tetravalency of Carbon
 Carbon forms four covalent bonds by mutually sharing its four electrons with other atoms.
 It is hence tetravalent or exhibits tetravalency.

Catenation
 It is the tendency of an element to form chains of identical atoms.
 Catenation is maximum in carbon because the value of the C–C bond energy is maximum.
 Carbon undergoes self-linking forming straight, branched and closed chains.

 Catenation and tetravalency also result in the formation of single, double and triple bonds.
Classification of Organic Compounds

Homologous Series

It is a group of organic compounds with a similar structure and similar chemical properties in which the
successive compounds differ by a CH2 group.

Characteristics of a homologous series

i. Each member of the series differs from the preceding one by the addition of a CH2 group and by 14
amu.
ii. All members of a homologous series share a general formula.
For example, the general formula for alkane is CnH2n+2 and that for alkene is CnH2n.
iii. The physical properties of the members show gradation in properties as molecular mass increases.
iv. The chemical properties also show gradient similarity.
For example, methane and ethane react with chlorine to form methyl chloride and ethyl chloride,
respectively.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl
C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl
v. All members of a homologous series can be prepared by the same general method of preparation.
For example, alcohols can be prepared from alkyl halides.

Significance of a Homologous Series

i. Helps in the systematic study of organic compounds.
ii. Predicts the properties and the nature of other elements of the series if the same is known of the first
few members.
Isomers

Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula are known as isomers, and
the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
Examples: Butane and isobutane are two different compounds with the same molecular formula C 4H10.

Butane Isobutane

Causes of Isomerism
i. Difference in the mode of linking of atoms.
ii. Difference in the arrangement of atoms or groups in space.

Different Types of Structural Isomerism

i. Chain isomerism
Two or more compounds which have a similar molecular formula but different arrangement of
carbon atoms in straight or branched chains are referred to as chain isomers, and the
phenomenon is known as chain isomerism.

ii. Position isomerism

When two or more compounds with the same molecular formula differ in the position of the
substituent atom or functional group on the carbon atom, they are called position isomers, and the
phenomenon is known as position isomerism.
 iii. Functional isomerism
Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different functional groups are called
functional isomers, and the phenomenon is known as functional isomerism.

iv. Metamerism
It arises because of unequal distribution of alkyl groups on either side of the functional groups in
the molecules.

Nomenclature

It is the system of assigning names to organic compounds.

The Systems of Nomenclature Are

i. Trivial system
ii. IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system

According to the IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound consists of three parts:
i. Root word
ii. Suffix
iii. Prefix

i. Root word
It depends on the number of carbon atoms present in the longest carbon chain selected.

Number of carbon atoms Root word

One carbon atom C1 Meth
Two carbon atoms C2 Eth
Three carbon atoms C3 Prop
Four carbon atoms C4 But
Five carbon atoms C5 Pent
Six carbon atoms C6 Hex
Seven carbon atoms C7 Hept
Eight carbon atoms C8 Oct
Nine carbon atoms C9 Non
Ten carbon atoms C10 Dec

ii. Suffix
The root word is followed by an appropriate suffix, which represents the nature of the bond in a
carbon–carbon atom.
Nature of bond Suffix General name General formula
Single bond (C–C) -ane Alkane CnH2n+2
Double bond (C=C) -ene Alkene CnH2n
Triple bond ( ) -yne Alkyne CnH2n−2
Group (R-) -yl Alkyl CnH2n+1

iii. Prefix
It denotes the substituent, alkyl or functional group and its position in the carbon chain.
Di-, tri- and tetra- are used for two, three and four groups of the same type, respectively.
Functional Group

It is an atom or a group of atoms which defines the structure (or the properties of a particular family) of
organic compounds.

Characteristics of a Functional Group

i. Compounds of the same functional group are identified using the same types of tests.
ii. The physical and chemical properties of the compounds of different functional groups are different.
iii. There exists a homologous series of compounds containing a particular type of functional group.

Functional General Organic Suffix Examples with common and IUPAC

group formulae compound name
Halide R–X Haloalkanes ane CH3Cl
–X Common name: Methyl chloride
(F, Cl, Br, I) IUPAC name: Chloromethane
Hydroxyl R–OH Alcohols ol C2H5OH
–OH Common name: Ethyl alcohol
IUPAC name: Ethanol
Aldehyde Aldehydes al CH3CHO
–CHO Common name: Acetaldehyde
IUPAC name: Ethanal
Carboxyl Carboxylic oic CH3CH2COOH
–COOH acids acid Common name: Propionic acid
IUPAC name: Propanoic acid
Ketones one CH3COC2H5
Common name: Diethyl ketone
Keto IUPAC name: Pentanone
Ethers R–O–R′ Ethers oxy CH3–O–C2H5
Common name: Ethyl methyl ether
IUPAC name: Methoxy ethane

Alkanes

 Alkanes are hydrocarbons in which all the linkages between the carbon atoms are single covalent
bonds.
 Compounds are known as saturated hydrocarbons because all the four valencies of carbon are fully
satisfied.
 General formula : CnH2n+2
 These hydrocarbons are relatively unreactive under ordinary conditions so they are also called
paraffins.
Isomerism in Alkanes
 Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms form isomers.
 The various isomers differ in the framework of the carbon chains.
Example:
Isomers of Pentane (C5H12)

n-pentane isopropane neo-pentane

Laboratory Preparation of Methane and Ethane

CH3COONa + NaOH Na2CO3 + CH4

C2H5COONa + NaOH Na2CO3 + C2H6

Methods of Preparation of Methane and Ethane

1. From iodomethane or bromoethane:

CH3I + 2[H] → CH4 + HI
C2H5I + 2[H] → C2H6 + HI

2. Methane is produced on addition of water to aluminium carbide at room temperature.

Al4C3 + 12H2O → 3CH4 + 4Al (OH)3

3. Ethane from alkyl halides:

2CH3I + 2Na CH3–CH3 + 2NaI
This reaction is known as the Wurtz reaction.

Chemical Properties
1. Substitution reaction
(i) Reaction with halogens

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl
(Carbon tetrachloride)
 (ii) Reaction with oxygen
CH4 + 2O2 →CO2 + 2H2O
2C2H6 + 7O2 →4CO2 + 6H2O

Insufficient supply of air

2CH4 + 3O2 →2CO + 4H2O
2C2H6 + 5O2 →4CO + 6H2O

2. Cracking or Pyrolysis
2CH4 CH CH +3H2

CH3–CH3 CH2=CH2 + H2

3. Catalytic oxidation of alkanes

2CH4 + O2 2CH3OH

2C2H6 + O2 2C2H5OH
CH4 +O2 HCHO + H2O
C2H6 + O2 CH3CHO + H2O

4. Slow combustion

CH4 CH3OH HCHO HCOOH

Alkenes

 Alkenes are unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons containing a carbon–carbon double bond.

 They are also called olefins because of their tendency to form oily products.
 The general formula of alkenes is CnH2n.

Structure of Ethene

Electronic structure Structural formula (C2H4)

 Two carbon atoms linked by a double covalent bond.

 A double covalent bond is formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons between the two carbon atoms.
 Four C–H single covalent bonds and one C=C double covalent bond.
 It is a planar molecule and all bond angles (H–C–H and H–C=C) are of 120°.
Preparation of Ethene
i. Dehydration of ethyl alcohol

CH2 =CH2 + H2O

ii. Dehydrohalogenation of ethyl bromide

+ KOH CH2=CH2 + KBr + H2O

(alcoholic)

iii. Cracking of methane

CH3–CH3 CH2=CH2 + H2

Chemical properties
1. Addition Reactions
(i) Catalytic hydrogenation

CH2=CH2 + H2 C2H6

(ii) Halogenation

CH2=CH2 + Cl2 (1,2-dichlorethane)

(iii) Reaction with Halogen Acids

CH2=CH2 + HBr → (bromoethane)

(iv) Reaction with Sulphuric acid

CH2=CH2 + H. HSO4 → (ethyl hydrogen sulphate)

(v) Ozone

CH2=CH2 + O3 (ethylene ozonide)

 (vi) Oxidation

CH2=CH2 + H–O–H + [O] → (1,2-ethanediol)

Cold alkaline
KMnO4 solution
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

(vii) Polymerisation

n CH2=CH2 (polyethylene)

Alkynes

 Alkynes are unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons containing a carbon–carbon triple bond in their
molecule.
 The general formula of alkynes is CnH2n−2.
 They are more reactive than alkenes because of the presence of a triple bond, often referred to as an
acetylenic linkage.

Structural formula of Ethyne

Electronic structure Structural formula (CH2=CH2)

Preparation of Ethyne
i. Laboratory preparation from calcium carbide

+ 2H–OH → + Ca(OH)2

ii. From 1,2-dibromoethane

+ 2KOH + 2KBr + 2H2O

iii. From methane

2CH4 + 3H2
Chemical Properties
1. Addition Reactions
a] Catalytic Hydrogenation

+ H2 CH2=CH2 + H2 C2H6

b] Halogenation

+ Cl2 + Cl2 →

c] Reaction with Halogen Acids

+ HBr → + HBr →

d] Ozone

+ O3 → (acetylene ozonide)

e] Oxidation of ethyne (Combustion)

2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

Alcohols

 Alcohols are hydroxyl derivatives of alkanes obtained by replacement of one, two or three hydrogen
atoms of alkanes by the corresponding number of –OH groups.
 The hydroxyl group is the functional group of alcohols.
 The general molecular formula of alcohols is CnH2n+1 OH.

Preparation of Ethanol
(i) Laboratory preparation by hydrolysis of alkyl halides
C2H5Cl + NaOH (aq) C2H5OH + NaCl

(ii) Industrial Method

(a) Hydration of Ethene

C2H4 + H2SO4 C2H5HSO4

C2H5HSO4 + H2O →C2H5OH + H2SO4

(b) Fermentation of Carbohydrates

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Chemical properties
1. Combustion
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

2. Oxidation with K2Cr2O7

C2H5OH CH3CHO CH3COOH (acetic acid)

3. Reaction with Sodium

2C2H5OH + 2Na →2C2H5ONa + H2
4. Reaction with Acetic acid
C2H5OH + CH3COOH → CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

5. Reaction with Sulphuric acid

C2H5OH CH2=CH2 + H2O

2C2H5OH C2H5 –O – C2H5 + H2O

6. Reaction with PCl3

3C2H5OH + PCl3 → 3C2H5Cl + H3PO3
Carboxylic Acids

 Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing a carboxylic group (–COOH) attached to an alkyl
group or to a hydrogen atom.
 Representation of carboxylic acids: R-COOH (R is either –H or alkyl)
 The functional group of carboxylic acids: –COOH (carboxylic)
 The acidic character in carboxylic acids is because of the presence of the replaceable hydrogen atom
in the carboxylic group.

Preparation of Acetic Acid

A] By oxidation of ethyl alcohol

C2H5OH + [O] CH3CHO + H2O

CH3CHO+ [O] CH3COOH

B] By hydrolysis of ethyl acetate

CH3COOC2H5 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH

Chemical Properties
1. It is a weak acid and turns blue litmus red.

2. Reaction with Alkalis

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
CH3COOH + NH4OH → CH3COONH4 + H2O

3. Reaction with Carbonates

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 →2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3→CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

4. Reaction with Alcohols

CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

5. Reaction with PCl3

CH3COOH + PCl5 → CH3COCl + POCl3 + HCl

6. Reduction
CH3COOH + 4[H] →C2H5OH + H2O
 Chart-1 Laboratorypreparations-Gases
GASES Reference
arogen Acidic, Colourless, Pungent odour, 1.28 times heavier than air, highly solublein.
chloride NaHSO4+ HCI[Temperature less than 2000ate
NaCl+H2SO4 [conc.] C
2. Ammonia than air, highly soluble in water
5asic, Colourless, Pungent odour, lighter
2NH4CI+ Ca(OH)2 2H20+2NH3
CaCl2+2H,0
3. Sulphur Acidic, Colourless, Pungent odour, 2.2 times heavier than air, highly soluble in x
dioxide water
NaSO3 +2HC12NaCl +H,O+S02; Cu +2H25047 CusO4+2H,0+o
dil] conc. SO,\
4. Hydrogen Acidic, Colourless, Rotten egg smell, 1.2 times heavier than air, fairly soluble in wa
sulphideFeS
FeS+HsO4[dil] - FeSO4 +H2S
5. iydrogen Neutral, Colourless, Odourless, ightest gas known, slightly solublein water
Zn +2HCl[dil]
| 6. Nitrogen
ZnCl2 + H2
Neutral, Colourless, Odourless, almost as heavy as air, slightly soluble in water
NHCI+ NaNO2 NH N0,+ NaCl; NHNO 2H20+N,
7.
Oxygen Neutral, Colourless, Odourless, 1.1 times heavier than air, slightly soluble in water
2KCIOA2KCI+30
Mn
8. Chlorine Acidic, Greenish yellow, Choking odour, 2.5 times heavier than air, fairly soluble in
water
MnO2 +4HCI- MnClh + 2H20 +Cl2
9. Carbon Slightly acidic, Colourless, Odourless, 1.5 times heavier than air, fairly soluble in water
dioxide
CaCOg+2HCl |dil] CaCl2t H0 +CO2
Methane from -
Sodium ethanoate
CH-COONa
sodium acetate
NaOH
sodalime
C CH+NaCO3
METHANE (decarboxylation]|
sodium acetate]
2. Ethane from -
Sodium propanoate
CH-CH2-COONa + NaOH
sodium propionate
Cao HC-CH+NaCO
sodalime
sodium propionate] ETHANE ldecarboxylation]|
3. Methane from
Iodomethane [methyl iodide]| CHa 2 [H] Zn/Cu couple
CH4 + HI
methyl iodide nascent hydrogen alcohol
METHANNE
Ethane from -
Bromoethane [ethyl bromide]
C2HBr 2 [H] Zn/Cu couple C,H HBT
ethyl bromide nascent hydrogen alcohol
ETHANE
5. Ethene from -

CH CHOH conc. HSO4 at 170°C

Ethanol jethyl alcohol] ethyl alcoho or

AlO at 350°C
HC CH, +H0
ETHENE [dehydration]|
6. Ethene from CH3CH.Br + KOH O
Bromoethane [ethyl bromide| HC CH2 + KBr +H,0
ethyl bromide alcoholic ETHENE (dehydrohalogenation
7. Ethyne from CaC2 +2H,0
Calcium carbide calcium carbide cold water
CH2 Ca(OH2
ETHYNE
8. Ethyne from -

CHBr
1,2 dibromoethane +2KOH boil CH
+ 2KBr+2H,0||
ethylene dibromidel H,Br alcoholic CH
ethylene dibromide ETHYNE [dehydrohalogenation|

68
Chart-2 Industrial Preparations
AMMONIA
-Haber's
ProcessNTRIC ACID-Ostwald's Process SULPHURIC ACID-Contact Process
R e a c t i o n : STEP I
Ammonia STEP -I
Nitrogen
+Hydrogen Chamber: Catalytic chamber
N*3H2 2NH3+A Conversion: Catalytic oxidation Chamber:Sulphur/pyrite burners|
of Conversion: Production of
voll 3 vols.] 2 vols.]
[1 ammonia to nitric oxide
from sulphur or iron pyrites SO2||
Reaction: Reversible, exothermic, 4NH,+50,
Reaction
4NO +6H,O+ S +O2 SO2
nroceeds with a decrease in volume. 00-800PC 4FeS+110, >2Fe,0g* 8S02
Datio
Reactants: Dry ammonia and air| STEP-
of reactants: Ng:H2[1:3 by vol]in ratio of 1:10 by II
volume.
Temperature: 450-500°c Catalyst: Platinum gauze. |Chamber:Contact tower
Temperature: 700-800°C. Conversion: Catalytic oxidation of|
Dressure: 200 to 900 atmospheres.
|Products: Nitric oxide and steam 2s0, + dioxide
sulphur
O,
to sulphur trioxide
Catalyst: Finely divided iron [Fe] STEP-II 29O3 + A
Catalyst: Vanadium pentoxide
Promoter: Molybdenum [Mo) Chamber:Oxidation
Conversion:
chamber [V205] or platinum [Pt]
Catalyst ferric oxide [Fe,O3 Oxidation of NO to NO, Temperature: 450-50
Pressure: 1 to 2 atmospheres
containingabout 1% potassiumoxide |2N0+02 2NO
K0J and about3%aluminium oxide |Temperature: Around 50°c STEP -II
AlO3] as promoters are also used Chamber: Absorption tower
STEP-II Conversion: Absorption of SO3in
Conditions: Low temperatures and Chamber: Absorption chamber 98% HSO4 to give oleum.
high pressures favour the forward Coversion: NO to nitric acid SOg+HSO4 HS,07[oleum]
reaction.
4NO, +2H0 +O 4HNO3 Dilution tank:Dilutiorn of oleum
Temperature: Ordinary temp. |H2S20,+ H0 > 2H2SO4
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM COMMON ORES OF ALUMINIUM, ZINC & IRON
ORES OF ALUMINIUM
CONCENTRATION OF ORE COMMON CHEMICAL NAME &
NAME FORMULA
Chemical process-Baeyers process- using sodium Bauxite Hydrated aluminium oxide
hydroxide [NaOH] soln
[AlOg,2H20]
|AlL03.2H,0 +2NaOH-
150-200PC2NaA1O2 +3H,O|Cryolite Sodium aluminium fluoride
[NagAlFG
NaA1O+2H,O 50-60 NaOH+ Al(OH)3V Corundum Aluminium oxide
|[AlLO3]
1100°C
2A1(OH)3 ALO+3H,0[vap. ORES OF ZINC
COMMON CHEMICAL NAME &
REDUCTION PROCESS
NAME FORMULA
Hall Heroult's process Pure alumina
-
to pure Al Zinc blende Zinc sulphide ZnS]
Alumina AlOg2A13 +302- Calamine Zinc carbonate ZnCO
Zincite Zinc oxide ZnO]
At cathode 2A1+6e 2A
At anode 302 6e310)]>302 ORES OF IRON
COMMON CHEMICAL NAME &
Refining NAME FORMULA
Electrolytic reduction gives about 99 to 99.5% pure Al.|
Further purified by Hoope's process to give 99.9% pure Al. Haematite Iron [Il] oxide FeOs
Magnetite Tri iron tetroxide FeO4
At cathode A13t+3e Al Spathic iron ore Iron [] carbonate [FeCO3
|At anode :Al 3e- A13*

269
 Chart-3 Tests & Uses USES
GASES/ACIDS TESTS
Ammonia gas manutacture of
-

|1. AMMONIA Turns moist red litmus paper -

blue. nitric acid, explosives, fertilizer
A glass rod dipped in - conc. HC ureal, ammonium compounds
dense
brought near ammonia produces cleaning
ammonin- as a
Liquor agent
white fumes of ammonium chloride. Liguid amnmonia - as a refrigerant

brown.
Turns Nesseler's reagent
-

pale In pickling of metals - before

HYDRO ammonia soln.

Aglass rod dipped in galvanizing |dissolves impurities],
-

acid gives
-

CHLORIC brought near vapours of HCl .Preparation of aqua regia.

ACID dense white fumes of ammonium chloride Industrial- manufacture of dyes,
HCI
Addition of AgNO soln. to dil. drugs, paints, silver chloride and
gives a curdy white ppt. of AgCl- glucose from starch.
soluble in NHOH, insoluble in dil. HNO3|
Purification of - crude gold.
NITRIC Action of heat HNOg or heat on
on conc.
Preparation of fertilizers, aqua regia.
ACID copper and conc. HNO3 produces Industrial - manufacture of
dense brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide.
Gives a brown ring - when added to explosives [TNT], dyes, drugs and
perfumes. Nitrates |KNO3, AgNO,1
acidified FeSO4 soln. [Brown ring test]
Pickling metals betore - galvanizing
14. SULPHURIC |. Action of heat on conc. H,SO4 and
ACID copper turnings evolves - SO2. In lead storage batteries
Action of dil. H,SO4 on BaCl2 gives Industrial- manufacture of dyes,
white ppt. of BaSO insoluble in all dil. acids. drugs, fertilizers, acids &explosives
Reference
5. Sulphur Turns potassium permanganate solution As a bleaching agent
dioxide [KMnO4- pink to clear colourless. [bleaches delicate fibres].
Turns potassium dichromate solution Antichlor [removes excess chlorine -
KCrO] - orange to clear green. from a bleached articlel.
Industrial manufacture of H,SO4
-

6. Hydrogen Precipitates sulphides with characteristic Important laboratory reagent for||

Sulphide colours from metallic salt solutions. detection of positive radicals
Cu, Zn.
e.g. CuS [black], ZnS [white]. Industrial - preparation of metallic
Turns lead acetate paper - silvery black.
sulphides used in the paint industry.
METALS/ALLOYS| USES
1. ALUMINIUMAl metal household utensils [good conductor
-

of heat, unaffected by food acids],

-

Al powder paint industry

[anti-corrosive paint],
-

Al foilpackaging industry [corrosion resistant, light, cheap],

-

Aluminium alloys [Duralumin,

Thermite welding [Al powder + Magnalium-corrosion
Fe2O3- for
resistant, light, high structural strength
Reference iron welding girders -

Al acts as a reducing agent|

2. Zinc
Galvanizing [thin layer of zinc on iron
sheets]. Dry cells [Zn container acts as
Zinc alloys [Brass, bronze, german silver Zn imparts cathode,|
hardness to base metal copper).
3. Pig iron Steel and drain pipes,
gutter covers leasily cast, expands on
Steel Machines, ships, automobiles [high structural solidification)
5. Copper Electrical cables lgood electrical
strength, nmalleable, ductile!.
Calorimeters, utensils [good thermalconductivity,
conductivity], Copper
6. Lead Radiation shield, flexible pipes [malleable), Bullets alloys [brass, bronze, german silve
Lead alloys [Solder, low mp, used
-

[high specific gravityl,

in electric fuse, and soldering.
-
-

|7. Magnesium Fire works, Type metal- printing locks!

photography powder [burns with dazzling light],
Magnesium alloys [duralumin, magnalium -light, corrosion
resistant, strong- used ma rcrafts].
270
Chart-4 Definitions, Terms &Processes
CHAPTER 1: PERIODIC TABLE -PERIODICPROPERTIES
nos.
ther
Modern periodic lawIhe physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of
Periodic properties The properties which appear at regular interval in the periodic tabr oativity,
PetlOac properties
TOT-etallic
le.g. atomic radii, ionization potential, electronafinity, electroneg
and metallic character| and the phenomenon - periodicity or elen

CHAPTER 2: CHEMICAL BONDING the

Ionic bond ne chemcal bond formed between two atoms by transfer ofone or more electros
-

atom of a metallic to an atom of anon-metallic atom is called electrovalent or 1onic Dr

Covalent bond formed due to mutual sharing ofelectrons between pal| the given
he chemical bond -

of atoms of non-metallic elements is called a covalentbond.

CHAPTER 3 A: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
A compound which when dissolved in water yields
Acid
Iaydronium ions [H,0t] as the only positively charged ions. salt and water oniyl|
A compound which reacts with hydronium ions of the acid [to give
Base
-

Acompound which when dissolved in water yields

-

Alkali
hydroxyl ions [OH-] as the only negatively charged ions. with combine
[H*] ions of acid react completely or
Neutralization ne process due to which an

OHions of a base to give salt and water only.

of
compound formed by partial or complete replacement the
Salt Asalt is a
-

ion or radica.
hydrogen ion H"] aq. of an acid by a metal electropositive
or -

Normal salt The salts formed by complete replacenent of the replaceable

-
hydrogen ion of an
acid
molecule by a [metallic or ammonium ion| eg. Nags03.
basic radical
of the replaceable hydrogen
ion of an
acid|
Acid salt The salts formed by partial replacement ammonium ion eg. NaHSO3.
molecule by a basic radical [metallic or
CHAPTER 3B:ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
which deals with experimental study by qualitative
analysis|
Analytical Chemistry The chemistry study by||
i.e. identification of unknown substances by
chemical tests and experimental
and on salt solutions.
means. Chemical tests include use of NaOH NH4OH
quantitative
STOICHIOMETRY
CHAPTER 4: MOLE CONCEPT AND
contains
It is the amount of substance which
-

Mole the same number of units as the number of atoms in 12.000g. of carbon
-
12.
The relative proportions ofreactants and products in a chemical reaction and of elements|
Stoichiometry
ina compoundis known as- stoichiometry.
CHAPTER 5- ELECTROLYSIS

compound [electrolyte in the

Electrolysis is the decomposition of a chemical
-

Electrolysis aqueous fused [molten] state by the passage of a direct electric current resulting in
or
-

electrodes.
discharge of ions of the electrolyte at the respective
which conduct electricity either in the fused or in the|
Electrolytes They are chemical compounds
aqueous solution state and undergo chemical decomposition due to the flow of current|
through it eg, acid solutions [HCI], alkali solutions [KOH] & ionic salt solutions PbBr»]

Strong Electrolytes They are

electrolytes which allow - large amounts of electricity to flow through them,|
are almost completely dissociated in fused or aqueous solution state, & in solution contain||
almost only-free mobile ions eg. acids [HCI), bases [NaOH], salts PbBr,].
Weak Electrolytes They are electrolytes which allow small amounts of electricity to flow through them,|
are partially dissociated in fused or aqueous solution state, and in solution contain partly|
ions and partly unionised molecules eg. acids [HCO3], bases [NHOH]
The electrolytic process of deposition of a superior metal [eg. Ni, Agl on the surface of ||
Electroplating a baser metal or article [brass] is called - electroplating.
The electrolytic process by which metals containing impurities are -
Electro-refining
purified electrolytically to give a pure metal is called electro-refining.
Electrometallurgy Extraction of metals - by electrolysis is called electrometallurgy.

271
 CHAPTER 6-METALLURGY
Metallurgy
Mineral
n e large scale processes involved in - extraction ofpure metals trom respective

associated
rthly impuriti
or

with their earth

ores.
Compounds of variou metals- found in nature
|Ore metals can be extracted
-

ne naturally occurring minerals from which

Mat profitably and conveniently are called ores.
matrix or gangue.
rocky impurities associated with the ore is called
-

The
Flux The substance added to the ore to getrid ofthe matrix [earthly impurities] resulting in
resulting in
the formation
of afusible compound called -slag
Roasting Process of heating the concentrated ore in - excess air in a reverberatory furnace,
Calcination TOCess of heating the concentrated ore in the -
absence of air at a temperature -

not sufficient to melt the ore.

Pulverization Crushing of the ore into a fine powder is called pulverisation.
Alloy Analloy is a mixture generally of two or more metals fused together in the molt
State in a fixed proportion eg. brass, bronze, duralumin, solder etc. en
| Amalgam An
amalgam -is an alloy in which the base metal is mercury eg. sodium or zinc amalgam
SruDY OF COMPOUNDS- CHAPTER7-
|Aqua regia A:HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
i s a mixture of - one part of conc. HNOg and three parts of conc. HCI [by volumel
STUDY OF COMPOUNDS CHAPTER7 B:
-

LIquor ammonia An aqueous solution of AMMONIA

ammonia is called
Liquid ammonia -liquor
Ammonia gas liquefied at low temperature is calledaruou
- liquid ammonia.
STUDY OF COMPOUNDS- CHAPTER 7 -C:
Passivity NITRIC ACID
rassivity or inertness is exhibited by certain metals under conditions in
chemical activity is expected. Iron is rendered passive linactivej due to formationwhich
an oxide coating on its surface on
reaction with
of -
|STUDY OF COMPOUNDS - CHAPTER 7 pure concentrated or fuming nitric acid. |
D:SULPHURICACID
Constant boiling It is one which boils
mixture without in
-

change composition. On boiling the mixture it evolves

vapours of both acid and water in the same
e.g. aqueous solutions of proportion as in the liquid mixture.|
HCl andHSO4HNO3.
Dehydrating
agent
They remove elements of water from compounds due to their
strong affinity for water.
eg. conc. HSO4 removes
hydrogen & oxygen in the ratio 2:1 from
CHAPTER8-ORGANIC CHEMISTRY etc. carbohydrates
Catenation The tendency
of an element to form chains identical
-

of atoms.
Hydrocarbons They are open-chain, aliphatic organic
compounds
maximum in carbon. It is

having molecular formula CxHy and dividedcontaining carbon and

into two main hydrogen only||
[containing>C-C< bond] and unsaturated [containing >C=C< or groups i.e. saturated||
Homologous series They are a
family of organic compounds following
>C=C< covalerntbond]|
general molecular formula with each member of the regular structural pattern, sharing||
a -

a
series differing
Isomers They are organic compounds having the same by CH2 group. -

each other in molecular molecular formula but differ from -|

arrangement or structural formula
Nomenclature It is a
system of assignment of names to
organic
.e.g. n-butane & iso-butane
The two systems compounds.
of nomenclature are trivial system
|Alkyl group All groups derived from (common names]& IUPAC system.
parent alkane by loss of an
e.g. parent alkane methane [CH4l, alkyl
-

hydrogen atom.
Functional group They are atoms or group of atoms which group- methyl [CHa-]
organic compounds and confer characteristic define the structure of a particular family
of|
R-OH hydroxylgroupl, R-CHO properties to it. e.g. 'C-C double& triple
Jaldehydic], R--COOH bonds,||
[carboxyl].
Carboxylic acids Compounds containing carboxylic group |-C-OH ]linked to an
-

alkyl group or H atom

272
Chart-5 Important Chemicals &Compounds
pounds

ACIDS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS -Hydrocarbons

Hydrochloric acid- HCI - Muriatic acid.
1. Methane CH4 H3C-H
2. Nitric acid - HNO3 -Aqua fortis.
2. Ethane CaH HyC-CH
H,C CH2
3. Sulphuric acid - H,S04-Oil of vitriol. 3. Ethene CaH4
4. Conc. nitric and-[HNO3+ HCI]- Aqua regia. [ethylene] HC E CH
hydrochloric acid ) lvol. 3 vol.
4. Ethyne C,H2
5. Acetic acid-CH,COOH-Vinegar. acetylene H

6. Carbonic acid -H,COg Carbonic anhydride.-

H -C -OH
5. Methanol CH,OH
BASES methyl alcohol] H
1. Potassium hydroxide KOH Caustic potash.
-
-

HH
2. Sodium hydroxide - NaOH - Caustic soda.
CH3-CH-OH H- - -OH
6. Ethanol
3. Ammonium hydroxide-NH4OH- Liquor ammonia. ethyl alcohol] HH
4. Sodium hydroxide -NaOH +Ca0 Sodalime.
+quicklime

SALTS ORES
1. Normal salt - Nag SO4- Sodiumsulphate. Zinc sulphide ZnS Zinc blende.
-
-

Calamine.
[of HSO4] 2. Zinc carbonate - ZnCO -

2. Acid salt - NaHS04 Sodium bisulphate.

3. Zinc oxide ZnO Zincite.
-
-

of H,SO] 4. Aluminium oxide [hyd.J-AlO3.2H,0- Bauxite.

3. Basic salt- Cu (OH)NO3- Basic copper nitrate. . Sodium aluminiumfluoride - NazAlF6- Cryolite.
4. Double salt-FeSO4.0NH4)> SO46H,0-Mohr's salt. |6. Iron [I] oxide-Fe,03- Haematite.

5. Mixed salt - Ca(OCI)CI - Bleaching powder. Tri iron tetraoxide - Fe,04- Magnetite.

6. Complex salt -Na [Ag (CN)>]-Sodiumsilvercyanide.8 Iron sulphide - FeS2 - Iron pyrites.

7. Sodium chloride NaCl- Rock salt.

-

9 Lead sulphide -
PbS Galena.-

8. Ammonium chloride
-

NH,CI -
Sal ammoniac.
MISCELLANEOUS
9. Silver chloride -

AgCI -
Horm silver.
Nitrous oxide -N,O- Laughing gas.
10. Potassium nitrate -

KNO3 -Nitre. Sulphur-S- Brimstone.

11. Sodium nitrate - NaNOg - Chile salt petre.
3 Tri-nitro-toluene - C,Hs(NO,)3 - TN.T.
12. Ammoniumcarbonate-(NH4)hCO3-Smellingsalt
constituent) 4. Copper sulphate [hyd}-Cus0,5H,0- Bluevitriol.
13. Sodium carbonate [hyd]-Na,CO.10H,0-Washingsoda. |5. Iron ] sulphate [hyd.]-FeSO4.7H,0-Green vitriol.
14. Sodium bicarbonate- NaHCO3- Baking soda.
6. Zine sulphate [hyd]-ZnSO4.7H0-White vitriol.
15. Sodium bicarbonate - Health salts. Magnesium sulphate[hyd)-MgS0,7H,0-Epsomsalt.
+citric acid |8. Potassiumaluminium-K,S0,.AlSO4)h.24H,0-Alum.
16. Hydratedsodium-Na,SO4.10H,0-Glauber'ssalt. sulphate
sulphate 9. Lead monoxide - PbO - Litharge.

17. Silver nitrate - AgNO3 - Lunar caustic. 10. Silicon dioxide - Si0 - Silica.

18. Mercuric sulphide - HgS - Cinnabar. 11. Manganese dioxide-MnO - Pyrolusite.

273
 Main Syllabus Based
Equations Cr
Chart-7 CHAPTER 6 - METALLURGY

metallic oxides
AND SALTS
CHAFTER 3-A ACIDS, BASES of -

Reduction
23.
-

ions) - by C [carbon], H2 [hydrogen), Co

ACIDS- form hydronium ions (only positive i] CuO
- by C [carbon), H2 Ihydrogen], Co
1. Dissociation - of HCI, HNO, HSO4. CH,COOH iil PbO
byC [carbon], H2 [hydrogen], CO
ALKALIS form hydroryl ions (only negative ions)
-
ii FeO3 ores
of NaOH laq1, NHOH, Ca(OH)2 24. Roasting of
-
sulphide
2 Dissociation -

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS i] ZnS, iil FeS2 carbonate ores

25. Calcination of -

carbonate]
3 Dilute acid HSO1 on NalHCO3 [hydrogen il ZnCO3, i FeCO3
4. Dilute acid H,SO41 on NazCO3 |carbonate) aluminium
Metallurgy of
-

5. Conc. acid |H,SO,] on NaCl Ichloride 26. Baeyer's process impure bauxite pure alumina. to

6. Conc. acid [HSO41 on NaNO3 Initrate]

Hall Heroule's process-pure alumina to
pure aluminium
27.
SAL TS HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
- NaCl CHAPTER 7 - A -
7. Dissociation of salts NaCl & c o n c . HSO4
-

28. Preparation from

-

Formation of acid salt NaHSO4 from NaOH & more than 200°C
8. -

less than
Temp.
200°C
9. Fomation of normal salt - NaSO from NaOH [excess 29. Properties - dil. HCl with
PREPARATION OF SALTS Metallic oxide
i Active metal
10. By direct combination or synthesis iv] Metallic carbonate
iii] Metallic hydroxide
Metallic sulphite
FeCla - from Fe [metal] & Cl2 [non-metall
v Metallic bicarbonate vi
FeS - from Fe [metal] & S [non-metal] vii] Metallic nitrate
vii] Metallic sulphide
11. By displacement ix] Silver nitrate

FeC! - from Fe lactive metal] & dil. acid 30. HNO3 with 3 parts HCi
Aquaregia 1 part -

-from Zn [active metal] & dil. acid CHAPTER 7-B-AMMONIA

ZnSO4
12. By precipitation [double decomposition) 31. Preparation from -

& Alkali
iGen. prep. Ammonium salt
- from PbNO)2 & NaCl [2 soluble salt solns]
PbCl2 - from PbNO3)&tNaSO4 or from PbcO3 ii Lab. prep. - NHCI & Ca(OH)2
-

PbsO4 i i Nitrides - Mg3N2 & AIN

PbCl2 from PbO or from PbCO3 [insoluble salts]
13. By neutralisation - of an insoluble base 32. Reactions of ammonia
- from Cu0 [insoluble base) i] Burning of ammonia
CuSO4 i] Catalytic oxidation of ammonia
Pb(NO3)2 -
from Pb(OH)2 [insoluble base]
14. By neutralisation - of an alkali [titration]
ii] Ammonia with HCI, HNO3, HSO4
iv] Ammonia with hot - CuO, PbO [reducing agent]
KCI - from KOH [soluble base]
v Excess ammonia with chlorine
- from NaOH [soluble base]
NaNOg vi Ammonia with excess chlorine
15. By action of- dil. acids on carbonates & bicarbonates 33. Reactions of Ammonium hydroxide [NH,OH] with-
Pb(NOg)2 - from PbCO
i] HC1, i] HNO3, ii] HSO4 iv] FeSO v] FeCl3
KSO4 - from KHcOg
vi Pb(NO3)2 viil Zn(NOg)2 viil CuSO4
CHAPTER 7-C-NITRIC ACID
CHAPTER 3-B-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
16. Action of addition of Sodium hydroxide [NaOH]
34. Preparation from- KNO3 NaNOg with
Manufacture by Ostwald's process
or conc.
H,SO||
to - i] Ca(NOg}2 il FeSO ii) FeC3
a CuSO4 27.c
iv] v] ZnSO4 vi] PhNO
Pb{NOg)2
35. Reaction of dil. HNO with
17. Action of addition of Ammonium hydrozide [NHOH]
i Metallic-hydroxide, carbonate,bisulphite il copper
to- i] Ca(NOs)2 i] FeSO4 i) FeCl3
36. Reaction of conc.
HNO with
i carbon iil sulphur ii) copper
iv] CuSO4 v] ZnS04 vi Pb{NCO3)2 37. Test for nitrate acidified FeSO4 with dil. HNO3
-

18. Action of addition of NaOH & KOH

on i ] Zn i] Al ii] Pb
CHAPTER 7-D- ACID SULPHURIC
38. Manufacture -Contact process
on - i] ZnO ii] Al,03 ii) Pbo reactions in
on - i] Zn(OH)2 i] Al(OH)3 i i Pb{OH)}2
i Sulphur or pyrite burners il Contact tower
i Absorption tower iv] Dilution tank
39. Properties -
CHAPTER 5-ELECTROLYSISs i As a dil. acid with metal, metal - oxide,
19. Electrolysis of
i] PbBr2 [molten] il Acidified water hydroxide, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphite, sulphide
ii] CuSO4 using a] Active electrodes b Inert electrodes ii As a dibasic acid - dissociation in two steps,
20. Electroplating - with nickel formation of acid salt and normal salt
21. Electroplating - with silver
ii As a least or non-volatile acid -
22. Electrorefining Ipurification] - of impure copper
NaCl or KCI & NaNO or KN0 with conc. HSO4
iv As an
oxidising agent with -C, S, [Cu, HI, HS
Electrometallurgy - of v As a dehydrating agent with - sugar, CuS04
i] NaCI ii] CaCl2 iil Al,03
glucose, cellulose, formic acid, oxalic acid, ethanol

298
MAIN SYLLABUS BASED EQUATIONS IContd.
CHAPTER8 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

PREPARATIONS

ALKANES
Caoy CH + NazCO3
Methane-from Sodium ethanoate |sodium acetate] CH-COONa +NaOH
1. Ca0 C,H, + NagCO3
NaOOH
Bhane-from Sodium propanoate |soiumpropionate] CH5-COONa Zn/Cu/alcoha CH+ H
Methane from
lodomethane (methyliodidel CHg-I +2[H]
HBr
Bromoethane [ethyl bromide] +2[H] Zn/Cu/alcohac,H6 +

Ethane from CaHs-Br

4.
ALKENES
170CCH4 + H2O
conc.HSO4atat350°C
CaHs-OH
Ethene-from Ethanol[ethylalcohol by dehydration AlhOg
or
5.
boi C2H4+ KBr H,O
+
+ KOH
0.
Ethene-from Bromoethane [ethyl bromide] CHs-Br alcoholic)
by dehydrohalogenation

ALKYNES CH2.Ca(OH)}2

CaC2 +2H20
Ethyne from Calcium carbide O C,H,+2KBr+2H,0
from 1, 2 dibromoethane [ethylene CH,Br +2KOH
Ethyne [alcoholic
dibromide] by dehydrohalogenation CHBr
KBr
ALCOHOLS
+KOH boil CzHs-OH +
Ethanol from Bromoethane [ethylbromide]-by 2s-5 ag
hydrolysis of alkyl
halide
+HO
conc.Hs CzHs-OH
Ethanol from Ethene [ethylenme]
- C.H4 steam HPO4
|10. -

by hydration of ethene
CARBOXYLIC ACID [ethanoic acid] K,Cr07/dil. HSO4
CH,COOH+ H20
C2H5OH +2[0]
from Ethanol [ethy!
Ethanoic acid [acetic acid]
-

11 oxidation with acidified K,Cr2O7

alcohol] by
PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES ALCOHOLS - ethanol [ethyl alcohol

methane & ethane
ALKANES
reactions of methane with
-
chlorine 7. Physicalproperties-
1. Substitution
chlorine
i nature
Substitution reactions
-
of ethane with
2. i solubility
3. Oxidation reactioms iil density
with excess oxygen
a Complete oxidation
oxidation -
with limited oxygen
iv] boiling point
b ncomplete - with 8. Chemical properties
Catalytic oxidation combustion
molybdenum oxide iwith oxygen
-

il copper tube ii
Controlled oxidation with acidified - K%Cr207 i] with acidified K%Cr,O7- oxidation
d] ii) with sodium

[ethylene] iv] [ester ethyl acetate formation]

with acetic acid
ALKENES - ethene acid at 170°C- dehydration
reactions with v with excess conc. sulphuric
-

5. Addition
& excess ethyl alcohol at 140°C]
i hydrogen with conc. sulphuric acid
i i chlorine
ii] bromine & iodine
CARBOXYLIC ACID ethanoic acid [acetic acid]
-

cold dil. KMn0, polymerization]

with HBr, HSO4 O, 9 Physicalproperties-
i odour [vinegar)
ALKYNES -ethyne lacetylenel il glacial acetic acid
Addition reactions with
-

6.
i hydrogen 10. Chemical properties
ii] chlorine
iwith litmus
bromine & iodine
i]
HBr, Oz, cold alk. KMnO4] i with alkalis -

NaOH Ca(OH)2, NH,OH

with
ammoniacal cuprous chloride, ii with alcohol- ethanol [ester
-

ethyl acetate formation

iv silver nitrate
ammoniacal
v
 Reference- Valency Chart
POSITIVE IONS [Basic Radicals]
TRIVALENT
MONOVALENT DIVALENT
VALENCY 3
VALENCY1 VALENCY2
POTASSIUM K1 .CALCIUM Ca2.ALUMINIUM A3

SODIUM Na1+. MAGNESIUM Mg2.CHROMIUM C3+

LITHIUM Li1+ ZINC Zn2 .FERRIC Iron UFe3

HYDROGEN H1+
BARIUM Ba2 AURIC Gold Au3+

AMMONIUM NH41 NICKEL N2

CUPROUS Copper Cu.CuPRIC Copper 1 Cu2+

ARGENTOUS silver
Ag1ARGENTIC Silver ] Ag2*
TETRAVALENT
MERCUROUS Mercury[| Hg+ MERCURIC Mercury [U] Hg2+
AUROUIS Gold Au FERROUS
VALENCY4
Iron u Fe2+
PLUMBOUS Lead Pb2*PLUIMBIC Lead V] Pb4*
STANNOUS Tin Sn2STANNIC Tin ]Snt
PLATINOus Platnium M Pt2*PLATINIC Platinum [IV Pr4*
MANGANOUs Manganee] Mn2MANGANIC Mananese[V] M
NEGATIVE IONS [Acidic Radicals]
MONOVALENT DIVALENT TRIVALENT
VALENCY 1 VALENCY 2 VALENCY 3
BICARBONATE HCO1.CARBONATE co2NTTRIDE N3
BISULPHITE HSOsULPHITE so2 PHOSPHATE PO4
BISULPHATE HSO1 SULPHATE so2 PHOSPHITE PO
CHLORIDE C1 SULPHIDE $2
BROMIDE Br1 OXIDE 02

1ODIDE 11 PEROXIDDE
HYDROXIDE OH1
SILICATE Sio2
NITRITE NO1 CHROMATE Cro2
NITRATE NO3 DICHROMATE TETRAVALENT
Cr0 VALENCY 4
PERMANGANATE MnO1THIOSULPHATE s20,
ALUMINATE AlO1ZINCATE Zno,2 CARBIDE
CHLORATE CIO1PLUMBITE Pbo
HYPOCHLORITE CIO1
Referen nce- Important Formulas
POTASSIUM
Mg2 MAGNESIUM Pb2
- chloride
MgClh - chloride LEAD
KCT - bromide Mg(OH)2 - hydroxide PbCl -I chloride

KBr - iodide
Mg(NO3)2 nitrate PbBr - ] bromide

PbO)2 - ] hydrovide
KI - hydroxide MgO - 0xide

KOH - nitrite
MgsN - nitride Pb[NOg/h - [ I nitrate

KNO
- nitrate PbSO4 - l ) sulphate

KNOg - bicarbonate Zn2 ZINC PbO - [Il oxide

KHCO
bisulphite ZnCl - chloride
PbO4 Trilead tetraoxide
KHSO3
KHSO bisulphate Zn(OH)- hydroxide Pb4 LEAD
permanganate
Zn(NO32 nitrate
KMnO
| ZnSO, - sulphate
Pbo IIV oxide
- sulphite
Ks03 - sulphate ZnCO3 - carbonate

K,504
A3 ALUMINIUM
- carbonate
ZnO - oxide
- chloride
KCO3
- dichromate [Zn(NH)S04 Tetrammine AICl
KCrO7 - zincate
zinc sulphate AI(OH) - hydroxide

K,ZnO Al(S0gl3 sulphate

- plumbite
KPbO2 Cu1+ COPPERICprous) - sulphide
- aluminate
CuCl - [I chloride AlS
KAIO -I oxide
AlyO3 -oxide

SODIUM
Cu0 AIN - nitride
Na1 CuS - I sulphide
-chloride
NaCI Mn2+ MANGANESE
NaOH - hydroxide Cu2t COPPER Cupric) - [I] chloride
- nitrite - I] chloride MnCl2
NaNO2 CuCl2 [I] sulphate
- nitrate Cu(OH)2- [L) hydroxide MnSO -

NaNO
NaHCO3 - bicarbonate
Cu(NO2 -

[0] nitrate Mn4 MANGANESE

NaHSO - bisulphite
|CuSO -[II]sulphate - [IV] oxide
NaHSO4 bisulphate CuS - [I] sulphide MnO2
Na,SOg - sulphite CuO ] oxide
Cr3+ CHROMIUM
NaSO sulphate Cu(NHl4S0, Tetrammine - chloride
- carbonate
copper|/sulphate Crcly
NaCO Crz(50ls - sulphate
- zincate
NazZnO Fe2 IRON Femous Cr03
- oxide

Na,PbO2 - plumbite
FeC12
-[ chloride
NaAIO - aluminate
- hydroxide Ag1+ SILVER
Sodiun sihver cyanide Fe(OH)2
NalAg(CN),] - M nitrate AgCI - chloride
Fe(NOgh I sulphate - bromide
Ca2 CALCIUMM AgBr
FeSO4 - sulphide - nítrate
CaCl - chloride FeS AgNO
- M] oxide - cyanide
FeO AgCN
Ca(OH)2-hydroxide Nitroso iron(/sulphate Ag(NH]CI Diamine silver
Ca(NO32 nitrate FeSO NO
chloride
Ca(HCOs)-bicarbonate Fe3+ IRON Fericl
CafHSOh bisulphite FeCl
I chloride NH1 AMMONIUM
CaSO sulphite - [I] hydroxide
NH,CI
- chloride
CaSO - sulphate Fe(OH)
CaCO - carbonate Fe(NOg)3
-

[ nitrate
- [l] sulphate
NH,OH
- hydroxide

nitrate
Ca0 oxide Fe(S0) -I I sulphide NH,NO
FeS3 (NH)SO sulphate
CaSiOg - silicate
Fe,O
- [II] oxide

CaN2 - nitride