AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

(AMGC 1371)

Getasew Ashagrie (Ph.D.)

E-mail: getasew.taddese@aau.edu.et

November 2024
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 FERROUS METALS
Part - 1

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 FERROUS METALS

CONTENTS:

 Part 1 (Week 2)
 Classification and properties of ferrous metals
 Steel and alloy steels
 Cast iron
 Wrought iron

 Part 2 (Week 3)
 Heat Treatment & Application
 Production and Testing of Ferrous Materials

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 FERROUS METALS

 Classification of ferrous metals

Ferrous metals

Steel Cast iron Wrought iron

Low carbon steel Gray cast iron

Medium carbon steel White cast iron

High carbon steel Malleable cast iron

Alloy steel Nodular cast iron

Alloy cast iron

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 FERROUS METALS

 Ferrous metals and alloys

 Ferrous metals and alloys are based upon the

metallic element iron.

 Made the industrial evolution possible and have

been the backbone of modern civilization.

 Iron is a soft, grey metal and it is rarely found in

the pure state outside the laboratory.

 Ore, limestone, coke (carbon) and air are

continuously introduced into specifically
designed furnaces where molten metal is
periodically withdrawn.

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 FERROUS METALS

 Ferrous metals and alloys

 Engineers usually find it associated with the

non-metal carbon, with which it forms solid
solutions and the compound iron carbide.

 The carbon content is carried over from

smelting process during which the iron is
extracted from its ore.

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 FERROUS METALS

 Ferrous metals and alloys

 Ore, limestone, coke (carbon) and air are

continuously introduced into specifically
designed furnaces where molten metal is
periodically withdrawn.

 Engineers usually find it associated with the

non-metal carbon, with which it forms solid
solutions and the compound iron carbide.

 The carbon content is carried over from

smelting process during which the iron is
extracted from its ore.

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 FERROUS METALS

Why ferrous metals are widely used?

 Factors that let ferrous alloys to be widely used:

 Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities

within the earth’s crust.

 Extraction is economical.

 Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using

relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying, and
fabrication techniques.

 Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile: may be tailored

to have a wide range of mechanical and physical
properties.
Aircraft Corrosion in
 Principal disadvantage: Exhaust Trail Areas
 Susceptible to corrosion.

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 FERROUS METALS

Why ferrous metals are widely used?

 Ferrous metals contain a high proportion of the

element iron.

 They are the strongest materials available and are

used for applications where:

 High strength is required at relatively low cost and

weight is not of primary importance.

 Examples:

 Aircraft engine and landing gear Engine and landing gear

 Bridge building components require
 Structures of large buildings utilization of steel.
 Railway lines
 Locomotives & rolling stock and
 Bodies & highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.
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 FERROUS METALS

Why ferrous metals are widely used?

 Challenge for Engineers

 Light weight materials such as Al

alloys and plastics (polymers) are
being increasingly used to reduce
their weight and make them more
efficient in the use of energy.

 How to choose from many will be the

role of Engineers.

Engine and landing

gear components
require utilization of
steel.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Plain carbon steels:

 Alloys of iron and carbon in which the carbon is chemically combined with
the iron.

 Plain carbon steels are ferrous materials containing between 0.1 and
1.7% carbon as the main alloying element.

 Impurities (such as S and P) from the extraction process and a small

amount of the metal manganese offset the toxic effects of the impurities.

 None of the plain carbon steels can be alloying elements.

 In addition, plain carbon steels contain the following elements.

 Manganese: up to 1%
 Phosphorous: up to 0.05%
 Silicon: up to 0.3%
 Sulfur: up to 0.05%

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Low carbon steels:

Low carbon steels Property Application

Contain less than about • Relatively soft and weak. • Automobile body
0.25 wt% C. components
• Have excellent ductility and
Unresponsive to heat toughness. • Structural shapes (I-
treatments intended to beams, channel and
form Martensite. • Highly machinable and angle iron).
weldable.
Strength is accomplished • Sheets that are used
by cold work. • Easy to produce than all of in pipelines,
steels. buildings, bridges
Microstructures consist and
of ferrite and pearlite
constituents. Typical values:
o Yield strength: 275MPa
o Tensile strength: 415-550MPa
o Ductility: 25 %EL

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Medium carbon steels:

Medium carbon Property Application

steels
• Carbon concentration • May be heated by • Railway wheels, and
between 0.25 and austenitizing, quenching, and tracks, gears,
0.6 wt%. then tempering to improve crankshafts, and other
mechanical properties. machine parts.

• Have low hardenability. • High-strength

structural components
• Can be heat treated only in calling for a
very thin sections and with combination of high
very rapid quenching rates. strength, wear
resistance and
• Addition of Cr, Ni and Mo toughness.
improve the capacity of these
alloy to be heat treated.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

High carbon steels:

High carbon steels Property Application

• Carbon • Wear resistance and • Cutting tools and
concentrations capable of holding a dies for forming
between 0.6 and 1.4 sharp cutting edge. and shaping
wt%.
materials.
• Almost always used • Knives, razors,
in a hardened and hacksaw blades,
tempered condition. springs, and high
condition. strength wire.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

High carbon steels:

High carbon steels Property Application

• Carbon • Wear resistance and • Cutting tools and
concentrations capable of holding a sharp dies for forming and
between 0.6 and cutting edge. shaping materials.
1.4 wt%.
• Knives, razors,
hacksaw blades,
• Almost always used springs, and high
in a hardened and strength wire.
tempered condition.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Property Comparisons:

 Low Carbon Steel: has excellent ductility and fracture resistance, but low
strength.

 Medium Carbon Steel: has balanced properties.

 High Carbon Steel: has high strength and hardness at the expense of ductility
and fracture resistance.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Principal alloying elements in steels:

Manganese Phosphorous
• Increases the strength and • An impurity carried over from the iron ore.
toughness of the steel.
• It forms compounds which make the steel
• It also increases the tendency of brittle and, therefore, should be removed
the steel to crack and distort when as far as possible during the refinement
quench hardened and, for this processes.
reason, the content should be
kept below 0.5% in medium- and • It should not be present in excess of
high-carbon steels. 0.05%.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Principal alloying elements in steels:

Silicon Sulfur
• An impurity from the iron ore. • An impurity carried over from the fuel used in
the blast furnace to extract the iron from its ore.
• Its presence should be limited to
between 0.1 and 0.3% in the steels • With iron, it forms iron sulfide which greatly
otherwise it can cause breakdown of weakens the steel. Therefore, its content must
the cementite which would result in be kept below 0.05% and there should always
weakness. be at least 5 times as much manganese
present as there is sulfur.
• Silicon has little direct effect upon the
mechanical properties of plain carbon • It has a greater affinity for Mn than it has for
steels providing the amount present is steel and will combine with the Mn in
limited to the %age quoted above. preference to the iron. Unlike iron sulfide which
weakens the steel, manganese sulfide has no
• Silicon improves the magnetic such adverse effect.
properties of the 'soft' ferro-magnetic
materials. • Some free-cutting steels contain up to 0.2%
sulfur to improve their machinability.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Principal effects of major alloying elements in steel:

Element Percentage Primary function

Aluminum 0.95 – 1.3 Alloying element in nitriding steels

Bismuth ----------- Improves machinability
Boron 0.001 – 0.003 Powerful hardenability agent
Chromium 0.5 – 2 Increase of hardenability
4 – 18 Corrosion resistance
Copper 0.1 – 0.4 Corrosion resistance
Lead ---------- Improved machinability
Manganese 0.25 – 0.4 Combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness
>1 increases hardenability by lowering transformation points
Molybdenum 0.25 – 5 Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth
Nickel 2–5 Toughener
12 – 20 Corrosion resistant
Silicon 0.2 – 0.7 Increase strength
2 Spring steels
high percent Improves magnetic properties
Sulfur 0.08 – 0.15 Free-machining properties
Tungsten ---------- Hardness at high temperatures
Vanadium 0.15 Stable carbides, increases strength while retaining
ductility, promotes fine grain structure.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Introduction to the iron-carbon (Fe-C or Fe-Fe3C) system:

C - Peritectic

A - Euctectic
B - Eutectoid

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Introduction to the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system:

Steels Cast iron

(Alloys with
(Alloys with carbon content of more than
carbon content of
2%)
up to 2%)

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Introduction to the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system:

 Phases means chemically and physically distinct regions.

 In the Fe-C diagram, we can find the following phases (at different
temperatures and different carbon compositions).

 Liquid phase
 Alpha ferrite phase
 Delta ferrite phase
 Gamma ferrite phase

 Invariant points are important to know

 Eutectic (A) reaction: L  𝛾(austenite) + Cementite (iron carbide or Fe3C)
(T = 11480C and Composition of 4.3% of carbon)
 Eutectoid (B): 𝛾 (Austenite)  𝛼 (ferrite) +Cementite
(T = 7270C and Composition of 0.76% of carbon)
 Peritectic (C): 𝛾+ Liquid 𝛾 (Austenite)
(T = 14930C and Composition of 0.18% of carbon)

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Introduction to the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system:

 Pearlite

 Is nothing but alternating layers of Alpha (𝛼) and Cementite (Fe3C)

 Cementite

 Iron carbide (Fe3C)

 All phases in the single phases

 𝛼-Ferrite
 Austenite
 Cementite (Fe3C)
 𝛿-Ferrite
 Liquid

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Introduction to the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system:

 Pearlite

 Is nothing but alternating layers of Alpha (𝛼) and Cementite (Fe3C)

 Cementite

 Iron carbide (Fe3C)

 All phases in the single phases

 𝛼-Ferrite
 Austenite
 Cementite (Fe3C)
 𝛿-Ferrite
 Liquid

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Effect of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels:

 The effect of the carbon content upon the properties of plain carbon steels which
have been cooled slowly enough to enable them to achieve phase equilibrium
(Figure).

 Low-carbon steels, consisting mainly of ferrite, are soft and ductile and relatively
weak, reflecting the properties of the ferrite itself.

 The increased amount of carbon in medium-carbon steels promotes the

formation of cementite.

 This results in an increased presence of pearlite, making such steels

stronger, tougher and harder, but not so ductile.

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Effect of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels:

0.76%
(Eutectoid)

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Effect of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels:

 When the carbon content reaches a carbon composition of

approximately 0.76%C.

 The steel consists entirely of pearlite.

 This is the eutectoid composition previously described

 It produces plain carbon steel of maximum toughness and strength.

 In the iron-carbon (Fe-C) system, the eutectoid point occurs at

approximately 0.76 wt% C and 7230C.

 Increasing the carbon content still further increases the amount of

cementite (Fe3C) present in the steel.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Effect of carbon on the

properties of plain carbon steels:

 The maximum amount of

combined cementite occurred at
0.76 % carbon content, where
the composition of the steel is
totally Pearlitic.

 Any increase in the carbon

content results in the formation
of excess cementite appearing
around the crystal boundaries.

 This increases the hardness

and wear resistance of the
steel, but at the expense of
reduced toughness, strength 0.76%
and ductility. (Eutectoid)

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Alloy steels:

 What is an alloy?

 Is an intimate association of two or more component materials

which form a single metallic liquid or solid.

 The component materials may be metal elements, or metal

elements and non-metal elements, or metal elements and
chemical compounds.

 Useful alloys can only be produced from component materials

which are soluble in each other in the molten state.

 The alloying elements must be completely miscible.

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Alloy steels:

 So design of alloying should be considering and knowing the

property of the alloying elements especially during heating and
cooling.

 Example:

 If one tries to make alloy from the immiscible alloys of zinc

and lead, the molten zinc will float on top of the molten lead
and up on cooling, they would form separate layers in the
solid state with only tenuous bonding at the interface.

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Alloy steels:

 Alloys are similar to low-carbon and medium-carbon steels. But there

is addition of other metals such as manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum and vanadium, in sufficient quantities.

 The objective of adding these alloying metals is to materially alter

and enhance the properties of the metal.

 May be present singly or in combination for an increased strength,

improved corrosion resistance, improved heat resistance

 Alloying elements:
 Are component materials of an alloy which are added in
controlled quantities to modify the properties of a material to
match a particular specification.

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Alloy steels:

 Impurities:

 Must not be confused with alloying elements as they are

undesirable elements which are usually carried over from some
previous processes such as smelting or casting.

 They should be removed or reduced to a level where their effects

should become insignificant.

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Alloy steels:

 Good electrical conductivity, thermal

conductivity and good corrosion
resistance or combinations of theses
properties are required.

 But strength is also another mechanical

property which is highly required for
structural materials.

 Pure metals have all the property except

they lack the strength required for most
application.

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Alloy steels:

 Alloys are mainly used for structural

materials since they can be formulated to
give superior mechanical properties.

 Properties such as tensile strength, yield

strength, and hardness are improved by
alloying. It is also known that the property
of ductility of the alloy is reduced.

 Alloying is designed for a particular

application.

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 ACTIVITY 2.1

Common alloying elements (Example)

Think of alloy steels used in many • Nickel

aircraft components. Can you • Chromium
provide answers for the following
questions? Properties required

• Can you provide examples of • High tensile strength and toughness

common alloying elements? • Durability under constant rotation
• Optimal strength-to-weight ration
• Resistant to internal and external pressure.
• Can you identify common
properties required?
Examples of components
• Can you provide some
• Landing gear
examples of components? • Engine components
• Fasteners
• Rotor blades
• Fuselage and wings

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High-Strength, Low-alloy (HSLA) steels :

High-strength, low-alloy Property Application

(HSLA) steels
• Other group of low carbon • High strength than plain low- • Bridges
steels. carbon steels.
• Towers
• Contain other alloying • Most can be strengthened by
elements such as copper, heat treatment, giving tensile • Support columns in high
vanadium, nickel, and strengths in excess of 480 high rise buildings
molybdenum in combined MPa.
concentrations as high as • Pressure vessels
10 wt%. • Are ductile, formable and
machinable.

• More resistant to corrosion

than the plain carbon steels,
which they have replaced in
many applications where
structural strength is critical.

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Stainless steels:
Stainless steels Property Application
• The predominantly • Highly resistance to corrosion • Frequently used at
alloying element is Cr. (rusting). temperatures, and in sever
environments because they
• A concentration of 11 • Corrosion resistance may be resist oxidation, and
wt% Cr is required. enhanced by Ni and Mo additions. maintain their mechanical
integrity under such
• Divided into three on • Martensite stainless steels are conditions.
the basis of the capable of being heat treated in
predominant phase such a way that martensite is the • The upper temperature
constituent of the prime microconstituents. limit in oxidizing
microstructure. atmospheres is about
 Martensitic • Austenitic and ferritic stainless 10000C.
 Ferritic steels are hardened and
 Austenitic strengthened by cold work because • Equipment employing
they are not heat treatable. these steels includes gas
• Austenitic stainless steels are most turbines, high-temperature
corrosion resistance due to high Cr steam boilers, heat-treating
content and Ni additions. furnaces, aircraft, missiles,
• Martensite and Ferrite are magnetic. and nuclear power
generating units.

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Stainless steels:
AISI designation for Stainless Steels

Primary strengthening mechanisms for the various types of Stainless Steels

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Tool steels:

 Are high-carbon, high-strength, ferrous alloys that have been modified by alloy
additions to provide the desired balance of strength, toughness and wear
resistance when properly heat treated.
Basic types of tool steel and corresponding AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) grades

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Tool steels:

 Water-hardening tool steels (W-grade): essentially high carbon plain-carbon

steels.

 Shock-resisting tool steels (S designation): offer high toughness needed for

impact applications.

 High-speed tool steels (T and M designation): used for cutting tools and other
applications where strength and hardness must be retained at temperatures up to
or exceeding read heat (>7600C).

 Hot-work tool steels (H designation): developed to provide strength and hardness

during prolonged exposure to elevated temperature.

 Plastic mold steels (P designation): designed to meet the requirements of Zinc

die casting and plastic injection molding dies.

 Special purpose (F designation): are water hardening and more water resistant
than the plain-carbon tool steels
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Tool steels:

 AISI grades: The initial letter in an AISI tool steel grade indicates the
class and attributes of the steel.

 A: Cold worked, air hardening steel

 D: Cold worked, high carbon, and high chromium steel
 F: Special purpose, carbon and tungsten based steel
 H: Hot worked steel
 L: Special purpose, low alloy steel
 M: High speed, molybdenum based steel
 O: Cold worked, oil hardening steel
 P: Steel used for making plastic molds
 S: Shock resisting steel
 T: High speed, tungsten based steel
 W: Water hardening steel

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Tool steels:

 Examples:

 D-2: High carbon and high chromium, with good machinability, wear
resistance, and compressive strength

 S-7: Shock resistant, used for applications that require high toughness and
resistance

 O-1: Easy to machine, with good abrasion resistance

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o AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute

Steel standards: o SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers
o ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials
 SAE, AISI, and ASTM: o UNS – Uniform Numbering System

 Are responsible for the classification and specification of steels as well as

other alloys.

 The AISI/SAE designation for these steels is a four-digit number where the
first two digits indicate the alloy content and the last two give the carbon
concentration

 For plain carbon steels, the first two digits are 1 and 0 and for alloy steels
are designated by other initial two-digit combinations(e.g., 13, 41, 43).

 The third and fourth digits represent the weight percent carbon multiplied by
100. For example, a 1060 steel is a plain carbon steel containing 0.6 wt% C.

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Steel standards: AISI / SAE steel designation system

 XX–XX: The first two digits represent the type of material selected and the last two
digits represent amount of carbon present in the steel.
Type of steel 1st digit 2nd digit

C steels “1” (10xx, 11xx. 12xx) Describe processing:

“1” resulfurized
“2” resulfurized & rephosphorized
Mn steel “1” (13xx) Always 3
Ni steel “2” (23xx, 25xx) % of Ni in the steel
Ni-Cr steel “3” (31xx, 32xx) % of Ni and Cr in the steel
Mo steel “4” (40xx, 44xx) % of Mo in the steel
Cr steel “5” (51xx, 52xx) % of Cr in the steel
Cr-V steel “6” (61xx) % of Cr and V in the steel
W-Cr steel “7” (72xx) % of W and Cr in the steel
Ni – Cr – Mo steel “8” (81xx, 86xx, 87xx, 88xx) % of Ni, Cr and Mo in the steel
Si-Mn steel “9” (92xx) % of Si and Mn in the steel
Triple alloy steels “4”, “8” or “9” depending on the % of the remaining two alloys.
(contains 3 alloys) predominate alloy
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Steel standards: UNS

 Is used for uniformly indexing both ferrous and nonferrous alloys.

 Each UNS number consists of a single-letter prefix followed by a five-

digit number.

 The letter is indicative of the family of metals to which an alloy

belongs.

 The UNS designation for these alloys begins with a G, followed by

the AISI/SAE number; the fifth digit is a zero.

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Steel standards: ASTM designation system:

 Example:

 A582/ A582M – 95b (2000), grade 303Se – Free machining

stainless steel bars

 ‘A’ describes a ferrous metal, but does not sub classify it as cast
iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, tool steel, or stainless steel;

 582 is a sequential number without any relationship to the

metal’s properties.

 M indicates that the standard A582M is written in rationalized SI

units (the M comes from the word Metric), hence together
582/A582M includes both inch-pound and SI units.

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Steel standards: ASTM designation system:

 Example:

 95 indicates the year of adoption or last revision and a letter b

following the year indicates the third revision of the standard
in1995.

 (2000), a number in parentheses, indicates the year of last re-

approval.

 Grade 300Se indicates the grade of the steel, and in this case, it
has a Se (selenium) addition.

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Steel standards: ASTM designation system:

 Example:

 ASTM A 106-02a Grade A, Grade B, Grade C - Seamless

Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service:

 Typically an increase in alphabet (such as letters A, B, C)

results in higher tensile or yield strength steels, and if it’s an
unalloyed carbon steel, an increase in carbon content;

 In this case:

 Grade A:0.25%C (max), 332 MPa tensile strength (min).

 Grade B: 0.30%C (max), 415 MPa tensile strength (min).
 Grade C 0.35%C (max), 484 MPa tensile strength (min).

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Steel standards: ASTM designation system:

 Example:

 ASTM A 276-03, Type 304, 316, 410 – Stainless and Heat

Resisting Steel Bars and Shapes::

 Types 304, 316, 410 and others are based on the SAE
designation system for stainless steels (see SAE and former
AISI description that follows).

 Another use of ASTM grade designators is found in pipe,

tube, and forging products, where the first letter P refers to
pipe, T refers to tube, TP may refer to tube or pipe, and F
refers to forging.

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Plain low-carbon and high strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels:

 Compositions of four plain low-carbon steels and three high-strength, low-

alloy steels.

 Unless indicated, composition contains 0.04 wt% P, 0.05 wt% S, 0.3 wt%Si

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Plain low-carbon and high strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels:

 Mechanical characteristics of hot-rolled material and typical applications of

various plain low-carbon steels, high strength, low-alloy steels.
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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Plain low-carbon and high strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels:

 AISI/SAE and UNS designation Systems and Composition Ranges for Plain
Carbon steel and Various Low-alloy steels.
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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Plain carbon and alloy steels: Oil quenched and tempered:

 Typical application and Mechanical property ranges for oil-quenched and

tempered Plain Carbon and Alloy Steels.
 a-classified as high-carbon steels
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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Tool steels:

 Designation, compositions, and typical applications for six tool steels.

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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Stainless steels: annealed, quenched, and tempered:

 Designation, compositions, mechanical properties and typical applications

for austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation-hardenable stainless
steels.
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 STEEL AND ALLOYS

Stainless steels: annealed, quenched, and tempered:

 Designation, compositions, mechanical properties and typical applications for

austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation-hardenable stainless steels.

 17-7PH (ultrahigh-strength stainless steel): is unusually strong and corrosion

resistant. Strengthening is accomplished by precipitation-hardening heat
treatments.
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 CAST IRON

 Classification of ferrous metals

Ferrous metals

Steel Cast iron Wrought iron

Low carbon steel Gray cast iron

Medium carbon steel White cast iron

High carbon steel Malleable cast iron

Alloy steel Nodular cast iron

Alloy cast iron

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 CAST IRON

 Cast iron is the name given to ferrous metals containing more than 1.7 %
carbon (in practice, 2.14 to 4.5 wt % C).

 All the carbon is not chemically combined with the iron.

 Some free carbon is present in the form of graphite flakes evenly

distributed through the mass of the casting.

 Its properties are different from those of steel and there are applications
where cast iron scores over steel.

 Some drawbacks of normal cast iron can be eliminated by manipulating

the phase transformations:

 By using different rates of cooling or

 By alloying with other elements for some special applications.

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 CAST IRON

 The true equilibrium iron-carbon phase diagram: • The iron-carbon phase

diagram is not a true
equilibrium diagram
because it assumes
that iron carbide is a
stable phase, but it
actually decomposes
into iron and graphite
over time.

• Thus, there is formation

of graphite instead of
cementite as a stable
phase.

• Note the variation on

the eutectic, eutectoid
and the stable phase,
at 100%C, graphite).

727 & 1147  740 & 1153

0.76 & 4.3  0.65 & 4.2
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 CAST IRON

 Cementite is a metastable compound and under some circumstances can

decompose to form α ferrite and graphite according to:

Fe3C  3Fe    C  graphite 

 The Fe-Fe3C and the Fe-C diagrams are virtually same in the iron-rich side:

 Eutectic temperatures, 11470C and 11530C respectively.

 Eutectoid temperatures, 7270C and 7400C respectively.
 Cementite and graphite are the carbon rich phase respectively.

 Graphite formation is promoted by:

 Si concentrations greater than 1% promote graphite formation.

 Slower cooling rates during solidification favor the formation of graphite.

 For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite and both microstructures and
mechanical behavior depends on composition and heat treatment.

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 CAST IRON

 Greater amounts of impurities (such as S, P, and Si) are contained because cast
iron lacks the refinement processes of steel making.

 The effect of greater amount of impurities is reflected in the property of the metal
as:

 Decreases the strength of the metal.

 Reduced the melting temperature, which is an advantage of increasing
metal’s fluidity.

 Due to the greater amounts of impurities, cast iron has high fluidity. This helps to
make sound, complex castings, and good machining properties.

 Cast iron’s melting point between 11470C and 12500C which is lower than that of
steel which is often >14000C.

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 CAST IRON

 Cast iron is produced in a furnace called a Cupola.

 In Cupola, pig iron is smelted with scrap iron and scrap steel for getting the
required composition.

 Cast iron has more or less the same composition as pig iron (melted iron ore,
charcoal and lime stone).

 The refinement process is not expensive since iron and steel scrap is cheap and
readily available.

 Cast iron is a low-cost engineering material which finds applications where:

 rigidity (for machine bases)

 resistance to wear (machine beds), and
 compressive strength (heavy machinery bodies).

 It is not suitable for application where tensile loads prevail.

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 CAST IRON

 Cast iron contains additional carbon as iron carbide or

free precipitated carbon known as flake graphite.

 The iron carbide is known as combined carbon and

the flake graphite is called free carbon.

 The eutectic point for cast irons is 4.3 % carbon and

temperature is 11470C. Refer to the 'cast iron section'
of the iron-carbon diagram that is to the right of the
steel section and beyond 1.7 % carbon.

 At a composition of 4.3% carbon the molten metal

solidifies at 11470C in to austenite and cementite.

 If the cooling is gradual, graphite precipitates out

because cementite is unstable as a result of some
impurities.

 More and more carbon is precipitated from austenite.

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 CAST IRON

 At 7270C with gradual and slow cooling, the

remaining austenite changes into ferrite (alpha).

 Finally when the room temperature is reached, the

composition consists of ferrite (alpha-phase) and
large flakes and fine flakes of graphite formed by the
decomposition of cementite after solidification.

 Most common cast iron types due to % C, % Si and

cooling rate (treatment):

 Gray
 Nodular (ductile)
 White
 Malleable
 Compacted graphite

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 GRAY CAST IRON

Gray cast iron:

 Gray cast irons contain 2.5 - 4.0 Wt% Carbon and 1.0 - 3.0 Wt% Silicon.

 Mostly the graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes).

 The graphite flake is surrounded by an α ferrite or pearlite matrix. Typical

microstructure of grey cast iron is shown (Fig.) The fracture surface appears gray
due to the presence of graphite flakes.

 When the cooling rate is high enough to prevent phase equilibrium being
achieved, the austenite will change into ferrite and pearlite at the eutectoid
temperature of 7230C.

 This is because cementite needed for the formation of pearlite is retained. The
presence of pearlite in grey cast iron increases its toughness and hardness.

 With the cooling rate further increased, the structure will show flake graphite in a matrix
which is entirely pearlitic ferritic and pearlitic cast irons containing free graphite flakes are
called grey cast irons.
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 GRAY CAST IRON

Gray cast iron: Typical applications

Gear Flywheel Engine cylinder

Pistons Liners
Disc brake

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 GRAY CAST IRON

Grey and ductile cast iron: optical micrographs

 Optical micrograph of grey cast iron: the dark graphite flakes are embedded in an α-ferrite
matrix. 500X

 Optical micrograph of Nodular (ductile) iron: the dark graphite nodules are surrounded by an α-
ferrite matrix. 200X.
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 DUCTILE (NODULAR) CAST IRON

Ductile (Nodular) cast iron:

 Adding small amount of Mg and/or Cerium to the gray iron before casting
produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties,
called nodular or ductile iron.

 Graphite still forms but as nodular or sphere-like particles instead of flakes. See
figures of ductile cast iron.

 Depending on the heat treatment, the matrix surrounding these particles will be
either pearlite or ferrite.

 Pearlitic matrix results from moderate or fast cooling and ferritic matrix results in
slow cooling.

 It is normally pearlite for an as-cast piece. However, a heat treatment for several
hours at about 7000C results a ferrite matrix.

 It is stronger and much more ductile than gray iron.

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 DUCTILE (NODULAR) CAST IRON

Ductile (Nodular) cast iron:

 Properties of ductile cast irons:

 has a mechanical properties

approaching that of steel.

 ferritic ductile iron: tensile strength

between 380 and 480 MPa and
ductility from 10 to 20% (% EL).

 Typical applications:

 Valves
 Pumps
 Crank shaft
 Gears,
 Automotive bodies
 Machine components

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 WHITE CAST IRON

White cast iron:

 For low Si cast irons (containing less than 1% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of
the C exists as cementite instead of graphite. (See Fig).

 A fracture surface of this alloy that has a white appearance is called white cast
iron.

 On further cooling, austenite changes into pearlite. Thus at room temperature the
composition of the cast iron is pearlite and cementite. This type of cast iron is
known as white cast iron.

 Since large amount of cementite, white iron is extremely hard and brittle (difficult
to machine).

 It is an intermediary in the production of malleable iron where its property is

changed by heating at high temperatures for an extended period of time.

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 WHITE CAST IRON

White cast iron: Rollers in rolling mill

 Applications:

 It is used in applications where a very

hard and wear-resistance surface,
without a high degree of ductility.

 For Example: rollers in rolling mill and

many applications where very hard and
wear resistance surface is needed.

Crushers

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 WHITE CAST IRON

White and malleable cast iron: optical micrographs:

 Optical micrograph of white iron: the light cementite regions are surrounded by pearlite, which
has the ferrite-cementite layered structures. 400X.

 Optical micrograph of malleable iron: dark graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an α-ferrite
matrix. 150X.
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 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable cast iron:

 It is another type of cast iron produced from white cast iron by special heat
treatment processes for obtaining the required composition and structure.

 White cast iron is heated at temperatures between 800 & 9000C for a prolonged
time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation).

 This promotes decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in

the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix (slow and
fast cooling respectively).
 Microstructure is similar to ductile iron but with a relatively high strength and
appreciable ductility or malleability.

 Typical applications: Connecting rods, transmission gears, differential cases for

automotive industry, flanges, pipe fittings, valve parts for railroad, marine and
heavy-duty services.

 It is produced by the main processes of: Black-heart process, White-heart process

or Pearlitic process:
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 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable cast iron: Applications

Connecting rods Transmission
gears

Pipe fittings Flange

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 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable cast iron: The three processes for producing malleable iron

 Black-heart process:

 White iron castings are heated in air-tight boxes out of contact with air at a
temperature of 850-9500C for 50-170 hours.

 The duration depends on the mass and thickness of the casting.

 This heating causes the cementite to break down into small flowers of free
graphite in a structure of ferrite and fine carbon- particles.

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 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable cast iron: The three processes for producing malleable iron

 White-heart process:

 Castings to be packed in airtight boxes with iron oxide in the form of high
grade ore.

 Then heated to a temperature of about 10000C and soaked for 70-100 hours
depending on their mass and thickness.

 The iron ore oxidizes the carbon in the casting and draws it out forming a
ferritic structure near the surface and a tough pearlitic structure near the
center of the casting.

 This process behave like mild steel castings and also have added advantages
of lower melting point and higher fluidity.

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 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable cast iron: The three processes for producing malleable iron

 Pearlitic process:

 It is similar to black-heart process but the cooling is rapid.

 Rapid cooling prevents austenite changing to ferrite and graphite but lead to
pearlite formation.

 The formed Pearlitic cast iron is harder, tougher and has higher ultimate
tensile strength.

 The higher content of pearlite makes the material less ductile and less
malleable.

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 COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRON (CGI)

Compacted graphite iron (CGI):

 Like gray, ductile, and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite, which formation is
promoted by the presence of silicon.

 Si content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%, whereas C concentration is normally between
3.1 and 4.0 wt%.

 Microstructure:

 The graphite in CGI is worm-like (vermicular) shape (see Fig). This shape is a result of
complex chemistries on additions of Mg, Ce and other additives.

 The microstructure is intermediate between gray and nodular iron and some of the
graphite (less than 20%) may be as nodules.

 Sharp edges (characteristics of graphite flakes) should be avoided. The presence of

this feature leads to a reduction in fracture and fatigue resistance of the material.

 Mg and Ce are added but concentrations are lower than for ductile iron and depending
on heat treatment, the matrix can be pearlite and/or ferrite.

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 COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRON (CGI)

Compacted graphite iron (CGI):

 An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to enhancement of both

strength and ductility.

 CGI with ferrite matrix have lower strengths and higher ductility than those with with pearlitic
matrices.

 For property comparison with others;

 Tensile and yield strengths comparable to ductile and malleable irons.

 Ductilities are intermediate between values for gray and ductile irons.
 Modulus of elasticity range between 140 and 165 GPa.

 Compared to other cast iron types, desirable characteristics include:

 Higher thermal conductivity.
 Better thermal shock resistance (fracture resulting from temperature changes).
 Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures.

 Typical applications: diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings, break discs
for high speed trains and flywheels.

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 COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRON (CGI)

Compacted graphite iron (CGI):

For the sake of comparison with CGI

• Optical micrograph of grey cast iron: the

dark graphite flakes are embedded in an
α-ferrite matrix. 500X

• Optical micrograph of Nodular (ductile) iron:

the dark graphite nodules are surrounded
Optical micrograph of compacted graphite by an α-ferrite matrix. 200X.
iron: dark graphite worm like particles are
embedded within an α-ferrite matrix. 100X.
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 SUMMARY - TYPES

Summary, types of cast iron:

Type Graphite Ductility Treatment

White No No Fast cooling rates

Gray Flake No Slow cooling rates

Malleable Rosette Yes White iron + annealing

Ductile Nodular yes Additions of Mg and Ce

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 MICROSTRUCTURES

Microstructures from various heat treatments:

• Gf- Graphite flake

• Gr- Graphite rosettes

• Gn- Graphite nodules

• P- pearlite

• α ferrite

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 PROPERTY VS APPLICATION

Property, composition and typical applications:

Callister, Table 11.5)

 Designation, minimum mechanical properties, approximate composition, and

typical applications Gray and Ductile Irons.
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 PROPERTY VS APPLICATION

Property, composition and typical applications:

Callister, Table 11.5)

 Designation, minimum mechanical properties, approximate composition, and

typical applications Malleable, and Compacted Graphite Cast Iron.

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 ELEMENTS IN CAST IRON

Other selected elements in cast iron:

Manganese Phosphorous
• It combines with S to form a • Phosphorus lowers the melting point of
floating MnS which by cast irons and increases their fluidity
removing it softens cast iron which is desirable for producing thin
and removes the source of sections and ornamental castings.
embrittlement.
• But like sulfur, phosphorus also
• Manganese also refines the causes embrittlement and hardness.
grain structure and enhances
the strength of cast irons. • Its content should be carefully
controlled in castings where shock
resistance and strength are essential.

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 ELEMENTS IN CAST IRON

Other selected elements in cast iron:

Silicon Sulfur
• It helps in breaking down of cementite which is • The presence of sulfur in
hard. Therefore it helps to soften them by the cast iron, even in small
formation of flake graphite at the expense of quantities, causes
cementite. stabilization of cementite
and makes the metal hard
• Addition of Si to thin section castings prevents since the formation of soft
formation of thin hard sections. graphite flakes is prevented.

• Maximum amount of Si for this purpose is 3 % • It combines with iron to form

depending on the C content in the cast iron. FeS at the grain boundaries
Addition of higher quantities of Si will lead to causing embrittlement of
increase in hardness and brittleness. the castings.

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 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN CAST IRON

Effect of other alloying elements on cast iron:

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 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN CAST IRON

Effect of other alloying elements on cast iron:

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 WROUGHT IRON

Classification of ferrous metals:

Ferrous metals

Steel Cast iron Wrought iron

Low carbon steel Gray cast iron

Medium carbon steel White cast iron

High carbon steel Malleable cast iron

Alloy steel Nodular cast iron

Alloy cast iron

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 WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron:

 It is the nearest commercial material to pure iron.

 Contains only 0.03% carbon and up to 1.8% impurities, mainly slag inclusions.

 Bars of wrought iron can be readily forged to shape and joined by forge welding.

 The slag inclusions give it a fibrous structure which results in extreme toughness,
malleability and ductility when cold, improved corrosion resistance than mild steel.

 Its being used by early engineering projects and equipment because it was the
first malleable and ductile material before steel making had been developed.

 Nowadays, because of its low strength, it is no longer widely used for engineering
purposes.

 It is mainly used for decorative and architectural ironwork and is not typically
applicable in aircraft construction and for pressure-containing parts.

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Stainless Steel:

 Recently, aerospace manufacturers have started investigating alternatives to

aluminum, one of them being aerospace grade stainless steel.

 Distinguishing character of stainless steel – high amount of Cr, resistance to

corrosion.

 Four categories based on microstructure (austenitic, ferritic, duplex, martensitic,

and precipitation hardening )

 Austenitic stainless steel

 Contain austenite as primary microstructure which is a solid solution of

iron and carbon that comes into existence above the critical temperature
of 7230C.
 Excellent for high temperature application.
 70% of stainless steel are within this category.
 Contains 16% Cr and 6% Ni.
 None magnetic
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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Stainless Steel:

 Ferritic stainless steel:

 Only have Cr content between 10.5 to 18%.

 Average corrosion resistance and poor fabrication characteristics.
 Difficult to heat treat.
 Better engineering abilities than austenitic grades
 Magnetic

 Duplex stainless steel:

 A mixture of austenitic and ferritic stainless steel to generate unique

properties of both.
 High Cr and Low Ni concentration.
 High tensile strength and good weldability
 Good resistance to stress corrosion but not as much as ferritic grades.
 Tougher than ferritic grades but lower than that of austenitic grades.

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Stainless Steel:

 Martensitic stainless steel:

 Contains high carbon and lower chromium content.

 It is magnetic like ferritic steels.
 Poor weldability than other grades.
 Has higher hardenability and can be heat treated to improve properties.
 Lower corrosion resistance when compared with austenitic and ferritic
grades with the same chromium and alloy content.

 Precipitation hardening stainless steels

 Combination of properties of austenitic and martensitic properties.

 Hardening is achieved by adding one or more elements such as
aluminium, molybdenum, niobium, titanium, and copper.
 Capable of developing high tensile strength through heat treatment.
 Contains chromium and nickel as alloying elements.
 Used in high-speed applications such as turbine blades.

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Grades of Stainless Steel (AISI):

 200 Series: [Cr – Mn alloys]

 Austenitic grades that contain manganese.

 They are chromium manganese steels have a low nickel content (<5%).

 Properties: Higher tensile and yield strength; excellent impact resistance;

and toughness; and performs well at cryogenic temperatures
 Good weldability but lower than 300 series grades.
 Lower ductility than 300 series grades but better than 400 series
 Applications: Due to its low corrosion resistance, it is not recommended
in chemical environments.

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Grades of Stainless Steel (AISI):

 300 Series: [Cr – Ni alloys]

 Austenitic stainless steels with carbon, nickel, and molybdenum as

alloying elements.
 Addition of molybdenum improves corrosion resistance in acidic
environments while nickel improves ductility.
 Excellent weldability
 Very ductile
 Application: It has excellent resistance to both high and low temperature.
Due to its strength and resistance to extreme conditions, it can be used in
aircraft components like actuators, landing gear, and cockpit fasteners.

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Grades of Stainless Steel (AISI):

 400 Series: [Ferritic and Martensitic Cr alloys]

 Formed by ferritic and martensitic stainless steel.

 high chromium-manganese content with low nickel
 offer corrosion resistance with strength, wear-resistance, and high
oxidation properties
 Lower weldability than 300 series grades
 Poor resistance to low temperature.
 Good resistance to high temperature but poor to low temperature.
 Lower ductility than 300 series grades
 Application: It is used in components that require high strength and
resistance to wear, tear, and durability. It is used in fasteners, and heat
exchangers.

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Stainless steel commonly used in aerospace applications

 Required property

 Maintaining integrity of the structure.

 Roboust to withstand the service environment.
 Inert or corrosion resistant.

 Examples

 Fuel tanks – AISII 304, AISI 304L, AISI 321, AISI 316, AISI 316L)

 Exhaust components, high temperature engine and structural parts (AISI 309,
AISI 310).

 structural components (AISI 304, AISI 304L, AISI 430)

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 STAINLESS STEELS IN AEROSPACE APPLICATION

Stainless steel commonly used in aerospace applications

 Manufacturers of different types of aircraft such as jets, helicopters, airplanes,

gliders, and the like have been time and again using stainless steel parts to create
fully functioning aircraft systems.

 Application areas:

 Actuators – minimized wear and tear

 Landing gear components: The necessary strength and

resistance to loads due to the weight of the aircraft body.

 Aircraft control rods: Withstand high level of corrosion as

they are exposed to moisture, condensation, and high
temperatures.

 Exhaust components: Withstand high temperatures up to

9000C.

 Cockpit fasteners: Securing the cockpit area in changing

pressure

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 STAINLESS STEEL VS ALUMINUM

Stainless steel Vs Aluminum

Mechanical Property Aluminum 304 Stainless 316 Stainless

Steel Steel
Ultimate Tensile Strength 310 MPa 505 MPa 580 MPa
Weight 2.7 g/cm3 8 g/cm3 8 g/cm3
Shear Modulus 26 GPa 86 GPa 82 GPa
Melting Point 582-652˚C 1,400-1,455˚C 1,370-1,400˚C

 Stainless steel alloys are heavier than aluminum, they also have a higher
tensile strength, shear modulus, and melting point than aluminum does.

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 STAINLESS STEEL VS ALUMINUM

Stainless steel Vs Aluminum

 Specific applications where aerospace grade stainless steel may surpass

aluminum in performance: Engine and exhaust components; landing gear
components; and key superstructure joints.

 Engine and Exhaust Components.

 The corrosion resistance and higher temperature tolerance of stainless steel

aerospace components can lead to better useful life and performance.

 Landing Gear Components.

 The high tensile strength and shear modulus of stainless steel makes it far more
suitable for absorbing the impact stresses that landing gear equipment must
endure.

 Key superstructure Joints.

 Aerospace stainless steel can be used in key joints in an aircraft’s superstructure

to improve durability and reduce the risk of failure during flight.
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 CONCLUSION

Conclusion:

 An effective way of reducing the structural mass of aircraft is using light-weight materials
(together with optimized design).

 A reduction in material density is often more effective at reducing aircraft weight than using
stiffer or stronger materials of higher weight.

 Durability of materials in the aviation environment (e.g. heat, rain, humidity, erosive particles)
is a key consideration in materials selection.

 Materials must be resistant to deterioration when used in service: metals must resist
corrosion and oxidation; composites must be unaffected by moisture; and metals and
composites must resist wear and erosion.

 The environmental impact of using material is becoming an increasingly important

consideration in materials selection.

 Sustainable materials obtained from renewal resources and which have minimal impact on
the environment during their production and recycling are considered favorably.

ETAU ETHIOPIAN AIRLINES AVIATION UNIVERSITY 101

 REFERENCES

Text books

1. William D. Callister, “Material Science and Engineering” – An introduction, 7th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. Module 6 B1-Hardware and Materials for Aviation Maintenance Technician Certification Series ( EASA)

Reference books

1. Airframe and Power plant Mechanics. Airframe Handbook. US Department of Transportation. Federal
Aviation Administration.
2. Baker, Alan; Dutton, Stuart; Kelly, Donald, Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures, Second Edition,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Year: 2004
3. D. R. Askeland, Pradeep, P. Fulay, Wendelin J. Wright, “The Science and Engineering of Materials”, Sixth
Edition, 2011
4. Flinn and Paul K. Trojan, “Engineering Materials and their applications”,
5. Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, and David Cebon, Materials: “Engineering, Science, Processing and
Design”, Mar 30, 2007
6. Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, and David Cebon, Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design,
Mar 30, 2007
7. Micheal F Ashby, David R. H. Jones, “Engineering Materials 1, 2”, 2nd edition, Butterworth
8. Ron Sterkenburg, Peng Hao Wang. Standard Aircraft Handbook for Mechanics and Technicians. Eight
editions, Mc GrawHill
9. Veron John, “Introduction to Engineering Materials,” 3rd Edition, Macmillan
10. William D. Callister, “Material Science and Engineering” – An introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
11. William D. Callister, David G. Rethwisch, Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. 2015

ETAU ETHIOPIAN AIRLINES AVIATION UNIVERSITY 102