ENGINEERING SURVEY-

Engineering survey involved those activities carry out in the planning and execution of surveys for
the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of civil and other engineering
projects.
It falls under the field of large scale engineering surveys e.g. of engineering surveys are: surveys for
design and location of roads, railways, pipelines, power lines. Micro wave, telephone routes,
bridges, dams, and irrigation works etc.
Moreover, surveying is basic to engineering. Before any engineering work begins there is need for a
prepared plan or map of the area showing the topographical details which involve the horizontal and
vertical measurements.
Stages in engineering survey controls and presentation of data
1) Preliminary investigation surveys- this refers to the collection of data b y the proper
means in order to provide the based map on which the design is carried out his is usually
in a format of a topo. Map.
2) Setting out of the design on the ground and relevant measurements to support the
compliance with the design.
3) Monitoring of construction project.
Engineering survey or common known as construction surveying is sub divided into two classes
namely
a) Route surveying
____________________________________________________________________________

Transmission pipeline railway high ways road canal

b) Constructional project or schemes
___________________________________________________________________

Buildings airport dams sewers culverts bridges

a) Feasibility studies –race.

b) Design and estimation of engineering survey- this has o do with the estimation of the
engineering works, calculation of areas and volumes to be used, to estimate the
volume of the earth required o fill or cut away the proposed site.
c) Setting out of construction- this refers to the reverse surveying i.e. the transferring of
what the design contains on the paper to the actual positions on the ground surfaces.
 Examples of setting out curves of various tangent e.g. simple curves, spiral curve,
compound curve etc.
Curve
____________________________________
Horizontal curve vertical curve
__________________________________________________
Circular curve transition curve combined curve
___________________ _____________________________________
Simple compound reverse cubic parabola clothoid cubical spiral lemniscates

d) Maintenance/ As-Built surveys- here monitoring of occurrence of things like

earthquake or landslide. Therefore, the engineering survey is made up hose operations
required in route location and construction schemes. Land utilization like buildings,
cultivation, rivers etc. therefore, tentative alignments fixed and drawn in the office
which further helps in conducting various surveys in systematic manner. The contour
maps help the engineer for fixing of gradients within the ruling gradients by providing
a suitable length of line within two contours. The proper location of the actual survey
work is known as a result of this map study.
The former includes: cross country utilities such as highways, railways, pipelines, transmission lines
and canals. Whereas the latter are surveys for the construction of sewers, tunnels, bridges. Culverts,
buildings, sites, dams, etc. (As- Built survey is a survey carried out during or immediately after a
construction project for record, completion, evaluation and payment purpose). In each cases, the
feasibility studies of each project is necessary in order to determine the extent of work involved and
the amount of labour required (logistics). It is fundamentally essential for the planning and
execution of any engineering project.
Survey could be made for the purposes of maintaining an existing structure. This includes survey
made at and interval for the purposes of monitoring the stability of a very tall building; usually such
surveys are referred to as maintenance / as –built surveys.
Route alignment:
Normally from the initial stage to the final stage of any construction, there are four (4) stages of
surveys required to be conducted. The following should be carefully conduced to fix the good
alignment. These are:
a) Traffic survey
b) Reconnaissance survey
c) Preliminary survey
d) Detail survey
Before the actual work of survey begins study of available maps of these are should be made as
possible. This study helps in drawing the various suitable alignments on the available maps to
facilitate easy reconnaissance. These maps show the contours, topographical features and land
utilization like building, cultivation, rivers etc. therefore, tentative alignments fixed and drawn in
the office which further helps in conducting various surveys in systematic manner. The contour
maps help the engineer for fixing of gradients within the ruling gradient by providing a suitable
length of line within two contours the proper location of the actual survey work as known as a result
of this map study.
TRAFFIC SURVEY-
This is restricted to the accurate determination of the potential of available traffic when a new line is
proposed either a branch line or completely a new system it is essential to have sufficient traffic for
economic justification and ensure reasonable return on the large investment likely to be involved.
Traffic at present, traffic in an immediately future both passengers and good traffic should be
considered for conducting the traffic surrey, the following factors are considered:
a) Census of population with reference to prosperity of the people, the locality, their
density and distribution.
b) General resources of population which include agricultural and industrial goods. The
nature and weight of different commodities should be correctly surveyed.
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY (RECONNOITRE)
Before, starting the actual survey work, a reconnaissance survey is conducted along the tentative
alignments to select the most suitable alignment. The following should be noted during this process:
 (i) Acquire the knowledge of physical features of the country like the rivers, valleys,
cultivated canals, forests, hills, existing roads, canals etc. for proper position of the
alignment.
(ii) To decide the maximum gradients and curvature for proposed alignment.
(iii) To prepare rough estimates for different proposed alignments to know most
economical safe and efficient alignment.
The instruments involved for conducting the recce. survey:
(i) A prismatic compass: this is mainly used for obtaining the magnetic bearings of the
proposed route.
(ii) Abney level ( or hand level or clinometers)- this is used for the determination of he
gradients or slope angles of the ground up to an accuracy of 10minutes
(iii) A pedometer- this is use in order to get the rough idea of the distance.
PRELIMINARY SURVEY (INITIAL LOCATION SURVEY)
After reconnaissance survey, a suitable alignment or alignments are selected for preliminary
location survey for detailed investigation to obtain the most economic alignment. The preliminary
survey is done in the following way:
a) First of all, a traverse survey in a belt of about 100m to 150m width or either side of the
centre line with a transit instrument is carried out.
b) A tacheometer is used for plotting the main features; chain prismatic compass and leveling.
Instruments are used for fixing details.
c) Final drawings and details are prepared for each alignment with respect to the following
information.
(i) Length of alternative route
(ii) Various possible gradients
(iii) Quantity of earthwork
(iv) Maximum heights and lengths of embankment and cuttings.
(v) Characteristics of rivers to be crossed
(vi) Geological information like soil types, rocks and slips, if any
(vii) Details of existing bridges, tunnel and culverts.
(viii) Details of canal crossing, if any
 d) At the end, a comparative study of various results is made with relative merits and demerits.
The route, which is most economical and best from all considerations of an ideal alignment,
is selected and plotted on the map. The instrument used for the execution of the preliminary
survey are:
(i) Theodolite for traversing
(ii) A tacheometer for plotting main features
(iii) A dumpy level for drawing the longitudinal sections and cross-sections.
(iv) Plane-table-for interior details
(v) A prismatic compass- for magnetic bearing of roués and main points. The
choice of survey instruments will largely depend upon the character of county.
DETAILED SURVEY (FINAL LOCATION SURVEY)
The most economical alignment is selected by analyzing the merits, demerits, cost of construction
etc. for the proposed alignments after preliminary location survey. Before the approval of the project
is obtained from the higher authorities, the final location survey is completed in all respects. The
following steps are taken for final location survey.
1. The centre line is marked by stout pegs or pillars at intervals of 30m
2. The total land width required is marked by pillars a regular intervals l( of say , 30m)
3. The tangent point and intersection points of the curves are properly marked by pillars.
4. A final record is prepared of properties eligible le for compensation.
Instruments used for final location survey are:-
(i) A theodolite
(ii) A precise level or dumpy level
(iii) A steel tape
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROUTE
The term “route surveying” is used in a very general sense it can be applied to the surveys required
to establish the horizontal and vertical alignment for transportation facilities. In most cases, the
transpirations facilities are assumed to comprise a network that includes the transport of people or
goods on or by way of highways, railways, rapid transit guide ways canals, pipelines and
transmission lines.
In highways, railways, canals and pipelines location, the horizontal curves employed at points of
change in direction are arcs of circle. The straight lines connecting these circular curves are tangent
to them and are therefore, called tangents.
In construction surveying curves have to be set out in the ground for a variety of purposes. A curve
may form the major part of a road way, it may form a kerb line at a junction or may be the shape of
an ornamental rose bed in a town centre. Obviously different techniques would be required in the
setting outs of the curves mentioned above but in all of them a few geometrical theorems are
fundamental and it is wise to begin the study of curves.
DESIGNATION OF CURVE-
The sharpness of the curve is designated either by its radius or by its degrees of curvature. The
former system is adopted in Great Britain while the latter system is used in America, Canada, India
and some other countries.
The degree of curvature has several slightly different definitions. According to the arc definition
generally used in highway practice, the degree of the curve is defined as the central angle of the
curve that is subtended by an arc of 100ft length. According o the chord definition generally used in
railway practice, the degree of the curve is defined as the central angle of the curve that is subtended
by its chord of 100ft length.
The relation between the radius ® and degree of the curve (D) can easily be derived with reference
to fig 3.1
P Q P Q

O O
(a) Arc definition (b) chord definition
ARC DEFINITION-
From familiar proportion (fig 3.1(a), we have

100 𝐷 360 100 5729.598

2π𝑅
= 360
R= 𝐷
× 2π
= 𝐷
ft

Thus, radius of 1 curve is 5729.578ft.

CHORD DEFINITION-
from triangle POC [fig1.3 (b)]

1 50 50
sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 2
= 𝑅
R= 1
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 2

1 1
When D is small, sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 2
may be taken approximately equal to D 2 radians

50 50 360 5729.578
R= 𝐷 π where D is in degrees 𝐷
× π
= 𝐷
2
× 180

It will be seen that for smaller valves of D, both equation are the same.
METRIC DEGREE OF CURVE
In metric system, toe definitions for the “degree of curve” are in use:
⮚ Angle at the centre subtended by and arc ( or (chord) of 20meres
⮚ Angle at the centre subtended by and arc (or chord) of 10meres.
If 20meres arc (or chord) length is the basis for the degree of the curve, we get.

20 𝐷 20 1145.92
2π𝑅
= 360
from which R= 2π𝑅 360 = 𝐷
metres
𝐷

If the definition is based on 10m arc length we have

10 𝐷 10×360 572.958
2π𝑅
= 360
from which R= 2π𝐷
= 𝐷
metres

ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE CURVE

(P.I) V

(P.C) 𝑇1 𝑇2 (P.T)

A R R B

O Fig 3.2
Considered fig 3.2
⮚ Length of the curve (l):
 π𝑅
L=𝑇1c𝑇2=RD where D is in radians = 180𝐷 ------------------------- (i)

Where D, is in degrees
If the curve is designated by is degree of curvature the length of the curve will depend upon
the criteria used for the definition of the degree of the curve.
A. Arc definition: length of arc =100ft.
Since any two central angles of the same circle are proportional to the corresponding intercepted arc
(or chords), we have
∆ 𝑙
𝐷
= 100 ------------------------------------ (iia)

Or
B. Arc definition: length of arc =20m

2∆
l= 𝐷
metres ------------------------------ (iib)

C. Tangent length (T)

𝐷
Tangent length, T=𝑇1V=V𝑇2=O𝑇1 tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2

𝐷
T= Rtan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
--------------------------------- (iii)

D. Curve length (T)

L = RD
π𝐷°𝑅
L= 180
----------------------------------- (iv)

E. Length of the long chord (L)

⮚ Tangent points 𝑇1and 𝑇2 are marked
π𝐷°𝑅
⮚ The length of the cure is calculated according to the formula: CL = 180

⮚ The chainages of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are found out.

𝐷
⮚ The length of the long chord (L) is calculate from: L= 2Rsin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

⮚ The long chord is divided into equal halves of the (left haft and the right half). Here the
curve is symmetrical in both the halves.
⮚ The mid-ordinate 𝑂𝑜 is calculated as follows:
𝐷
● 𝑂𝑜=DE=versed sin of curve = R(1- cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
) ------- (1)
 ● Again OF = R and OD = R-𝑂𝑜 from triangle O𝑇1D,
2 2 2
O𝑇1 = O𝐷 +𝑇2𝐷

2 2 𝐿2
Or 𝑅 = (𝑅 − 𝑂𝑜) + ( 2 )

2 𝐿 2
Or R-Oo= 𝑅 −(2)

2 𝐿 2
Or Oo=R− 𝑅 − ( 2 ) ----------------------------- (11)

Thus, the mid-ordinate Oo can be calculated from equ. (1) or (2)

Considering the left half of the long chord, the ordinates O1, O2, ----- are calculated a distances x1,
x2------- taken from D towards the tangent point T1. The formula for the calculation of ordinates is
deduced as follows:
Let P be a point at a distance x from D. then PP1 (Ox) is the required ordinate. A line P1 P2 is
drawn parallel to T1 T2. From triangle OP1 P2

OP12= OP22 P1P22

Or R2= [(R-Oo) Ox]2 x2 where, OP2= [(R-Oo) Ox]

2 2
Or R Oo Ox = 𝑅 −𝑥

2 2
Or O = 𝑅 − 𝑥 − (𝑅 − 𝑂𝑜)

The ordinates for the right half are similar to these obtained for the left half.

FIELD PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING ORDINATES BY LONG CHORD METHOD

1) Let AB and BC be two tangents meeting at a point B, with deflection angle ( refer to

fig3.4)
B
 P4 P3 P2 P1 E
T1 T2
A 4 3 2 1 m C
fig3.4

2) The tangent length is calculated from the usual formula, and points T1 and T2 are marked on
the ground with pegs.
3) The length of the long chord, T1 T2, is calculated from the usual formula. The long chord is
bisected at point M. the curve will be symmetrical on both sides of M.
4) The ordinates are calculated for the left haft at some regular intervals points, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
marked with pegs along the long chord as shown in fig3.4.
5) Ordinates O1, O2, O3 and O4 are calculated from the usual formula
6) Perpendiculars are set out at points 1, 2, 3 and 4. The calculated ordinates O1,O2,O3 and O4
identified along these perpendiculars and pints P1,P2 P3 and P4 are marked with pegs.
7) In the right let point 1’ 2’ 3’ and 4’ are marked who pegs and the corresponding ordinate
(obtained for the left haft) are set out to mark with points P’1, P2’ P3’ and P4’.
8) All these points P1, P2----- and P1’ P2’------- are on the curve. These points are joined by rope or
thread to show the shape of the cure along the alignment (centerline) o the project.

INSTRUMENT METHOD- RANKINE’S METHOD OF TANGENTIAL (OR

DEFLECTION) ANGLES
A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle at P.C between the back tangent and the
chord from P.C to that point. Rankine’s method is based on the principle that the deflection angle to
any point on a circular curve is measured by one-haft the angle subtended by the arc from P.C to
that point. It is assumed that the length of the arc is approximately equal to its chord.

Let AB and BC be two tangents intersecting at B, the deflection angle being (fig3.5). The

tangent length is calculated and tangent points T1 and T2 are marked.

 B

T1 T2
A R R C

2∂ T1 P2 =l2 P1 P2=l2

O Fig3.5
Let P1 = first point on the curve
T1 P2 = l1 length of the first chord (initial sub- chord)
∂1= deflection angle for first chord
R= radius of the curve

n =Total deflection for the chords.

Here, T1OP1=2 ×<BT1 P1=2∂1

Again chord T1P1 arc T1P1

𝑇1𝑂𝑃1 360
°
Now < 𝑙1
= 2π𝑅

° °
360 ×𝑙1 360 ×𝑙1
2∂1 or ∂1 degree
2π𝑅 2×2π𝑅

° °
360 ×60 ×𝑙1
Or ∂1 mins
2×2π𝑅

1,718.9×𝑙1
= 𝑅
mins.
1,718.9×𝑙2
Similarly, ∂2= 𝑅
mins
1,718.9×𝑙3
∂3= 𝑅
mins
1,718.9×𝑙𝑛
Finally, ∂𝑛= 𝑅
mins

Again, when degree of curve is given

 ∆×𝑙1
∂1= 60
degrees
∆×𝑙2
∂2= 60
degrees and so on,
∆×𝑙𝑛
Finally, ∂𝑛= 60
degrees,
∆
Arithmetical check: ∂1 + ∂2 + ∂3± −−−−−−+ ∂𝑛 = ∆𝑛 = 2

STEPS: TO REMEMBER FOR CALCULATING DATA.

1) Tangent length
2) Curve length
3) Chainage of first tangent point
4) Chainage of second tangent point
5) Initial sub-chord
6) Number of full chords
7) Final sub chord
8) Deflection angle or initial sub-chord
9) Deflection angle for full chord.
10) Deflection angle for final sub-chord
11) Arithmetical check
12) Data for field check
13) Setting out table.
PROBLEM 1
Two tangents AB and BC intersect at a point B at change 150.50m. Calculate all the necessary data

for setting out a circular curve of radius 100m and deflection angle 30 by the method of offsets

from the long chord.

PROBLEM 2

Two tangents intersect at change 1,250m. The angle of intersection is 150 . Calculate all data

necessary for setting out a curve of radius 250m by the deflection angle method. The peg intervals
may be taken as 20m. Prepare a setting out table when the least count of the vernier is 20 .

Calculate the data for field checking.

PROBLEM 3

Two straight roads meet at a deviation angle of 52 30’. If the roads: are to be connected by

circular curve of radius 1500m. Find

a) Tangent distance
b) Length of curve
c) Chainage a the beginning of curve
d) Change at the end of curve. If the chainage of the intersection point is 6344.5m.
Problem 4

The chainage of the intersection point of two strength is 64 93.72 and the intersection angles is 12

48’ 20’’. They are to be joined by a right hand 10 curve. Calculate the data required o set out

the curve by deflection angles in 20m chords, for both steel tape and EDM.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN SETTING OUT CURVE.
1. Intersection point inaccessible
2. Obstruction on the curve
3. Tangent point inaccessible
4. Approximate methods of setting out curve.
WHEN- THE POINT OF INTERSECTION IS INACCESSIBLE
When the point of intersection is inaccessible, a line is run (or traverse if necessary) to connect the
two tangents. In fig 3.6, two points D and E are established on the strengths YX, ZX. If D and E are
intervisible the angle YDE, DEZ and the distance DE are measured. The angle of the triangle XDE
can be calculated, and the sizes of XD and XE are deduced as well. The intersection angle D can be
found likewise. The tangents point can then be established by setting out from D and E respectively.
It the intervisibility position can’t be found for D and E, and then a traverse is run between them
using DY as the initial orientation and closing in the deflection on E
 X

D E
A B
Y Z
O fig 3.6

PROBLEM 5

Two straights of a highway are to be connected by a simple circular curve of 22 . It was found that

the intersection point of these straight is inaccessible and hence the establishment of an auxiliary

angles a U and V of length 289.56m. If the measured auxiliary angles at U and V are 162 50’ 37’’

and 164 53’ 05’’ respectively, and the chainage of U is 2118.18m. Compute the setting out

deflection angles for a left to right setting out using 20m chords through chainage basis.
OBSTRUCTION ON THE CURVE
When the obstruction is on the curve, first and foremost set it as far as possible from the first
tangent point A, an obvious recourse is to set out the remainder of the curves from the second
tangent point. If this is not convenient, the first visible point after the obstruction (e.g. P4 in fig 3.7)
is fixed from A by turning off the deflection angle δ1 + 3δ from AX and setting out the chord

distance.
1
AP4 = 2R sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
(δ1 + 3δ)

A B
 O fig 3.7
The theodolite is moved to P4 set up, sighted on A and transited. Turning the telescope through a
horizontal angle of δ1 + 3δ gives the direction of the tangent at P4 and the remaining points on

the curves, both before and after P4 can be set out from this direction.
TANGENT POINT INACCESSIBLE
When the tangent point is inaccessible the first point is carried round or over the obstruction by
triangulation or traversing, points D and F are fixed on the straights as shown in fig 3.8. The
chainage of A and B are calculated in the usual way and the distance AF. The lengths of the sub
chords are calculated and the curve is set out from B
X
G
A H B

D R R
O fig3.8

APPROXIMATE METHODS OF SETTING OUT CURVE

This is a method of setting out curves without a theodolite. But in general, low accuracy makes it
suitable only for curves of small radius. The first requirement gives the intersection point of the
straights X, to find the tangent point A and B. in the illustration D and E are two point established
on the straights AX; and BX, equidistant from X and the distance DE is measured. C is the
mid-point of DE.
 X

T
D C E
A B

∆ ∆
R 2 2
R

O fig 3.9

1
In fig 3.9 CD = 2
DE
2 2 𝑇 𝑋𝐴 𝑋𝐶 ∆ 𝑅 × 𝑋𝐶
XC = [(𝑋𝐷) − (𝑋𝐷) ]1/2 and 𝑅
= 𝐴𝑂
= 𝐶𝐷
= tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
, Then T = 𝐶𝐷

ASSIGNMENT
1. Distinguish between longitudinal section and cross sections
2. Discuss the term “sectioning” and its requirements.

3. The centre line of two straight of a line is found to intersect at X with a deflection angle of 27

59’ 24’’ If the straights are to be connected with a circular curve of 18. Tabulate all the setting
out data, assuming 25m chords through a chainage basis. The chainage of X being 6259.59m
and setting out would be done using tangential angle and tape only.

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTIONS

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SECTIONING-
Survey lines related to any proposed constructions are set on the ground, the positions of the straight
and curved lengths, if any being marked by pegs are place by the surveyor.
SECTIONING:
In the other hand consists of the surveying of the variations in height of the ground along any such
line so that they may be represented to scale on a drawing.
SURVEY INFORMATION REQUIRED-
In order to plot the variations in ground height along the line of” sectioning” two classes of
measurement must be made.
a) Levels must be taken along the line so that the changes in height can be recorded.
b) Horizontal measurements must be obtained along the line in order to define the relative
positions of the points at which the levels were observed.
PROFILE OR LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS
In engineering surveying, a longitudinal section (or profile) is taken along the complete length of
the proposed centre of the construction showing the existing ground level. Leveling can be used to
measure height of points on the centre line so that the profile can be plotted.
Generally, this type of section provides data for determine the most economic formation level, i.e.
the level to which existing ground is formed by construction methods. It supplies details at any
point along the section of the amount of cut i.e. the depth of excavation of the amount of fill i.e. the
height to which the ground must be raised, to suit the new formation level. Record of places where
neither cut nor fill occurs, these are the points at which the formation level intersect the existing
ground level (for the method of calculating these point)
Leveling must commenced from an established bench-mark and then, by means of backsights and
foresights only, sometimes called flying levels, extends to final foresights on to a firm peg marking
the start of the section. The level is then set up in a suitable position from which observations may
be made on to a great part of the sections line as possible.
To known the nature of the ground surface the profile leveling is done along the centre of the road at
some regular intervals ( say 20m, 30m e.t.c.. if required, staff readings may also be taken at point of
importance where the slope of the group suddenly change.
Suppose AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, and FG is the directions of the centre of the road. The instrument is
set up at a convenient position P such that a bench mark BM may be observed. BM’S are points of
known elevation above ordnance survey. The first reading was made with the staff on a point of
known reduced level, known as a backsight (BS), and this term will now be used to denote that
reading taken immediately after setting up the instrument, with the staff on a point of known level.
The staff is now held at A, B, and C in turn and readings taken are known as intermediate sights.
 The last reading on D is then known as a foresight (F.S) and is the final reading taken before
moving the instrument. NB the leveling instrument is placed at suitable positions (say l1, l2, l3 -----)
and after temporary adjustments, the staff readings are taken. The records of the profile leveling are
entered as follows;
Stn Ch Bearings Readings Rise Fall RL Remarks
FB BB BB IS FS + − 98.76 AOD

A 0 AB=90 45
20
40

60
80
B 100 BC=130 45 BA=270 45
120

PLOTTING OF PROFILE (LONGITUDINAL SECTION)

Before plotting the profile, two scales are assumed. One is the horizontal scale which is normally of
1:1000 or 1:2000 and the second is vertical scale which is of either 1:00 or 1:200. A horizontal line
is drawn as the datum line. The chainage are marked along the line according to the horizontal
scale. The perpendicular lines are drawn at each of the chainage points. The reduced level of the
datum line is assumed in such a way that the ground surface can be shown above datum. Now he
vertical distances (RL of GL- RL of datum) are plotted along the vertical scale. The plotting points
are joined to obtain the outline of the ground surface. The formation line is to be drawn in red ink.

WORKING PROFILE
Is the original profile or longitudinal section with the position of the new work levels shown on it,
their relation is to the existing ground level and any other information which may be needed during
the construction.
CROSS SECTIONAL LEVELING
Where profile leveling is in progress, cross sectional leveling should also be done as well. The cross
sections are taken perpendicular to the centre line of alignment at some regular intervals (say 20m,
40m, e.t.c). The main purpose of this is to know the undulations of the ground surface traverse to
the centre of the road. The length of cross section depends upon the nature of the work.
Generally, this type of section provides the most suitable and economic levels to which the ground
is to be worked in the traverse direction e.g. at right angle to its length. It also provides details for
deducing the position, height and slope of any necessary embankments. Finally: the earthwork
quantities for costing purposes and the suitable provision of earth moving plant.
The levels are taken at an interval of 5m on each side; additional readings may be taken if the nature
of the ground surface suddenly changes. The staff readings at a cross section are entered as follows.
Distances BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks
Left centre Right
0 0.760 100
5 1.875 1.115 98.885 R1
10 2.360 0.485 98.400 R2
15 0.985 1.375 99.775 R3
20 0.375 0.610 100.385 R4
5 2.015 1.640 98.745 L1
10 1.550 0.465 99.210 L2
15 0.790 0.760 99.970 L3
20 1.525 0.735 99.235 L4
Summation : 0.760 0.525 3.210 3.975

Checked: 0.760 - 1.525 = 3.210 - 3.975 = 99.735 – 100

- 0.765 = - 0.765 = - 0.765

METHODS OF CROSS SECTION

The field is similar to that of the longitudinal sections. They are usually observed using the
following equipments;
a) A level, ape and staff
b) A theodolite, tape and staff
 c) A hand level, tape and staff or ranging rod
d) A clinometers, tape and ranging rod.
PLOTTING OF CROSS SECTION
The cross sections are also plotted in the same manner as the longitudinal sections, but in this case
the horizontal and vertical scales are slightly different. The horizontal and vertical scales are
commonly adopted as 1:400 and 1:100 respectively, or in some other cases the two scales are the
same.
It is preferable to plot both horizontal and vertical on the same scale as to avoid vertical
exaggeration for this, is more convenient for showing new work and volume calculations.
WORKING PROFILE
On the prepared longitudinal section the formation level of the road is marked in such a way that
cutting and baking may be equalized. Then the finished surface is marked. This is known as the
working profile. The formation levels are calculated as follows.
Suppose a formation of falling gradient is 1 in 70 has been adopted.
Solution
20
The falling per 20m = 70
= 0.290m

If the formation level at change 0m = 282.00m

Then formation level a change 20m = 282.00 – 0.290 = 281.7m
Formation level at chainage 40m = 281.71 – 0.290 = 281.42m
Formation level at chainage 60m = 281.42 – 0.290 = 281.13m and so on.

AREA COMPUTATION

The term ‘area’ in the context of surveying refers to the area of a tract of land projected upon the
horizontal plane, and no to the actual area of the land surface.The following is a hierarchical
representation of the various methods of computation of area.

Area

a. Graphical method b. instrument method

 From field note from plotted plan

Entire area boundary area

Mid-ordinate average ordinate rule trapezoidal rule Simpson’s rule

THE MID-ORDINATE RULE

Consider fig 5.1

O1 h1 O2 h2 O3 h3 O4 h4 O5 h5 O6

fig 5.1

Let O1 , O2 , O3, -------------- On = ordinates at equal intervals

l= length of the base

Area of plot = h1 d h2 d -------- hn d

= d (h1 h2 -------- hn) ------------ (5.1) I.e. area = common distance

sum of mid – ordinate

THE AVERAGE- ORDINATE RULE

Consider fig 5.2

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5

Fig 5.2

Let O1, O2, O3, -------------- On = ordinates or offsets at regular intervals

l= length of base line

n= number of divisions

n 1 = number of ordinates

𝑂1 +𝑂2 +−−−−−−−−−−−−−− + 𝑂𝑛
Area = 𝑂𝑛 +1
l ------------- 5.2
 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
I.e. are = 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
length of base line.

THE TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

While applying the trapezoidal rule, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be
straight. This the area enclosed between the baseline and the irregular boundary line are considered
as trapezoids

Consider 5.13

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5

d fig 5.3

Let O1, O2 , O3, -------------- On = ordinates at equal intervals

d= common distance

𝑂1 +𝑂2 𝑂2 +𝑂3
1st area = 2
d, 2nd area = 2
d

𝑂3 +𝑂4 𝑂𝑛−1 +𝑂𝑛

3rd area = 2
d, Last area = 2
d
 𝑑
Total area = 2
{O1, 2O1 , 2O2 , ---------------- 2On-1, On} ------- (5.3) =

𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
2
{(1st ordinate last ordinate 2(sum of other ordinate )}

Thus, the trapezoidal rule may be stated as follows: to the sum of the first and the last ordinate,
twice the sum of intermediate ordinate is added. This total sum is multiplied by the common
distance. Half of this product is the required area. Area is equal to product of the common interval d
and sum of intermediate ordinates plus average of the first and last ordinate. If the intervals are not
equal the area of the trapezium has to be computed separately and added together.

LIMITATION: there is no limitation for this rule. This rule can be applied for any number of
ordinates.

SIMPSON’S RULE
In this rule, the boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to form an arc of a parabola.
Hence Simpson’s rule is sometimes called the parabolic rule. Refer to fig 5.4 Let O1, O2, O3 = three
consecutive ordinates, d = common distance between the ordinate
f e d

F E D
O1 O2 O3
A d B d C
fig 5.4

Area AFeDC = area of trapezium AFDC area of segment FeDEf

Here,
𝑂1 + 𝑂3
Area of trapezium = 2
2d

2
Area segment= 3
area of enclosing parallelogram FfdD

2
= 3
(2d) (Ee)

2 𝑂1 + 𝑂3
= 3
{O2 } 2d
2

So, the area between the first two divisions,

𝑂1 + 𝑂3 𝑂1 + 𝑂3
∆1= 2
2d 2 {O2 } 2d
3 2

𝑑 {O1 4O2 O3}

3

Similarly, the area between next two divisions,

𝑑
∆2= 3
{O3 4O4 O5} and so on.

𝑑
Total area = 3
{O1 4O2 2O3 4O4--------- On}
 𝑑 [(O1 On 4(O2 O4 --------) 2(O3 O5 ----)]
3

𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 {(1st ordinate last ordinate) 4(sum of even ordinates) 2(sum of

3

remaining odd ordinate)}

Thus, the rule may be stated as follow:
To the sum of the first and the last ordinate, four times the sum of even ordinates and twice the sum
of the remaining odd ordinates, are added. This total sum is multiplying by the common distance.
One third of this product is the required area.
Simpson’s rule, is applied only when it has an odd number of offsets and the interval
is constant. In simple case it cannot be applied when the number of offsets is even, and interval is
not the same.
This method gives greater accuracy than other methods.
LIMITATION: this rule is applicable only when the number division is even i.e. the number of
ordinates is odd.
SIMILARITY BETWEEN TRAPEZOID AND SIMPSON’S RULE
The trapezoid and Simpson’s rule may be compared in the following manner.
Trapezoid rule Simpson’s rule
1. The boundary between the ordinates The boundary between the ordinates is
is considered to be straight. considered to be an arc of a parabola.
2. There is no limitation. It can be To apply this rule, the number of ordinates must
applied for any number of ordinates. be odd. That is, the number of divisions must be
even.
3. It gives an approximate result. It gives a more accurate result.
NOTE: sometimes one, or both, of the end ordinates may be zero. However, they must be taken into
account while applying these rules.
WORK- OUT PROBLEMS
The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at an interval of
10m: 0, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 0m. Compute the area between the chain line, the irregular
boundary line and the end offsets by:
a. The mid ordinate rule
 b. The average ordinate rule
c. The trapezoid rule
d. Simpson’s rule.
The following offsets were taken from a chain line hedge
Distance 0 20 40 60 80 120 160 220 280
Offsets 9.4 10.8 13.6 11.2 9.6 8.4 7.5 6.3 4.6
Compute the area included between the chain, the hedge and the offset by (a) Simpson’s rule (b)
Trapezoidal rule
AREA FROM CO-ORDINATES
When offsets are taken at very irregular intervals, then the application of the trapezoid rule and
Simpson’s rule is very difficult. In such a case, the co-ordinate method is the best. In this method
independent coordinates of the points are used in the computation area.
PROCEDURE: from the given distance and offsets, a point is selected as the origin. The
coordinated of all other points are arranged with reference to the origin. (Fig 5.5)
A b c d e
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4
g f
x fig5.5
Taking g as the origin, the coordinates of all other points are arranged a follow
POINTS CO- ORDINATES
X Y
A 0 Y0
B X1 Y1
C X2 Y2
D X3 Y3
E X4 Y4
F X4 0
G 0 0
A 0 Y0
The co-ordinates are arranged in determinant form as follows.
a b c d e f g a
𝑌0 𝑌1 𝑌2 𝑌3 𝑌4 0 0 𝑌0
0 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑋4 𝑋4 0 0

Sum of product along the solid line,

ε𝑃= (y0 x1 y1 x2 ------------------------ O1, O)

Sum of the products along the dotted line,

ε𝑄= (0 y1 x1 y1 ------------------------ O, y0)

WORK OUT PROBLEM

The following perpendicular offsets were taken from a chain line to a hedge
Chainage (m) 0 5.5 12.7 25.5 40.5
Offsets (m) 5.25 6.50 4.75 5.20 44.20
Calculate the area between the chain line and the hedge by the coordinate method.
INSTRUMENTAL METHOD
The instrument used for computation of area from a plotted map is from planimeter. The area
obtained by plannimetr is more accurate than that obtained by the graphical method. There are
various types of plannimetter in use. These are:
❖ amblers polar plannimetter
❖ Roller plannimeter.
However, the amslar is the most commonly used now. The essential parts of the plannimeter are as
follows:
❖ Pole block or anchor
❖ Pole arm or anchor arm
❖ Racing arm
❖ The integrating unit or measuring unit
POINT TO BE REMEMBERED WHILE USING PLANNIMETER.
1) The map must be placed over a horizontal plane
2) The anchor point should preferably be kept outside the figure to avoid additive constant
3) The area of the figure should be measured twice from different starting points
 4) If the area is large, it should be divided into a number of sections. The area of each section
may be calculated separately by taking outside poles, and then added to obtain the total
area.
5) The initial reading may be set to zero for the sake of simplicity
6) The tracing point should be moved gently and exactly along the boundary line
7) The map should not be folded
8) The surface of the map should be smooth.

AREA: - BY GEOMETRICAL FORMULAE.

C

a b

B c A
𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐
Area = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) where s = 2

AREA FROM CO-ORDINATES

In this method independent co-ordinates of the points are used in the computation of area.
D (XD, YD)

A (XA, YA) ----------------------------- C (XC, YC)

B (XB, YB)
Co-ordinates method

To avoid negative sign, the sign O is chosen the most southerly and westerly point.
Total: area of the traverse.

1 𝑋𝐷 + 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐵 + 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐷 + 𝑋𝐴
A= 2
(XC XB) (YC YB) ( 2
) (YD YC ) ( 2
) ) (YA YB) ( 2
) (YB YA)

Or
2A= XA YB XB YC XC YD XD Y A XB YA XC YB XD YC XA YD = (XA YB XB YA )

(XB YC XC YB ) ( XC YD XD YC ) ( XD YA XA YD)

The above relation can be expressed as follows for easy remembrance.

YA XA
YB XB
YC XC
YD XD
YA XA
The co-ordinates can be also listed in the following form
𝑋𝐴 𝑋𝐵 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐷 𝑋𝐴
𝑌𝐴 𝑌𝐵 𝑌𝐶 𝑌𝐷 𝑌𝐴

The sum of products should be taken

COMPUTATION OF VOLUME
Surveyors are often required to compute volume of earth work either in cut or in fill when planning
a highway system. In this post we are going to discuss about various methods of volume calculation
that can be adopted to find earthwork quantities. For various civil engineering projects like road
work, irrigation canal project, tank survey, earth moving, etc, the calculation method used are
different. Some of these methods were introduced before the invention of computers and are still
being continued. This document discusses about the industry practices of various methods of
volume calculation so that the users can finally choose the right one for their project.
EARTHWORKS
Earthworks are engineering works created through the moving and/or processing of massive
quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earthwork is done to reconfigure the topography of a site to
achieve the design levels. Earthwork involves cutting and filling to achieve the required topography.
CUTTING
Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a work location to achieve the desired
topography
FILLING
Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to a work
location to achieve the desired topography.
APPLICATIONS OF EARTHWORK
Typically, earthwork is done in the following projects:
a) Road works
b) Railways
c) Irrigation project such as canals and dams
d) Other common earthwork applications are land grading to reconfigure the topography of a
site, or to stabilize slopes
There are basically three methods of volume computation
a) From cross-sections
b) From spot-height and
c) From contour lines
The excavation, removal and dumping of earth is a frequent operation in building or civil
engineering works.
In each of this case, payment must be made for the labour, plant etc. this is done on the basses of the
calculated velum of the material handed. It is therefore, essential for the engineer or surveyor to be
able to make a good estimate of volume of earthwork.
VOLUME FROM CROSS SECTIONS
In this method, cross sections are taken at right angles to some convenient line which runs
longitudinally through the earth work. It is probably used on long narrow works such as roads,
railways, canals, embankments; pipe excavation e.t.c. after the deduction of cross sectional area, the
volume of earthwork is calculated by
The trapezoidal (or average end area) rule, and
The prismoidal rule
NOTE
The prismoidal rule gives the correct volume directly
The trapezoidal rule does not give the correct volume. Prismoidal correction should be applied for
the purpose. The correction is always subtractive.
Cutting is denoted by a position sign and filling by a negative sign.
FORMULA FOR COMPUTATION OF VOLLUME
D = common distance between sections

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 An2 An1 An
D -----------------------------------------------
Fig 5.1
A) TRAPEZOIDAL RULE (AVERAGE END AREA RULE)
𝐷
Volume (cutting or filling), v = 2
{A1 + An + 2(A2 + A3+------- An-1)}
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
I.e. volume = 2
{area of 1st section + area of last section +2(sum of area of other

sections)}
B) PRISMOIDAL FORMULA
𝐷
Volume (cutting o filling), v = 3
{A1 + An + 4(A2 + A4+ An-1) + 2(A3 +A5 +------- An-2)}
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
I.e. volume = 3
{(area of 1st section + area of last section +4(sum of area of even

sections) + 2(sum of areas of odd sections)}

The prismoidal formula is applicable when there are an odd number of sections. If the number
section is even, the end strip is treated separately and the area is calculated according to the
trapezoidal rule. The volume of the remaining area is calculated in the usual manner by the
prismoidal formula. Then both the results are added to obtain the total volume.
VOLUME FROM CONTOUR LINE
Volume may be found from contours using either the end area or prismoidal methods. The areas of
the sections are the areas encompassed by the contours; the distance between the sections is the
contour interval.

100

V =volume of water, earth, tipped material etc. Between contour lines x and y
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴1
= 2
× D where D is the vertical interval.

WORK OUT EXAMPLE

The area within the underwater contour lines of a lake area as follows
Contour (m) AOD 190 188 186 184 182
Area (m2) 3150 2460 1630 840 210
Calculate the volume of water in the lake between the 182 and 190m contours.
VOLUME FROM SPOT HEIGHTS
This method is used for obtaining the volume of large deep excavations such s basements, borrow
pits, underground tanks and is on where the formation level can be sloping, horizontal or traced.
The volume canbe computed by taking levels of number of point along a grid. The difference
between the formation level and the existing level of the ground will give the height of fill or cut at
the corresponding point. The volume of any square says a, b, c, d.
a b f
d c e

Volume from spot level

Dv = average heights area of the square abcd

ℎ𝑎 +ℎ𝑏+ ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑑
= 4
× area of the square abcd

Similarly, volume of abcd

If the areas of the squares are all equal and is given by A, summation of volumes can be expressed
as
𝐴
V= 4
{εh1 + 2εh2 + 3εh3 + 4εh4}

Where εh1 = sum of depth used once

εh2 = sum of depth used twice
εh3 = sum of depth thrice
εh4 = sum of depth four times

ℎ𝑎 +ℎ𝑏+ ℎ𝑐
Dv = 3
A

If all the triangular areas are equal

𝐴
DV = 3
(εh) where h is the vertical height
 𝐴
V= 3
{εh1 + 2εh2 + 3εh3 +-------------------- +8εh8}

Where h1 = sum of depth used once

h2 = sum of depth used twice and so on.
SETTING OUT STRUCTURES
Setting out is the process of using the surveying instruments and techniques to transfer information
from a plan to the ground. As such it is the opposite of surveying and the task is most commonly
performed by site engineers supervising the construction of new works. In every country
construction is a major activity and setting out, therefore, it becomes an important work for the
surveyor. Normally surveying involves preparation of a map or plan showing existing features. Of
the ground whereas setting out is the reverse process of fixing on the ground details shown in a map
or plan.
Furthermore, there are three distinct elements to the task. These are:
a) Horizontal controls to ensure that the new works are in the correct place,
b) Vertical controls to ensure that they are at the correct level, and
c) Vertical alignments to ensure that multi storey or underground construction is plumb.
Primary point

Secondary point

Fig 6.1 Detail point

In gfig6.1 is an illustration drawing concerning the proposed works must be transferred to the
ground in format that can be understood by all levels of the work force on site. With this in mind it
is normal to provide from one site to another. Effectively three orders of points can be defined.
1) Primary stations
2) Secondary stations, and
3) Detail points
PRIMARY SETTINGS OUT POINTS are stations on the control traverse or control triangulation
system and they can be referenced to the National Grid for Orientation and coordination if so
required by the client. The station should be permanent for the life of the works and typical
construction could range from a brass plate or stud set in concrete to a road nail driven into
carriageway, it is also possible to purchase proprietarily forms of plastic and metallic marking
system for the purposes of monumentation. The stations should be clearly marked and protected so
that the y are not disturbed by construction traffic and should have sufficient space for the
instrument to be set up and freely accessed.
SECONDARY SETTINGOUT POINTS are established closer to points of detail on the proposed
works and are referenced by measurements from the primary points. They must be robust and rigid,
designed to survive the construction period of the element of the works that they provide control to
they are thus constructed in a similar manner to primary control points.
DETAILS POINTS mark the location of features on the works such as the centre of a pile corner of
a building etc. Any marker will be lost in the excavation as soon as construction starts and a
temporary format such as a 50mm square timber peg with a nail in the top, or a road pin, will be
quite adequate.
Temporary bench marks (TMB) are used for vertical control, their purpose being provide a bench
mark adjacent to the works and thus avoid substantial runs to flying levels of an OBM each day. It
will be required that they are analogous, in heighten terms, to the secondary control points defined
above. In an ideal situation daily leveling should simply involve a backsight onto a TBM and
foresight to the works.
The bench mark should be a rigid “permanent” construction like the primary and secondary points
for horizontal control. Typical construction ranges from a 600mm along steel pin driven into the
ground and set in a 300mm cube of concrete, of a road nail or mark on a complete part of the works.
In all cases, the TBM must be accurately leveled into an Ordnance bench marks (OBM) or primary
site bench mark if a site datum is being used, to a closing error not exceeding 5mm.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
Having established the primary and secondary points by traverse or triangulation, it implies that, in
a control survey the relative positions of a framework of reference point are determined to act as a
base for detail survey or setting out works.
VERTICAL CONTROL
The first stage in vertical control is to establish a series of TBM as discuses above, the next stage is
to transfer the information to the work force. The traditional method of doing this was to use sight
rails (often called “profile” but different to profile boards) and travelers. The sights railed are
horizontal timbers established by the engineers so that they define the plane of the finished works at
a level above the ground. The traveler is a portable sight rail with a vertical support whose length
defines the level of the finished works below the sight rail plane.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
In addition to construction works to the correct line and level, it is necessary to ensure that there is
accurate control o vertical alignment during the construction of multi storey structure. For building
this applies not only to the framework but also to the transfer to higher floors of the horizontal
control established at ground level. A number of approaches are listed below:
⮚ Plumb bob or spirit level
⮚ Theodolite
⮚ Optical plumbing deice
⮚ Laser plumbing device
For large projects, it is common engineering practice to establish a rectangular grid system. Usually
such a system is based on a local coordinate system. The ends of major x and y grids are fixed by
concrete monument supporting a metal disc. Intermediate points are fixed by wooden sakes 50

100mm.

SETTING OUT OF BUILDING STRUCTURES: The first tasks in setting out a building or
structure is to locate the ownership line. This is required for:
- To provide a baseline for layout
- To check that the pressed building does not encroach on adjoining properties.
When setting out a building by theodolite and ape such as a rectangular structure, the following
stages would occur (fig 6.2)
Profile board /offset detail peg

Theodolite
(a)

9090°°
 (b)

Profile /offset
still require here
X X

Check
(c)
Fig 6.2
❖ Establish the line of the building front control information
❖ Set up the theodolite on the line and locate two corners of the building and two
offsets pegs or profile boards ( fig 6.2)
❖ Set up the theodolite at one corner then sight onto the other corner, or the original
instrument location, whichever is furthest away. Turn the theodolite through 90o
and establish a third corner of the building the correct distance away along the
line of sight, plus further offset pegs or profile boards (fog 6.2)
❖ Repeat © at the second corner.
❖ Check the length of the furthest side and the diagonals fig6.2©
❖ Set the up the theodolite on the third corner, sight the fourth corner and establish
the remaining offset pegs or profile boards.
“AS- BUILT” SURVEYS
A finished structure seldom corresponds exactly to the original plans in every detail. Unexpected,
usually unforeseeable difficulties often make variations from the plans necessary or occasionally
variations may occur accidentally that are economically unfeasible to correct.
The purpose of an As- built survey is to record these variations. The As- built survey
should begin as soon as it becomes feasible-meaning that the actual horizontal and vertical locations
of features in the completed structure should be determined as soon as the features are erected.
 At times, variations from the original plans are recorded on new tracing of the
working drawings, on which as - built data are recorded in the place of the original design data
when the two happen to differ. Sometimes, reproductions of the original drawings are used with
variations recorded by crossing out the original design data and writing in the As- built data.
In either case, the term as- built survey, together with the data of revision, is written
in or near, the title block.
Total surveys carry out a wide range of as- built surveys, examples include as- built
surveys or record drawings e.g. Schools, petrol filling stations etc. and as- built plans for land
registry purposes etc. where a large batch of surveys is required, we can coordinate site and office
operations to ensure a regular dispatch of drawings as the survey work progresses. We can also
prepare drawings to the clients own standard layout using personalized drawing sheets if required.
We can provide resident site engineers /surveyors to carry out as - built surveys of pipeline routes
etc, during construction. In this case the surveyor would be fully equipped to survey the welds as
the pipe is being constructed and laid in the ground, and could download process the data and
e-mail the information to the client direct from site by mobile phone technology.
As- built surveys of building floor plans are also requested for space planning and
GIS purposes. If accurate “as constructed” drawing of complex installations are required, as a
starting platform for future design work, (and possible offset manufacture), of proposed
additions/Modifications our laser scanning service may be of interest. The laser scanning produces a
3D point cloud of survey data that can be used to create traditional line work drawings, or 3D
visualizations. An example of a visualization produced from the laser scan survey of complex
paperwork surveyed in a plant room.