Agricultural Land Surveying and GIS

Course Code: ABE 306

Course Title: Agricultural Land Surveying
Course Units: 2 Credit Units

Course Details:

Lecturer in Charge: Engr. Dr. Adeyinka Sobowale,

Other Lecturers: Engr. P.O. Omotainse
Technologist: Mr. V.A. Adeniyi

Contact: Room 4 (GF), Civil Engineering Building,

College of Engineering, FUNAAB
Email: sobowalea@funaab.edu.ng

Course Content:

Introduction to Surveying. Importance of Surveying. Types of Surveying. Classification of

Surveys. Measurement of Distances – Checks on Measurement. Errors in Surveying - Types of
Errors. Chain Surveying - Equipment Used in Chain Surveying; Procedure; Care of Chain
Surveying Instruments; Corrections: Tape correction, Temperature correction, Standard length
correction, Sag correction, Slope correction, Mean sea level correction; Overcoming obstacles to
Chaining: Obstacles to Measurement, Obstacles to Alignment. Compass Surveying: Angles and
directions – bearings and azimuths, magnetic compass and earth’s magnetic field. Levelling:
Classification of Levelling, Definition of Terms, Leveling Instruments, Principles of Levelling,
Balancing Backsight and Foresight Distances, Field Procedure in Levelling, Introduction to
Geographic information System (GIS).

Consist of:

• Lectures:
10 Classes presenting the concepts, theory and application. Worked examples will also be given to demonstrate how
the theory is applied. You will be asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.
• Assessment:
1 Exam of 2 hours, worth 60% of the module credits. This consists of 5 questions of which you choose 4. Continuous
Assessment Test, worth 20% of the module credits. This will be conducted during the lectures. It is compulsory in
accordance with the University regulation to attend at least 75% of lectures and field work.
• Field work:
7 field practical will be conducted in the semester, with each one lasting for 3 hours. These sessions examine how
well the theoretical explanations describe what we practice on the field.
Each student is expected to purchase the Field Manual from the Department. The field work is worth 20% of the
module credits, indicating its Importance.
• Books:
It is very important do some extra reading in this course. To do the examples you will definitely need textbooks. Any
one of those identified below is adequate:

1. Surveying by Duggal S.K. Vol. 1 2nd edition. McGraw- Hill Companies, 2006.
2. Surveying Fundamentals and Practices by Jerry N.P.E Michael T.L. and K.C.E Philip. 5th edition. Pearson
Education, Inc. New Jersey.
3. Principles of Surveying by Olliver J.G. and J. Clendinning.. Vol. 1: Plane Surveying 4th edition . Van
Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd. 1978
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1.0. Introduction:

Surveying can be defined as a “science, art or technology of making measurement of the relative
position of natural and manmade features on or near the earth’s surface and the presentation of
this information in the form of numerical database, map, diagram and other information media”. It
often involves subsequent data manipulation and analysis for design, construction and planning
of a variety of engineering works.

Surveying is indispensable to the engineer when planning, designing and constructing a project,
so all engineers should have a thorough understanding of the limits of accuracy possible in the
construction and manufacturing processes. This knowledge, combined with an equal
understanding of the limits and capabilities of surveying instrumentation and techniques, will
enable the engineer to complete the project successfully in the most economical manner and in
the shortest possible time. This initial process can only be properly executed after very careful
and detailed reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed.

When the above logistics are complete, the field work – involving the capture and storage of field
data – is carried out using instruments and techniques appropriate to the task in hand. Processing
the data is the next step in the operation. The majority, if not all, of the computation will be carried
out with computing aids ranging from pocket calculator to personal computer. The methods
adopted will depend upon the size and precision of the survey and the manner of its recording;
whether in a field book or a data logger. Data representation in analogue or digital form may now
be carried out by conventional cartographic plotting or through a totally automated computer-
based system leading to a paper- or screen-based plot.

In engineering, the plan is used when planning and designing a construction project. The project
may be a road, canal, railway, highway, dam, bridge, or even a new town complex. No matter
what the work is, or how complicated, it must be set out on the ground in its correct place and to
its correct dimensions, within the tolerances specified. To this end, surveying procedures and
instrumentation of varying precision and complexity are used depending on the project in hand.

1.1. Importance of Surveying

a) The Basic Engineering Discipline –

Surveying is basic to all Agricultural, civil, Mining and Water Resources engineering works.
In transportation engineering for example, surveying provides the foundation and continuity for
route location, design, land acquisition, and all other preliminary engineering. Surveys also set a
basic "framework" of stakes, which is used by contractors and engineers in building and
inspecting transportation projects.

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b) The Thread of Continuity –

Surveying is the single engineering function which links all the phases of a project including
conception, planning design, land acquisition, construction and final monumentation.

c) Basis for Efficiency –

To a great degree, the acceptability and cost-effectiveness of planning, land acquisition,

design, and construction are dependent upon properly performed surveys.

1.2. Types of Surveying

On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or not, surveying can be
divided into two main categories:

a) Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles. For small areas less
than 250 km2, plane surveying can safely be used. For most engineering projects such as
canal, railway, highway, building, pipeline, etc. constructions, this type of surveying is used.
It is worth noting that the difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km and the subtended
chord lying in the earth’s surface is 7mm. Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle
and the sum of the angles in a spherical triangle differ by 1 second for a triangle on the
earth’s surface having an area of 196 km2.
b) Geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into account the true shape
of the earth (spheroid). Geodesy treats investigations of the form of the earth’s surface and
the relative location of points on or near the earth. The earth is an oblate spheroid; the
length of its polar axis is less than that of its equatorial axis. To determine the position of
points, geodetic position of points is established in terms of longitudes and latitude based
on the adopted reference ellipsoid.

1.3 Classification of Surveying

Surveying is classified based on various criteria including the instruments used, purpose, the area
surveyed and the method used.
a) Classification on the Basis of Instruments Used.

i. Chain tape surveys: This is the simple method of taking the linear measurement
using a chain or tape with no angular measurements made.
ii. Compass surveys: Here horizontal angular measurements are made using
magnetic compass with the linear measurements made using the chain or tape.

3
 iii. Plane table surveys: This is a quick survey carried out in the field with the
measurements and drawings made at the same time using a plane table.
iv. Theodolite surveys: Theodolite survey takes vertical and horizontal angles in order
to establish controls
v. Levelling: This is the measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points
on the earth’s surface showing them in maps, plane and charts as vertical sections
or with conventional symbols.
b) Classification based on the surface and the area surveyed
i. Land survey
Land surveys are done for objects on the surface of the earth. It can be subdivided
into:
A. Topographic survey: This is for depicting the (hills, valleys, mountains, rivers, etc)
and manmade features (roads, houses, settlements…) on the surface of the earth.
B. Cadastral survey is used to determining property boundaries including those of
fields, houses, plots of land, etc.
C. Engineering survey is used to acquire the required data for the planning, design and
Execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways,
buildings, etc.
D. City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and development of towns
including roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc. are generally
referred to as city survey.

ii. Marine or Hydrographic Survey: These are surveys of large water bodies for
navigation, tidal monitoring, the construction of harbours and other hydraulic
structures etc.

iii. Astronomical Survey:

Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly bodies such as the sun,
moon, stars etc) to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth.

c) Classification on the Basis of Purpose:

a. Engineering survey
b. Control Survey: Control survey uses geodetic methods to establish widely spaced
vertical and horizontal control points.

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 c. Geological Survey: Geological survey is used to determine the structure and
arrangement of rock strata. Generally, it enables to know the composition of the
earth.
d. Military or Defence Survey: is carried out to map places of military and strategic
importance
e. Archeological survey is carried out to discover and map ancient/relics of antiquity.

d) Classification Based on the Method Used

i. Triangulation Survey

In order to make the survey, manageable, the area to be surveyed is first covered with
series of triangles. Lines are first run round the perimeter of the plot, then the details
fixed in relation to the established lines. This process is called triangulation. The
triangle is preferred, as it is the only shape that can completely cover an irregularly
shaped area with minimum space left.

ii. Traverse survey:

If the bearing and distance of a place or a point is known: it is possible to establish the
position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and distances of other
surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of points linked with
lines linking them emerge. Traversing is the process of establishing these lines, while
the connecting lines joining two points on the ground. A traverse station is each of the
points of the traverse, while the traverse leg is the straight line between consecutive
stations. Traverses may either be open or closed.

2.0 Measurement of Distances

One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the distance between two
points on the earth’s surface for use in fixing position, set out and in scaling. Usually spatial
distance is measured. In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their
equivalent horizontal distance either by the procedures used to make the measurement or by
applying numerical corrections for the slope distance (spatial distance). The method to be
employed in measuring distance depends on the required accuracy of the measurement, and
this in turn depends on purpose for which the measurement is intended.

The following methods are used for measuring distances:

5
Pacing: – where approximate results are satisfactory, distance can be obtained by pacing (the
number of paces can be counted by tally or pedometer registry attached to one leg).
Average pace length has to be known by pacing a known distance several times and
taking the average. It is used in reconnaissance surveys and in small scale mapping.

Odometer of a vehicle: - based on diameter of tyres (no. of revolutions X wheel diameter); this
method gives a fairly reliable result provided a check is done periodically on a known
length. During each measurement a constant tyre pressure has to be maintained.

Tachometry: - distances can be can be measured indirectly by optical surveying instruments like
theodolite. The method is quite rapid and sufficiently accurate for many types of
surveying operations.

Taping (chaining): - this method involves direct measurement of distances with a tape or chain.
Steel tapes are most commonly used .It is available in lengths varying from 15m to
100m. Formerly on surveys of ordinary precision, lengths of lines were measured with
chains.

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): - are indirect distance measuring instruments that work
using the invariant velocity of light or electromagnetic waves in vacuum. They have
high degree of accuracy and are effectively used for long distances for modern
surveying operations.

2.1. Check on Measurements

All survey work must be checked in such a way that an error will be apparent before the
survey is completed. These require painstaking effort to ensure careful work during field
work and during plotting; checks are very important before a survey is approved. The
engineer must take note of the following:

• Concentration and care are necessary in order to ensure that all necessary
measures are taken to the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is omitted.
Hence they must be maintained in the field at all times.
• Surveyor on site should be checking the correctness of his own work and that of
others which is based on his information.
• Checks should be constantly arranged on all measurements wherever possible.
Check measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs can
be moved, sight rails altered etc.
• Survey records and computations such as field notes, level books, field books,
setting out record books etc must be kept clean and complete with clear notes and
6
 diagrams so that the survey data can be clearly understood by others. Untidy and
anonymous figures in the field books should be avoided.
• Like field work, computations should be carefully planned and carried out in a
systematic manner and all field data should be properly prepared before
calculations start. Where possible, standardized tables and forms should be used
to simplify calculations. If the result of a computation has not been checked, it is
considered unreliable and for this reason, frequent checks should be applied to
every calculation procedure.
• As a check, the distances between stations are measured as they are plotted, to
see that there is correspondence with the measured horizontal distance. Failure to
match indicates an error in plotting or during the survey.
• If checks are not done on observations, expensive mistake may occur. It is always
preferable to take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the survey will
resolve itself at the plotting stage.

2.2. Errors in Surveying

Surveying is a process that involves observations and measurements with a wide range of
electronic, optical and mechanical equipment some of which are very sophisticated. Despite the
best equipment and methods used, it is still impossible to take observations that are completely
free of small variations caused by errors which must be guided against or their effects corrected.

2.2.1 Types of Errors

1. Gross Errors

These are referred to mistakes or blunders by either the surveyor or his assistants due to
carelessness or incompetence. On construction sites, mistakes are frequently made by in –
experienced Engineers or surveyors who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they are
using. These types of errors include miscounting the number of tapes length, wrong booking,
sighting wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly,
displacement of arrows or station marks etc.

Gross errors can occur at any stage of survey when observing, booking, computing or plotting
and they would have a damaging effect on the results if left uncorrected. Gross errors can be
eliminated only by careful methods of observing booking and constantly checking both operations.

2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors

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These errors are cumulative in effect and are caused by badly adjusted instrument and the
physical condition at the time of measurement must be considered in this respect. Expansion of
steel, frequently changes in electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring instrument etc. are just
some of these errors. Systematic errors have the same magnitude and sign in a series of
measurements that are repeated under the same condition, thus contributing negatively or
positively to the reading hence, makes the readings shorter or longer.

This type of error can be eliminated from a measurement using corrections (e.g. effect of tension
and temperature on steel tape). Another method of removing systematic errors is to calibrate the
observing equipment and quantify the error allowing corrections to be made to further
observations. Observational procedures by re-measuring the quantity with an entirely different
method using different instrument can also be used to eliminate the effect of systematic errors.

3. Random or Compensating Errors

Although every precaution may be taken, certain unavoidable errors always exist in any
measurement caused usually by human limitation in reading/handling of instruments. Random
errors cannot be removed from observation but methods can be adopted to ensure that they are
kept within acceptable limits. In order to analyse random errors or variable, statistical principles
must be used and in surveying their effects may be reduced by increasing the number of
observations and finding their mean. It is therefore important to assume those random variables
are normally distributed.

3.0 CHAIN SURVEYING (TAPING)

This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements only.
It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with a
chain.

3.1 Equipment Used In Chain Surveying

These equipment can be divided into three, namely

(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)

(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg. Abney level,
Clinometer, cross staff, optical squares)

8
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).

1. Chain:-

The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter links. It is
designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and offsets of
small surveys. Chains are made up of links which measure 200mm from centre to centre of each
middle connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end. Tally markers made
of plastic or brass are attached at every whole metre position or at each tenth link. To avoid
confusion in reading, chains are marked similarly form both end (E.g. Tally for 2m and 18m is the
same) so that measurements may be commenced with either end of the chain

There are three different types of chains used in taking measurement namely:

I. Engineers Chain
II. Gunter’s Chain
III. Steel Tape

Steel tapes may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13mm wide. It has handles similar to those on
the chain and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate but less robust than the chain. The
operating tension and temperature for which it was graduated should be indicated on the band.

9
 Engineer’s Chain
Gunter’s chain

Steel Tapes

Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required, such as the setting out
of buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked in metres, centimetre and millimetres.

3.2 Procedure in Making Chain Survey

1. Reconnaissance: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the general layout, the position
of features and the shape of the area.

2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to
mark the stations selected.

3. Station Marking: Station marks, where possible should be tied - in to a permanent objects so
that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground wooden
pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.

4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station
showing existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and
designation. Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the station
point and recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again at much
later date even by others after a long interval.

10
5. Offsetting:- Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles
on the chain line.

6. Sketching the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date and the name
of the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as the base line and is measured
first.

3.2 Care of Chain Surveying Instruments

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and wiped
with an oily rag.

2. A piece of colored cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon – attached) to enable them to be
seen clearly on the field.

3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.

4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated should be
indicated.

5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after repairs.

6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.

3.3 Corrections to Linear Measurement and their Application:-

Depending upon the accuracy of required in taping, certain corrections are made to original
measured distance. It is standard practice not to correct each tape length as it is measured, but
to record the measurements as made with the tape used and then to apply corrections to the total
distance. The following corrections are to be applied to the linear measurements with a chain or
a tape where such accuracy is required.

(i) Pull correction,

(ii) Temperature correction
(iii) Standard length correction
(iv) Sag correction
(v) Slope correction
(vi) Mean sea level correction.

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3.3.1 Pull Correction:-

A chain or tape of nominal length ‘L’ having cross sectional area of the link or that of a tape, as
the case may be, equal to A and standardized under a pull Ps is employed to measure a length
at a pull PF. If Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material is E, the extension of its length, Le is

(𝑃" − 𝑃# )𝐿
𝐶! =
𝐴𝐸

The recorded length is less than the actual by this extension. The error is here, -ve, the
actual length is obtained by adding the extension to L. the correction is +ve. If PF is less
than PS the error will be +ve and correction –ve.

3.3.2 Temperature Correction:-

The tape length changes due to changes in temperature while taking measurements. The
temperature correction Ct which needs to be made is given by:-

𝐶% = ∝ (𝑇& − 𝑇' )𝐿

Where, Tm = mean temperature during measurement, To = temperature of standardization

∝ = coefficient of thermal expansion of material, For steel, ∝ = 0.0000035 / oC
L = measured length in meters

The correction is positive, if the temperature during measurement is more than the
standard temperature and negative, if the temperature during measurement is less than
the temperature at which the tape was standardized.

3.3.3 Standard length correction

Before using a tape, the length is ascertained by comparing it with a standard tape of known
length. If the actual tape length is not equal to the standard value, a correction will have to be
applied to the measured length of the line:

"#
𝐶! =
$

Where, Ca = correction for absolute length

C = correction to be applied to a tape

L = measured length of the line (m)
12
l = nominal length of the tape (m)

The sign of the correction Ca will be same as that of C.

3.3.4 Sag Correction:-

When the tape is stretched between two points, it takes the form of catenary [approximately a
parabola]. The measured length will be more and the correction is applied, the sag correction, Csa
is given by:

# ! $"
𝐶!" =
%& (!

Where W = total weight of tape

P = pull applied (N)
l1 = the length of tape
L = length of tape = nl1 suspended between 2 points.

If there are n equal spans per tape length, the correction per tape length is given as

𝑊 %𝐿
𝐶!" =
24 𝑛% 𝑃%
In case of suspended measurement across a span L, the chain or tape sags to take the
form of curve known as catenary. Sag correction is always negative.

3.3.5 Slope correction

The distance measured along the slope is always greater than the horizontal distance between
the points. Therefore, if the distance is measured on the slope, it must be immediately reduced
to its corresponding horizontal distance.

B D = √𝐿( − ℎ(

L
h
A C Slope correction, Csl = L – D
D
13
 = L – [ L2 – h2]1/2
= L – L [ 1 – h2 / L2]1/2 Csl = L – L + h2 / 2L + h4 / 8L3 + …
= L – L [ 1 – h2 / (2L)2 – h4 / (8L)4 - …]
Neglecting the higher orders in the equation,

ℎ(
𝐶)* =
2𝐿

Where h = difference in elevation of A and B,

L = measured length of the line (m)

NB: Slope correction is always subtractive.

3.3.6 Mean sea level correction

The length of a line measured at an altitude of h meters above mean sea level is always more as
compared to the length measured on the mean sea level (M.S.L) surface. The necessity of
reducing distances to a common datum arises when the surveys are to be connected to the
national grid

L h

ℎ
𝐶+ = 𝐿
𝑅
Where R = radius of the earth

Mean sea level correction is always subtractive.

Example 1

A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30m at a temperature of 20oC and a pull
of 10kg. The measured length after surveying was 1650m at a temperature of 30oC and a pull of
15kg was applied. Find the true length of the line, if the cross-sectional area of the tape was

14
0.025cm2. [Coefficient of expansion of tape material is 3.5 x 10-6 / oC while modulus of elasticity
of steel is 2.1 x 106 kg/cm2]

SOLUTION

In the case above, there are two corrections to be applied, namely: - Temperature correction and
Pull correction.

i. For temperature:-

Ct = ∝(Tm – To)L

= 3.5 x 10-6 [30 – 20] 1650

= 0.05775 m (+ve)

ii. For pull:-

(𝑃" − 𝑃# )𝐿
𝐶! =
𝐴𝐸

[(./ 0.1) 3 .4/1]

= [1.1(/ 7 (.. 7 .1! ]

= 0.157101 m (+ve)

True length of the line = 1650 + Ct + Cp

= 1650.214831 m

EXAMPLE 2:

The downhill end of a 30m tape is held 90cm too low. What is the horizontal distance measured?

SOLUTION:

This is a case of slope correction

Csl = h2 / 2L

= (0.9)2 / (2 x 30) = 0.0135m

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∴ horizontal distance = 30 – 0.0135
= 29.9865m

Slope correction is always subtractive.

EXAMPLE 3:

A 100m tape is suspended between the ends under a pull of 200N. If the weight of the tape is
30N. Find the correct distance between the tape ends.

SOLUTION:

This case require sag correction.

Csa = W2L1 / 24P2

= [(30)2 X 100] / (24 [200]2)

= 0.09375m

Horizontal distance = 100 – 0.09375

= 99.90625m

N.B: Sag correction is always negative.

4.0 Overcoming Obstacles to Chaining:

During chaining, it is practically impossible to set out all chain lines in a straight forward method
because of a variety of obstacles to chaining and ranging in the field. The difficulties can be
overcome by running perpendicular or parallel lines or by running a few additional lines and
measuring angles. In order to overcome some of these fixed challenges, a surveyor must have a
good working knowledge of geometry and trigonometry.

The obstacles in chaining may be divided into two classes:

i. Those which do not obstruct the ranging (view) like ponds, rivers, and fall in the
category of obstacles to measurement.
16
ii. Those which we cannot see across i.e. both chaining and ranging are obstructed e.g
houses, stacks etc. and are known as obstacles to alignment.

a) Obstacles To Measurement:

1. Let ABCD be a chain line obstructed by a pond. The problem consists of finding out the
distance BC. Two offsets BE and CF of equal length are made at B and C and chaining is
done along EF. The work is then continued from point C.

C F

B E

2. Let DAB be a chain line obstructed by a river. Lay off AC, of any convenient length,
perpendicular to the required distance AB and lay off DC perpendicular to BC. Then ,

AB = AC2 / AD

River
A

D C

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3.Let AB be a chain line obstructed by a river. Assume a point I anywhere in line with the required
distance AB. Take a point H in such a way that HJ = HI and HK = HB. Establish L in the line AH
and at the same time in the line JK produced. Then, KL = AB.

K
H B

b) OBSTACLES TO ALIGNMENT

Let DE be a chain line obstructed by a house as shown in the figure below

1. Assume a point C arbitrarily. Make line EC = CB and then line DC = CA. Then , line AB =
DE.
2. Establish a point F at equal distances from D and E at any convenient distances. Make FH
= FG. Then, [(HG X DF)] / HF = DE

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EXAMPLES

1.A chain line ABC crosses a river at 90o as shown in the figure. B and C are two points located
at the near and far banks, respectively. AB = 57.73m BD = 100m and < ABD = 90o. The whole
circle magnetic bearing [WCB] of C and A taken at D are 30o and 120o; respectively. Find the
width of the river.

100
D 90 B

57.73

W.C.B of C at D = 30o
W.C.B of A at D = 120o
< ADC = 120o – 30o = 90o
Consider triangle BCD and BDA,
<CBD = <ABD = 90o
<BCD = <BDA and <BDC = <BAD

Hence, triangles BCD and BDA are similar triangles.

89 8:
8:
= ;8 ⟹ BC = BD2 / AB = 1002 / 57.73 =173.22m

Hence, width of river = 173.22m

2. A big pond obstructs the chain line AB as shown. A line AL was measured on the left on the
line AB for circumventing the obstacle. The length of AL was 901m. Similarity, the line AM was
measured on the right of line AB whose length was 1100m. Points M and L are in the same
straight line. Lengths of the links BL and BM are 502m and 548m, respectively. Find the distance
AB.

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 L 502m b 548m m

1100m

Consider triangle, ALM

Let <Lma = ∝

(;<)" = (><)𝟐 0(;>)𝟐

Cos ∝ = ((;<)(><)

..11" = .1/1𝟐 0 ?1.𝟐

= ( @ ..11 @ .1/1

= 150.07 / 231

= 150.07 / 231

=0.6497

In triangle ABM,

AB2 = (BM)2 + (AM)2 – 2(AM)(BM) cos∝

= 5482 + 11002 – 2 X 1100 X 548 X 0.6497

AB = 853.66m.

3. To continue a survey line AB past an obstacle, a line BC 200m long was set out
perpendicular to AB, and from C angles BCD and BCE were set out at 60o and 45o ,
respectively. Determine the lengths which must be chained off along CD and CE in order
that ED may be in AB produced. Also, determine the obstructed length.

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From ∆BCD,
CD = BC sec 60o
= 200 X sec 60o
= 200 X sec 60o
= 400m.
From ∆BCE,
CE = BC sec 45o
= 20 X sec 45o
= 282.84m
And BE = BC tan 45o
= 200 X tan 45o
=200m.

5.0 LEVELLING [Measurement of vertical distance]

The relative position of a point in terms of the vertical distance, above or below another point is
designated by its elevation.
By definition, the elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a reference surface
(datum) having zero elevation. By implication, elevation of a point may be considered as its
vertical coordinate. It is treated as positive if the point is above and as negative if the point is
below the datum. Usually, sea level is considered to be standard datum, but sometimes an
arbitrary assumed surface is taken as the reference.

The operation of determining the difference of elevation of points with respect to each other on
the surface of the earth is called LEVELLING.

Engineering projects are usually built on calculated slopes. Levelling find application in
topographic mapping, setting up stakes for sewer lines, ensuring a proper drainage system,
carrying out excavations up to a prescribed depth (elevation) for footing of a structure,

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construction of bridge piers to a design elevation, measuring the settlements of existing buildings,
delineating shore lines for a proposed reservoir etc.

5.1 Classification of Levelling

The method of levelling can be classed into two:-

- Direct Levelling
- Indirect Levelling

i. Direct Levelling: The difference in elevation between two points is obtained by

measuring the vertical distances with respects to a horizontal line. An instrument level
is used to observe it on a graduated staff placed on the points. This is the most precise
method of levelling and it’s also known as spirit levelling. Approaches used include:
simple levelling, differential levelling, profile levelling, cross-sectioning, reciprocal
levelling, precise levelling, check levelling and fly levelling.

ii. Indirect levelling could also be done using two approaches: trigonometric levelling and
barometric levelling. In trigonometric levelling, the elevation of points are computed
from the vertical angles observed with a transit and the distances measured with either
chain or tape. Barometric levelling on the other hand is on the fact that atmospheric
pressure is inversely proportional to the elevation. These methods are not very
accurate, hence are not commonly used.

5.2 Definition of Terms

a) Level Surface: A surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth

b) Vertical line: it is a line from any point on the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth. It is
usually defined by the plumb line.

c) Level line: it is a line on a level surface and it is normal to the plumb line of all the points.

d) Horizontal plane: it is a plane tangential to the level surface at the point under
consideration. It is perpendicular to the plumb line.

e) Horizontal line: it is the line lying in the horizontal plane. It is tangential to the level line.
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 f) Elevation: it is the vertical distance above or below the datum. It is also known as the
reduced level.

g) Axis of Telescope: it is a line joining the optical centre of the objective to the centre of the
eyepiece.

h) Line of sight: it is a line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs to the optical centre of the
objective and it continuation. In levelling, the line of sight should remain horizontal while
making the sights. The line of sight is also called the line of collimation.

i) Height of Instrument (H.I): it is the elevation of the plane of collimation when the instrument
is levelled.

j) Back sight: It is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation, e.g a sight on a bench
mark (station A) or on a change point, i.e station C. In the figure a and c, are back sights.
It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up. It is also called plus sight.

H.I H.I I.S F.S

B.S a b
B.S H.I
c F.S
B
A
d
C

k) Fore Sight (FS): it is a staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be determined,
e.g a sight on a change point i.e station C and D. In the figure c and d are fore sights. It is
also called a minus sight. It is usually the last staff reading and denotes the shifting of level.

l) Intermediate sight (I.S): it is the staff reading taken on a point of unknown elevation
between back sight and fore sight, e.g a sight on station R change point (C.P) or turning
point (T.P): - It is a point, denoting the shifting of the level. Both F.S and B.S. are taken on
this point e.g Station C.

m) Bench Mark (B.M): it is a fixed reference point of known elevation.

5.3 Instrumentation:
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The instrumentation used to determine the vertical distance of points is known as LEVEL. A level
essentially consists of a telescope to provide the line of sight, a level tube, to make the line of
sight horizontal, a levelling head to bring the bubble of the level tube at the centre of its run, and
a tripod to support the level.

There are various types of levels used in surveying:

1. Dumpy level – most widely used

2. Wye level
3. Cooke’s Reversible level
4. Cushing level
5. Automatic or adjusting level
6. Tilting level
7. Digital level
8. Hand level
9. Abney level

5.4 Levelling Staff

A levelling staff is a straight, rectangular, wooden rod graduated into metres and smaller divisions.
The reading given by the line of sight on a levelling staff is the height of collimation from the point
on which the staff is held vertically.

The various types of levelling staff include:

• Self-reading leveling staff

• Invar Precision levelling staff

• Sopwith Telescopic staff

• Target staff

v Read up adjustments in levelling

• Setting up

• Levelling up

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 • Elimination of parallax

5.5 Principles of Levelling

A. SIMPLE LEVELLING

It is the simplest operation in levelling, when it is required to find the difference in elevation
between two points, both of which are visible from a single position of the level.

0.125

2.355 C

A
B
B.M

1. Let A and C be the two points and let the level be set up at B anywhere in the ground as
shown above. A is a point of known elevation, say benchmark of R.L 100m.

2. The instrument is set up and levelled at B. The telescope is directed towards A and the
reading is taken on a vertically held staff at point A. Thus the backsight at A is 2.355m as
shown in the figure.

3. The staff is then held vertically at point C whose elevation is to be found. The telescope is
directed on the staff and focused. The fore sight is 0.125 as shown in the figure.

4. The difference in the two readings is calculated and added/subtracted to the R.L of A
depending upon whether C is higher / lower than A, the R.L of C = 100 + 2.230 = 102.230m.

B. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING:

This refer to the determination of the difference in elevation between two or more points without
any regard to the alignment of the points. It is used when faced with the following field conditions:

• When two points are a large distance apart

• When the difference in elevation between two points is large.

• When some obstacles intervenes between the points.

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In such cases, it becomes essential to set up a level in several positions and the simple levelling
operations is employed in each of the successive stages. It is also called compound or continuous
levelling.

5.6 Balancing Backsight and Foresight Distances

The essential condition in levelling is that the line of collimation should be horizontal when the
staff readings are being taken. The line of collimation is horizontal only when the bubble is at the
centre of its run. But this can seldom be ensured with absolute exactness and usually, when the
bubble appears to be central, the line of collimation will make a small angle with the horizontal,
since the error is proportional to the length of sight, the error due to non-parallelism can be
eliminated by keeping the lengths of the backsight and foresight nearly equal. Therefore, to find
the true difference of levels between two points, the level must be kept exactly midway between
them, but not necessarily on the line joining them.

Let A and B be the two points, each being distance L from the level, as shown below. Let the line
of collimation be inclined at an angle ∝ with the true line of collimation a o ‘b.

a1 b1

a O’ b

B
A O

L L

Observed reading on staff A is Aa1, whereas true reading is Aa. The observed reading on staff B
is Bb1, whereas true reading is Bb. Then, the errors introduced are aa1 and bb1.

True reading at A is Aa = Aa1 – aa1 = Aa1 – L tan ∝

True reading at B is Bb = Bb1 – bb1 = Bb1 – L tan ∝

True difference of level between B and A is Bb – Aa = (Bb1 – L tan∝) – (Aa1 – L tan∝)

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= Bb1 – Aa1

Therefore, it is seen that error is completely eliminated by equalizing the back and fore sight
distances.

5.7 Field Procedure in Levelling

Field procedure consist of three distinct activities

- Reconnaissance

- Taking observations

- Booking the reading in the field book

v Reconnaissance is very important in order to establish benchmarks to control the

location of level line. The route to be followed need to be studied in detail so as to
decide the positions of temporary benchmarks. Finally, the position of the staff
stations also need to be decided.

v Level observations are extremely important, before starting work, a surveyor should
check adjustments of the instruments and should ensure that it is good order. The
observations are taken on the levelling staff corresponding to the horizontal hair. If
the diaphragm is also provided with stadia wires, the readings corresponding to the
stadia wires may also be taken. The mean of the two stadia hair readings should be
the same as that of the cross-hairs reading. This is a check when levelling is done
is busy and noisy area, it becomes impossible for the instrument man to give oral
instructions to the surveyor holding the staff, in this case, hand signals becomes
very useful.

v Booking and Reading the level: The observations made of the field are usually
recorded in a level book. There are basically two methods of booking and reducing
the levels of the points from the observed staff readings:

1. Collimation method or height of instrument method

2. Rise and fall method.

• COLLIMATION METHOD:
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The elevation of the plane of collimation for the first set up of the level is determined by adding
back sight to the reduced level of a B.M. The reduced level of collimation is also known as height
of instrument (H.I). The reduced levels of the intermediate points and the first change point are
obtained by subtracting the staff readings taken on these points, i.e by subtracting successively
(one by one) I.S and F.S from H.I. The instrument is then shifted to the second position and a
new plane of collimation is set up by taking a B.S on the change point by. By means of backsight
and foresight taken on the change point, the levels of the two planes of collimation are correlated.
The elevations of the new plane of collimation is obtained by adding the backsight taken on the
change point from the second position of the level to the reduced level of the first change point.
Then the reduced level of successive points and the second change point is obtained by
subtracting their staff readings from the elevation of the new plane of collimation.

Check: Σ𝐵. 𝑆 − Σ𝐹. 𝑆 = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿 − 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿

• RISE AND FALL METHOD:

It consist of determining the difference of levels between the consecutive points by comparing
their staff readings. The rise and fall is obtained by calculating the difference between the
consecutive staff readings. Arise is indicated if the backsight is more than the foresight, and a fall
if a backsight is less than the foresight. Then, the reduced level of each point is obtained by adding
the rise to or by subtracting the fall form the reduced level of the preceding point.

Check: Σ𝐵. 𝑆 − Σ𝐹. 𝑠 = Σrise − Σfall = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿 − 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿

1. The following Azimuths were observed with a compass during a boundary survey.
Calculate the interior angles.

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60O30’ 12 0’
2 O0 O

’ 46

205O30’
300 0’
O

Interior angle = Bearing of previous line – Bearing of next line

<A = Bearing of line AE – Bearing of line AB

= (300o – 180o) – 66o30’ = 59o30’

<B = Bearing of line BA – Bearing of line BC

= (60o30’ + 180o) – 122o = 118o30’

<C = Bearing of line CB – Bearing of line CD

= (122o + 180o) – 46o = 256o

<D = Bearing of line DC – Bearing of line DE

= (46o + 180o) – 205o30’ = 20o30’

<E = Bearing of line ED – Bearing of line EA

= (205o30’ – 180o) – 300o + 360o = 85o30’

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