LECTURE NO.

Utility: Meaning, Characteristics and Types

Let us make an in-depth study of utility

1. Meaning of Utility
2. Definition of Utility
3. Characteristics
4. Types
5. Measurement
6. Kinds.

Meaning of Utility:

The simple meaning of ‘utility’ is ‘usefulness’. In economics utility

is the capacity of a commodity to satisfy human wants.

Utility is the quality in goods to satisfy human wants. Thus, it is

said that “Wants satisfying capacity of goods or services is called
Utility.”
in this way utility is measured in terms of money and it is relative.
There is difference between utility and usefulness. A useful
commodity may not here utility of goods depend upon the
intensity of wants.
A consumer buys or demands a particular commodity he derives
some benefit from its use. He feels that his given want is satisfied
by the use or consumption of the commodity purchased. Utility is
the basis of consumer demand. A consumer thinks about his
demand for a commodity on the basis of utility derived from the
commodity.
Utility depends upon the intensity of want. When a want is
unsatisfied or more intense, there is a greater urge to demand a
particular commodity which satisfies a given want. In modern
time utility has been called as ‘expected satisfaction.’ Expected
satisfaction may be less or equal to or more than the real
satisfaction.
Definition of Utility:
Various economists have defined utility as follows:
1. According to Prof. Waugh:
“Utility is the power of commodity to satisfy human wants.”
2. According to Fraser:
“On the whole in recent years the wider definition is preferred and
utility is identified, with desireness rather than with
satisfyingness.”

1. Utility has no Ethical or Moral Significance:

A commodity which satisfies any type of want, whether moral or
immoral, socially desirable or undesirable, has utility, i.e., a knife
has utility as a household appliance to a housewife, but it has also
a utility to a killer for stabbing some body.

2. Utility is Psychological:
Utility of a commodity depends on a consumer’s mental attitude
and assessment regarding its power to satisfy his particular want.
Thus, utility of a commodity may differ from person to person.
Psychologically, every consumer has his likes and dislikes and
everyone determines his own level of satisfaction.
For instance:
A consumer who is fond of apples may find a high utility in apples
in comparison to the consumer who has no liking for apples.
Similarly a strictly vegetarian person has no utility for mutton or
chicken.

3. Utility is always Individual and Relative:

Utility of a commodity varies in different situations in relation to
time and place. Even the same consumer may derive a higher or
lower utility for the same commodity at different times and
different places. For example—a person may find more utility in
woolen clothes during the winter than in summer or at Kashmir
than at Mumbai.
4. Utility is not Necessarily Equated with Usefulness:
Utility simply means the ability to satisfy a want. A commodity
may have utility but it may not be useful to the consumer. For
instance—A cigarette has utility to the smoker but it is injurious to
his health. However, demand for a commodity depends on its
utility rather than its usefulness. Thus many commodities like
opium liquor, cigarettes etc. have demand because of utility, even
though, they are harmful to human beings.

5. Utility cannot be Measured Objectively:

Utility being a subjective phenomenon or feeling of a consumer
cannot be expressed in numerical terms. So utility cannot be
measured cardinally or numerically. It cannot be measured
directly in a precise manner. Professor Marshall has however,
unrealistically assumed cardinal measurement of utility in his
analysis of demand.

6. Utility Depends on the Intensity of Want:

Utility is the function of intensity of want. A want which is
unsatisfied and greatly intense will imply a high utility for the
commodity concerned to a person. But when a wan is satisfied in
the process of consumption it tends to experience a lesser utility
of the commodity than before. Such an experience is very
common and it is described as a tendency of diminishing utility
experienced with an increase in consumption of a commodity. In
other words, the more of a thing we have, the less we want it.

7. Utility is Different from Pleasure

A commodity may have utility but its consumption may not give
any pleasure to the consumer, e.g., medicine or an injection. An
injection or medicinal tablet gives no pleasure, but it is necessary
for the patient.

8. Utility is also Distinct from Satisfaction:

Utility and satisfaction, both are though inter-related but they
have not been considered as the same in a strict sense.

LECTURE NO. 2
Different Types of Utility:
In economics, production refers to the creation of utilities in
several ways.
Thus, there are following types of utility:
1. Form Utility:
This utility is created by changing the form or shape of the
materials. For example—A cabinet turned out from steel furniture
made of wood and so on. Basically, from utility is created by the
manufacturing of goods.

2. Place Utility:
This utility is created by transporting goods from one place to
another. Thus, in marketing goods from the factory to the market
place, place utility is created. Similarly, when food-grains are
shifted from farms to the city market by the grain merchants,
place utility is created.
Transport services are basically involved in the creation of place
utility. In retail trade or distribution services too, place utility is
created. Similarly, fisheries and mining also imply the creation of
place utility. Place utility of a commodity is always more in an
area of scarcity than in an area of scarcity than in an area of
abundance e.g., Kashmir apples are more popular and fetch
higher prices in Pune than in Srinagar on account of such place
utility.

3. Time Utility:
Storing, hoarding and preserving certain goods over a period of
time may lead to the creation of time utility for such goods e.g.,
by hoarding or storing food-grains at the time of a bumper
harvest and releasing their stocks for sale at the time of scarcity,
traders derive the advantage of time utility and thereby fetch
higher prices for food-grains. Utility of a commodity is always
more at the time of scarcity. Trading essentially involves the
creation of time utility.

4. Service Utility:
This utility is created in rendering personal services to the
customers by various professionals, such as lawyers, doctors,
teachers, bankers, actors etc.

Can Utility be Measured?

Utility is a psychological concept. This is different for different
people. Therefore, it cannot be measured directly. Professor
Marshall has said that “Utility can be measured and its measuring
rod is ‘money. The price which we are ready to pay for an article
is practically its price. Nobody will be prepared to pay more than
the utility which we derive from the article.
For example:
If I am ready to pay Rs. 1500 for a watch and Rs. 2,000 for a
Radio. Then I can say that I derive utility from that watch up to
the value of Rs. 1500; and from Radio up to the value of Rs.
2,000. “The inference which we can draw from the above
example is that the price which we pay for any article is the utility
which we derive from that article.” But Prof. Hicks, Allen and
Pareto have not supported Marshall’s view of measuring utility.
(i) Utility is personal, psychological and abstract view which
cannot be measured like goods.

ii) Utility is different for different people. Utility is always

changeable and it changes according to time and place.
Therefore, it is difficult to measure such thing who is of
changeable nature.
(iii) Further, measuring material ‘money is not static. Value of
money always changes, therefore, correct measurement is not
possible.

LECTURE NO. 3

Kinds of Utility:
Utility are of three kinds:
(i) Marginal Utility,
(ii) Total Utility,
(iii) Average Utility

(i) Marginal Utility:

Definition:
Marginal utility is the utility derived from the last or marginal unit
of consumption. It refers to the additional utility derived from an
extra unit of the given commodity purchased, acquired or
consumed by the consumer.
It is the net addition to total utility made by the utility of the
additional or extra units of the commodity in its total stock. It has
been said—as the last unit in the given total stock of a
commodity.
According to Prof. Boulding—”The marginal utility of any quantity
of a commodity is the increase in total utility which results from a
unit increase in its consumption.”
For example:
Suppose Mr. Shanker is consuming bread and he takes five
breads. By taking first unit he derives utility up to 20; second unit
16; third unit 12; fourth unit 8 and from fifth 2. In this example
the marginal unit is fifth bread and the marginal utility derived is
2. If we will consume only four bread then the marginal unit will
be fourth bread and utility will be 8.

Is water part of utilities?

The most common utilities include electricity, natural gas, water,
garbage pickup and sewer service. You get electricity and gas
from private companies that are heavily regulated by local and
state governments, and your choices of service providers will be
very limited
The Water Utility Industry is made up of domestic companies
responsible for the safe and timely distribution of water and other
related services, such as wastewater treatment. ... Water
utility stocks are not growth issues, but they do usually offer solid
yields and regular dividend increases.
What is considered a utility?
Utilities mean useful features, or something useful to the home
such as electricity, gas, water, cable and telephone. Examples
of utilities are brakes, gas caps and a steering wheel in a car.
Examples of utilities are electricity and water.
How do water utilities make money?
The utility business is not like most other businesses. ... That's
right, utilities do not earn profits on the products they sell—
gas, water, and power are provided “at cost” to consumers—but
rather from the investment in the assets (the pipes, substations,
transmission lines, etc.) that are used to provide the service.
What are basic utilities?
Utilities in a home include electricity, gas, water, sewer, Internet,
telephone, cable TV, security systems and, in some areas, trash
collection. These essentials are the things you need in daily life to
ensure you have a working, comfortable, livable space.
Are water companies profitable?
As you might assume, the profit margins in the
bottled water industry are exceedingly high; the
normal profit margin on bottled water is an astounding 50 to
200%. Ironically, as select corporations become richer because of
these profit margins, many in the developing world lack access to
clean water
Can I bottle my own spring water?
Selling municipal tap water is permissible in most places provided
you have a permit, but if it doesn't come from an underground
source, it cannot be labeled as spring water. Clean water is an
important natural resource that is controlled by the state.

Kinds of Marginal Utility—Marginal utility is of three kinds:

(i) Positive Marginal Utility,
(ii) Zero Marginal Utility,
(iii) Negative Marginal Utility.
It is a matter of general experience that if a man is consuming a
particular goods, then receiving of next unit of goods reduces the
utilities of the goods and ultimately a situation comes when the
utility given by the goods become zero and if the use of the goods
still continues, then the next unit will give dis-utility. In other
words it can be said that we will derive “negative utility”.
(4) When Marginal Utility becomes 0, total utility does not
increase.
(5) When Marginal Utility becomes negative, Total Utility
decreases.
(6) Increase in Total Utility depends on Marginal Utility.
(7) Since Marginal Utility diminishes, Total Utility increases at a
diminishing rate.
( When Marginal Utility is Zero, Total Utility is maximum.
(9) When Marginal Utility is negative, Total Utility declines.

(1) Marginal Utility goes on diminishing with the consumption of

every additional unit of bread.
(2) Total Utility goes on increasing with the consumption of every
additional unit but at a diminishing rate.
(3) Marginal Utility is equal to the increase in the Total Utility.
Total Utility is the sum total of the Marginal Utilities derived from
all the units consumed.

LECTURE # 1

SOURCES OF WATER
Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.
Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and
naturally lost through discharge to
the oceans, evaporation, evapotranspiration and groundwater
recharge
Under river flow throughout the course of a river, the total
volume of water transported downstream will often be a
combination of the visible free water flow together with a
substantial contribution flowing through rocks and sediments that
underlie the river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone. For
many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may
greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a
dynamic interface between surface water and groundwater from
aquifers, exchanging flow between rivers and aquifers that may
be fully charged or depleted. This is especially significant
in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are
common.
GROUNDWATER IS FRESH WATER LOCATED IN THE
SUBSURFACE PORE SPACE OF SOIL AND ROCKS. IT IS ALSO
WATER THAT IS FLOWING WITHIN AQUIFERS BELOW
THE WATER TABLE. SOMETIMES IT IS USEFUL TO MAKE A
DISTINCTION BETWEEN GROUNDWATER THAT IS CLOSELY
ASSOCIATED WITH SURFACE WATER AND DEEP
GROUNDWATER IN AN AQUIFER (SOMETIMES CALLED
"FOSSIL WATEFROZEN WATER
r").
Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as
a water source, however to date this has only been done for
research purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface
water.
Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water
(generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. The most
common desalination processes are distillation and reverse
osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to most
alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of
total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is usually only
economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household
and industrial uses) in arid areas. However, there is growth in
desalination for agricultural use, and highly populated areas such
as Singapore or California.[citation needed] The most extensive
use is in the Persian Gulf.
Agriculture it is estimated that 70% of worldwide water is used
for irrigation, with 15–35% of irrigation withdrawals being
unsustainable.[6] It takes around 2,000 – 3,000 litres of water to
produce enough food to satisfy one person's daily dietary need.
[7] This is a considerable amount, when compared to that
required for drinking, which is between two and five litres. To
produce food for the now over 7 billion people who inhabit the
planet today requires the water that would fill a canal ten metres
deep, 100 metres wide and 2100 kilometres lo
Industries it is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used
in industry.[6] Major industrial users
include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, which
use water for cooling, ore and oil refineries, which use water
in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water
as a solvent. Water withdrawal can be very high for certain
industries, but consumption is generally much lower than that of
agriculture.
Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric
power derives energy from the force of water flowing downhill,
driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is
a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. Significantly,
hydroelectric power can also be used for load following unlike
most renewable energy sources which are intermittent.
Ultimately, the energy in a hydroelectric powerplant is supplied
by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses
as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill. Pumped-storage
hydroelectric plants also exist, which use grid electricity to pump
water uphill when demand is low, and use the stored water to
produce electricity when demand is high.
Domestic use it is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is
for domestic purposes.[6] These include drinking
water, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry
and gardening. Basic domestic water requirements have been
estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day,
excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of
sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used
without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is
commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the
water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of
drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion
is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

LECTURE # 2
How is water treated?
Water goes through a rigorous treatment process to remove any
compound that could pose a threat to our health. This treatment
process involves four stages that make your water ‘clean enough
to drink.'
1. Coagulation and Flocculation
This uses chemicals that bind with other waterborne
compounds to form larger particles, which creates a solid mass
called floc.
2. Sedimentation
As floc is denser than water, it drifts to the bottom of the water
treatment tank during a sedimentation process, settling in a
removable layer.
3. Filtration
Once the suspended floc has been removed, the residual clear
water is passed through sand, gravel, or charcoal filters that take
out dissolved particles, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and toxic
chemicals.
4. Disinfection
The final water treatment stage is disinfection with chlorine.
This process not only removes remaining pathogens, but keeps
the water supply clean as it passes through the pipeline.
The benefits and pitfalls of water treatment
While all municipal water supplies pass through a standard
treatment process, your water may undergo different levels of
treatment depending on where your water comes from. For
example, surface water needs a higher level of coagulation,
sedimentation, and filtration than groundwater because water
taken from lakes, rivers, and streams is likelier to contain more
sediment and higher levels of contaminants than
naturally-filtered groundwater.
Every water supply also requires disinfection to guarantee the
water becomes and remains safe to use. Typically, disinfection
uses chlorination, chloramines, ozone, or ultraviolet light.
Chlorine is efficient at eliminating microbial pathogens, which is
why 64% of US community water treatment systems use
chlorine as a disinfectant. However, some consumers don’t like
the smell or taste of chlorinated water. Studies suggest bi-
products of chlorine disinfection could increase the risk of
cancer, including bladder and rectal by up to 93%.
The risks associated with chlorine have moved utility companies
to look at alternative disinfectant options. Ozonation is often to
remove pathogens from the treated water supply. However,
chlorine is still required as ozone cannot keep a supply
contaminant-free once it has left the treatment plant.
Another disinfection option is ultraviolet light: UV from a
lamp destroys viruses and bacteria.
LECTURE # 3
Is water treatment always successful?
Despite the standards and rigorous supervision, water treatment
isn’t always effective. In 2014, in Flint, Michigan, the city
switched its primary water source to the Flint River. The water
treatment services were not adequately set up to treat a highly
corrosive water supply that caused health issues throughout the
local population. The Flint crisis stemmed from the fact that the
city’s outdated infrastructure used lead piping to funnel water
into homes and businesses.
The Flint River water was so corrosive it caused the heavy metal
to leach into the supply after the water had passed through the
main treatment facilities, highlighting the risks along any water
system.

Water dispensers guarantee clean, purified drinking water

There’s only one way to ensure your water supply is entirely safe
— that is, to install a filtration and purification system where you
fill your glass.
A water dispenser uses an array of technologies to ensure your
water supply is purified, starting with high-performance carbon
filtration that removes chlorine, lead and pesticides. This is
followed by microbiological purification using UV light to
eliminate 99.9999% of all germs (including E. Coli, Salmonella and
Hepatitis), guaranteeing pure water thanks to a process that’s
100% chemical-free.
If you’re ever unsure whether your local water supply is fit for
consumption, contact Waterlogic, and our expert customer
service agents will recommend the perfect point-of-use water
dispenser to protect your office from water contaminants.
The Various Drinking Water Purification Methods
We all know that it’s not a good idea to drink directly from a river,
but it helps to know how this water gets purified before reaching
your faucet. Water that has not gone through the water
purification process is full of contaminants like bacteria, viruses,
dirt, pesticides and other chemicals. Drinking such water can
cause diarrhea and vomiting, or even more serious health risks.
Before you drink water, it should have gone through one or more
of the water purification methods. These methods that make our
water safe to drink and how do they remove dangerous
contaminants to make our water clean and safe?
To answer these and many more questions, we’re going to review
the different water purification types, including boiling, filtration,
distillation and reverse osmosis. We’ll discuss the important
differences between these popular drinking water purification
methods and how people can use them to create different types
of drinking water. Get ready for a crash course in everything you
ever wanted to know about water purification methods.
Water Purification Method 1: Boiling
One way to purify water is by boiling it. It is a simple method that
can kill germs and parasites. People have relied on this method
for centuries to produce safe and sanitary water for cooking and
drinking. You can think of it as a tried-and-true method of water
purification.
When to Purify Water
Untreated and unsanitary water can come from natural water
sources like lakes, rivers and streams. It can also come straight
from the tap if it hasn’t been treated properly or if it has been
exposed to contamination from chemicals or sewage. Even water
that looks clean and clear can still harbor bacteria that pose
health risks. For this reason, it’s so important to purify any water
that has not been treated or has been exposed to contaminants.
Boiling water as a form of purification can be an excellent option
in several situations when you don’t have bottled water. You can
do it when you’re camping and need water for drinking or
cooking. It’s recommended when you’re in a country that has
unsanitary drinking water. You should also use boiled water if
your local water supply has become contaminated due to a
hurricane, flood or water main break.

LECTURE # 4
How Do You Boil Water to Make It Safe?
When it comes to boiling water as a means of purification, you
need to know how long to do it. If you don’t do it long enough, the
method could be completely ineffective, which could leave you
and your family sick from water pollution.
To properly boil water, you need a heat source like a stove and
something to hold the water like a pot. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends bringing the
water to a rolling boil and keeping it there for at least one minute.
If you are at an altitude above one mile, you should keep the
water at a rolling boil for at least three minutes.
If you notice your water is cloudy, you will need to filter it before
boiling it. This will prevent you from drinking any dirt or debris.
You can use coffee filters, cloth or paper towels as a filter. Simply,
pour the water through the filter as many times as it takes for the
water to become clear. Keep in mind, you will still need to boil it
to remove microscopic pathogens.
Water Purification Method 2: Filtration
Filtration is an excellent water purification method. If you’re used
to drinking tap water, it helps to know how your water is filtered
before it reaches your faucet. Filtration is one of the oldest
techniques and many municipal public water systems rely on it
today to purify drinking water before it comes to your tap. This
process simply involves separating solid debris from the water
bypassing the liquid through a filter.

he Basics of Water Filtration

As mentioned above, the concept of filtration is simple. You slowly
allow water to pass through a filter to remove any solid impurities
like dirt, dust or other debris. The filter typically consists of some
porous materials like cotton or glass wool, cloth, paper, gravel or
sand. The size of the pores of the filter determines the size of
particles that can pass through.
Filtration allows water to pass through the filter, leaving behind
any solids. For the best results, the filtration process is usually
done multiple times. This ensures that the filter removes any
unwanted particles from the water.
When you’re filtering water yourself, you will typically use
materials like cloth or paper of some kind. In the past, municipal
water treatment plants relied exclusively on filters that were
made of charcoal, gravel or sand. The process of filtering water
through such a granular bed is what we call slow sand filtration.
Modern Water Filtration
Modern filtration systems at municipal water treatment plants
build on slow sand filtration and enhance it by incorporating a
multimedia filter. This filter is primarily made of carbon, which
creates a solid block. This is different than the unstructured and
loose sand filters.
In addition to the solid carbon, modern water filters also include
other substances to help clean the supply using chemical and
physical processes. On the chemical side, the multimedia filter
absorbs the contaminants. The carbon’s atomic charge makes
any particles in the water lose their bond with water and attach to
the filter. Physically, the multimedia filter traps particles that are
bigger than water in its pores. This physical process is like slow
sand filtration.
Typically, the water goes through several stages of multimedia
filters to make sure it has been properly purified. In the end, the
water emerges from the multimedia filter, free of dirt, debris, and
contaminants of all sizes.
Water Purification Method 3: Distillation
You may have heard of distillation as a method to make alcoholic
beverages like whiskey and gin. However, it is also a way to purify
water. This process removes many contaminants from the water,
but it also can remove essential minerals. As a result, many
experts do not recommend that people exclusively drink distilled
water.

The Basics of Water Distillation

Distillation purifies water by using a heat source to vaporize it.
When the water becomes a vapor, it separates the liquid from any
contaminants or debris that can appear in surface water or
groundwater.
The process of distillation is simple. Water has a much lower
boiling point than solids and minerals. As such, you can distill
water by taking untreated water and heating it until the water
reaches its boiling point and starts to turn into vapor. By keeping
the heat at a constant temperature, the water continues to
vaporize, but the solids do not. The process also removes
microscopic and disease-causing organisms like bacteria and
viruses.
After all the water is a vapor, you place it in a condenser. When it
cools, the water turns back into a liquid. To ensure the water is
free of contamination, people often repeat the distillation process
multiple times.

The Role of Solar Power in Distillation

People have long experimented with using solar power to distill
water. This option is appealing because it is an efficient and eco-
friendly alternative to heating water using traditional power
sources.
However, solar power also has drawbacks when it comes to
distillation. The biggest issue is that it only works for small
amounts of liquids. Additionally, the time it takes to distill water
multiple times is greater when using solar power than it is when
you use a traditional source of power.
Water Purification Method 4: Chlorine
You might think of swimming pools and water parks when chlorine
comes to mind, but it is also a way to purify drinking water.
Chlorine has an important purpose in water purification. It
removes harmful and deadly microorganisms from our tap water,
so 98% of U.S. water utilities use it to purify drinking water.
The Role of Chlorine
There’s a good reason why people think of filtering and adding
chlorine to drinking water as one of the millennium’s most
significant advances in public health. It has virtually eliminated
outbreaks of waterborne diseases in the United States and
developed countries around the world.
Chlorine does an excellent job of killing microscopic pathogens
that can live in our water supply. Health officials have added
chlorine to our drinking water since 1908. As a result, cholera,
dysentery, and typhoid fever are diseases we think of as old-
fashioned illnesses of the Oregon Trail rather than concerns of the
modern-day.
How Chlorine Purifies Water
Chlorine is the only disinfectant that can effectively kill
microorganisms like bacteria during the water treatment process.
It also maintains water quality on its journey from the treatment
plant to your tap.
Although we have been using chlorine for over a century, we’re
still not sure how it kills or inactivates microorganisms. After
decades of research, scientists think that chlorine works by
attacking the cell wall of bacteria. They think that exposing a
microorganism to chlorine destroys its cell wall by biochemically,
chemically and physically changing it. After that, it stops the cell’s
vital functions and kills it.
Is Chlorine Safe for Humans?
You might be wondering why chlorine can kill microorganisms and
not harm humans. The concentration of chlorine in our drinking
water is enough to kill small and simple microorganisms.
However, humans are much bigger and more complex, so small
doses of chlorine are not enough to harm us.
To keep us safe, water utilities carefully regulate chlorine levels.
They make sure they are high enough to kill dangerous
microorganisms but low enough to not hurt humans and animals.
Doing so ensures that we have safe drinking water for everyone.

Water Purification Method 5: Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis sounds like a complex scientific term, not
necessarily a way to create safe drinking water. However, that is
exactly what it can do for us. Osmosis is when molecules pass
through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated
solution to a more concentrated one. Reverse osmosis is simply
the opposite.
How Reverse Osmosis Works
A reverse osmosis system has three canisters. One is the
membrane and the other two contain carbon filters. The first step
of water purification using reverse osmosis is pre-filtration. We
remove larger sediment and reduce chlorine using a sediment
filter, or carbon block filter. This protects the membrane from
becoming damaged or clogged.
The next step involves using pressure to force water through the
semipermeable reverse osmosis membrane. This membrane is
made of synthetic plastic and it allows water to pass through.
However, it does not allow calcium, chlorine, sodium, bacteria,
viruses and other contaminants to pass.
The final step happens after filtration. During this step, the water
goes through another carbon filter, or post-filter, that removes
any contaminants that may have escaped the membrane. The
result is fresh and purified water that you can use for drinking,
cleaning, bathing, and laundry.
What Can Reverse Osmosis Remove
Reverse osmosis is famous for its ability to remove a variety of
contaminants like lead, arsenic, nitrates, chromium, radium,
bacteria, and viruses. Not only that, but the reverse osmosis
process can also help desalinate water. This process can turn
saltwater into safe drinking water.

LECTURE NO. 5 & 6

A Look at FloWater’s 7X Advanced Purification
FloWater combines several of the above water purification
methods to provide the purest water on the market. Our 7x
Advanced Purification system removes up to 99% of impurities
and contaminants from your existing water source resulting in
great tasting purified drinking water. Our water purification
system is broken down into seven different phases. The first three
phases utilize different types of filtration to remove debris from
the water. We start with a sediment filter that removes dirt, dust,
rust, and other suspended solids that might exist in your tap
water or pipes. We then use a carbon filter to remove smaller
particles such as chlorine, radon, hydrogen sulfide, and heavy
metals. This filter also removes any odors or unpleasant taste.
The third filter we use is an advanced osmosis filter. As discussed
above, this filter uses a semi-permeable membrane to remove
contaminants like fluoride, bacteria, lead, viruses, heavy metals,
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, herbicides, and dissolved solids.
From there, we improve the water with trace elements and
electrolytes. Activated oxygen is added to the water to help
sanitize the tank and increase the oxygen levels in your blood and
muscles. Alkaline is added to raise the pH level of the water and
neutralize acidity in your body and relieve stress on your internal
organs. Electrolytes are added to support your immune defense,
cell repair, bone strength, and to keep you energized. Lastly, the
water is passed through a coconut carbon filter to give it a
delicious and fresh taste.
FloWater is striving to provide the world with safer and healthier
water. If you are interested in taking your water to the next level
and improving the quality of the water you consume, reach out to
FloWater today!

LECTURE NO. 7

OVERVIEW OF THE HOME ENVIRONMENT CENTER’S 10-STAGE

DRINKING WATER PURIFICATION PROCESS:
STEP 1: ION EXCHANGE
Ion exchange effectively removes the minerals responsible for
“hard water” pipe scaling and deposits. The process also removes
various heavy metals such as lead, iron, mercury, and cadmium,
many of which have been associated with a number of well-
publicized health concerns.
STEP 2: GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON
Once the water passes through the ion exchange system, it
moves into the carbon filtration process which removes chlorine,
pesticides, herbicides, and other organic contaminants including
trihalomethanes (THM)s.
STEP 3: SEDIMENT FILTER
The five-micron sediment filter traps larger particles such as sand,
dirt, or grit. It’s necessary to remove these large particles very
early in the process to prevent fouling and clogging of the more
sensitive equipment used at the later stages.
STEP 4: REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is the centerpiece of the Home
Environment Center’s water purification process. In our state-of-
the-art reverse osmosis system, height pressure forces water
across a membrane, leaving impurities behind. Only pure water
crosses the membrane. Even the dissolved impurities which
cannot be removed by conventional filtration are captured and
eliminated. This produces great-tasting water with a purity level
that surpasses spring water, mineral, or home filtered water.
STEP 5: FIVE MICRON CARBON BLOCK FILTER
This filter is designed to capture particles larger than five
millionths of a meter. The filter (composed of an extruded block of
carbon) provides an additional measure of adsorptive capacity for
removing chlorine and organic contaminants. It also serves as a
final polishing vehicle, giving the HEC water its “sweetwater”
taste.
STEP 6: ULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION
During this step, the water passes through a chamber which
houses a larger ultraviolet (UV) light. The UV light acts as a
powerful sterilization agent. If any bacteria, viruses, or other
microbiological contaminants are present, the UV light destroys
them. This is the first phase of chemical-free disinfection.
STEP 7: FIVE MICRON SEDIMENT FILTER
This filter is a protective device designed to maintain system
integrity during servicing so that the final product holding tank is
not compromised.
STEP 8: OZONATION
In this phase of purification and disinfection, ozone (o3) is
circulated through the purified water. Ozone is powerful and is
capable of oxidizing a range of contaminants, impurities, and
organisms – even cryptosporidium. Ozone is not a stable state for
oxygen, and over a few minutes, it returns to its natural state.
The disinfection system is simple, yet extremely effective. Best of
all, it relies on nothing more than natural oxygen – no strange
chemicals or additives.
STEP 9: STORAGE AND RECIRCULATION
The water now moves into a storage tank of FDA approved food-
grade material, where it continuously travels through a
recirculation loop. During recirculation, additional ozone is
periodically added to maintain the sterile, bacteria-free condition
of the system.
STEP 10: PURIFIED WATER DISPENSING
When a bottle is filled at the Home Environment Center, the water
is drawn directly from the continuous recirculation loop. For
added protection, the water dispensers use stainless steel on all
water contact surfaces. As the water passes through the
dispenser into the bottle, enough ozone is present in the water to
resanitize the conta
 LECTURE # 8
TERMINOLOGIES
Power Words
aquifer Rock that can contain or transmit groundwater.
array A broad and organized group of objects. Sometimes they
are instruments placed in a systematic fashion to collect
information in a coordinated way. Other times, an array can refer
to things that are laid out or displayed in a way that can make a
broad range of related things, such as colors, visible at once. The
term can even apply to a range of options or choices.
arsenic A highly poisonous metallic element. It occurs in three
chemically different forms, which also vary by color (yellow, black
and gray). The brittle, crystalline (gray) form is the most common.
Some manufacturers tap its toxicity by adding it to insecticides.
bacteria (singular: bacterium) Single-celled organisms. These
dwell nearly everywhere on Earth, from the bottom of the sea to
inside other living organisms (such as plants and animals).
calcium A chemical element which is common in minerals of the
Earth’s crust and in sea salt. It is also found in bone mineral and
teeth, and can play a role in the movement of certain substances
into and out of cells.
chemical A substance formed from two or more atoms that unite
(bond) in a fixed proportion and structure. For example, water is a
chemical made when two hydrogen atoms bond to one oxygen
atom. Its chemical formula is H2O. Chemical also can be an
adjective to describe properties of materials that are the result of
various reactions between different compounds.
colleague Someone who works with another; a co-worker or
team member.
contaminant Pollutant; a chemical, biological or other substance
that is unwanted or unnatural in an environment (such as water,
soil, air, the body or food). Some contaminants may be harmful in
the amounts at which they occur or if they are allowed to build up
in the body or environment over time.
corrosion (v. to corrode; adj. corrosive) A chemical reaction in
which metals react with gases or other materials in their
environment and undergo a type of degradation. The rusting of
iron is one example of corrosion that is driven by exposure to
moisture. These reactions normally are enhanced in an
environment that is strongly acidic or strongly alkaline.
electric charge The physical property responsible for electric
force; it can be negative or positive.
Is water treatment always successful?
Despite the standards and rigorous supervision, water treatment
isn’t always effective. In 2014, in Flint, Michigan, the city
switched its primary water source to the Flint River. The water
treatment services were not adequately set up to treat a highly
corrosive water supply that caused health issues throughout the
local population. The Flint crisis stemmed from the fact that the
city’s outdated infrastructure used lead piping to funnel water
into homes and businesses.
The Flint River water was so corrosive it caused the heavy metal
to leach into the supply after the water had passed through the
main treatment facilities, highlighting the risks along any water
system.

Water dispensers guarantee clean, purified drinking water

There’s only one way to ensure your water supply is entirely safe
— that is, to install a filtration and purification system where you
fill your glass.
A water dispenser uses an array of technologies to ensure your
water supply is purified, starting with high-performance carbon
filtration that removes chlorine, lead and pesticides. This is
followed by microbiological purification using UV light to
eliminate 99.9999% of all germs (including E. Coli, Salmonella and
Hepatitis), guaranteeing pure water thanks to a process that’s
100% chemical-free.
If you’re ever unsure whether your local water supply is fit for
consumption, contact Waterlogic, and our expert customer
service agents will recommend the perfect point-of-use water
dispenser to protect your office from water contaminants.
The Various Drinking Water Purification Methods
We all know that it’s not a good idea to drink directly from a river,
but it helps to know how this water gets purified before reaching
your faucet. Water that has not gone through the water
purification process is full of contaminants like bacteria, viruses,
dirt, pesticides and other chemicals. Drinking such water can
cause diarrhea and vomiting, or even more serious health risks.
Before you drink water, it should have gone through one or more
of the water purification methods. These methods that make our
water safe to drink and how do they remove dangerous
contaminants to make our water clean and safe?
To answer these and many more questions, we’re going to review
the different water purification types, including boiling, filtration,
distillation and reverse osmosis. We’ll discuss the important
differences between these popular drinking water purification
methods and how people can use them to create different types
of drinking water. Get ready for a crash course in everything you
ever wanted to know about water purification methods.
Water Purification Method 1: Boiling
One way to purify water is by boiling it. It is a simple method that
can kill germs and parasites. People have relied on this method
for centuries to produce safe and sanitary water for cooking and
drinking. You can think of it as a tried-and-true method of water
purification.
When to Purify Water
Untreated and unsanitary water can come from natural water
sources like lakes, rivers and streams. It can also come straight
from the tap if it hasn’t been treated properly or if it has been
exposed to contamination from chemicals or sewage. Even water
that looks clean and clear can still harbor bacteria that pose
health risks. For this reason, it’s so important to purify any water
that has not been treated or has been exposed to contaminants.
Boiling water as a form of purification can be an excellent option
in several situations when you don’t have bottled water. You can
do it when you’re camping and need water for drinking or
cooking. It’s recommended when you’re in a country that has
unsanitary drinking water. You should also use boiled water if
your local water supply has become contaminated due to a
hurricane, flood or water main break.