CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

• Compounds of carbon are known as organic compounds.

• All organic compounds contain hydrogen along with carbon.
• The study of carbon compounds and its derivatives are called organic
chemistry.
Occurrence:

• Carbon is found in the atmosphere, inside the earth’s crust and in all living
organisms.
• Carbon is present in fuels like wood, coal, charcoal, coke, petroleum, natural
gas, biogas, marsh gas etc.
• Carbon is present in compounds like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates etc.
• Carbon is found in the free state as diamond, graphite, fullerenes etc.

Versatile nature of Carbon:

The two characteristic properties of the element carbon which leads to

the formation of a very large number of organic compounds are:

i. Catenation: The property of the element, carbon due to which its

atoms can join one another to form long carbon chains is called
catenation.
Types of Chains
• Straight chain
• Branched chains
• Closed or ring chains
a. Straight chain of carbon atoms

b. Branched chain of carbon atoms

c. Closed or ring chain of carbon atoms

 ii. Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four. So, it is capable of
bonding with four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other
monovalent element.
Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
sulphur, chlorine and many other elements, giving rise to
compounds with specific properties which depend on the elements
other than the carbon present in the molecule.

Bonding in Carbon:

• Atomic number of carbon - 6

• Electronic configuration - 2, 4

• It has 4 valence electrons. It can attain stability by gaining 4 electrons, losing

4 electrons or sharing 4 electrons with other atoms.

• It cannot not gain 4 electrons because the anion (C-4) would be highly
unstable due to large amount of energy required to overcome the forces of
repulsion between the total of 10 electrons. (It is difficult for the 6 protons to
hold 10 electrons).

• It cannot lose 4 electrons because the cation (C+4) would be highly unstable
due to the large amount of energy required to remove 4 electrons from the
atom.

• To attain the noble gas configuration, Carbon shares its 4 valence electrons.
Therefore, carbon forms 4 bonds and is tetravalent.

• A chemical bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of electrons

is called covalent bond.
• The number of electrons contributed by each atom for sharing is known as its
covalency.

Types of covalent bonds:

• Single bond

• Example: The atomic number of hydrogen is 1, its electronic

configuration is 1, it has 1 valence electron. It needs 1 electron more to
attain stability. So, two hydrogen atoms share 1 pair of electrons
resulting in the formation of a single covalent bond in hydrogen
molecule H2.

• Double bond

• Example: The atomic number of oxygen is 8, its EC is 2,6, it has 6 VE,

it needs 2 electrons more to attain stability. So, two oxygen atoms
share two pairs of electrons resulting in the formation of a double
covalent bond in oxygen molecule O2.

• Triple bond

• The atomic number of nitrogen is 7, its EC is 2,5, it has 5 VE, it needs

3 electrons more to attain stability. So, two nitrogen atoms share three
pairs of electrons resulting in the formation of a triple covalent bond in
nitrogen molecule N2.

Electron Dot Structure:

• Electron dot structures or Lewis dot formula can be drawn if the molecular
formula of the compound is known.
• In Lewis dot structures each dot represents an electron. A pair of dots
between chemical symbols for atoms represents a bond.
• Examples:
 Draw the electron dot structures of the following:

a) CH4
b) C2H6
c) HCl
d) Cl2
e) NH3
f) H2O
g) CCl4
h) C2H4
i) C2H2
j) SO2

Allotropes of Carbon:

• The various physical forms in which an element can exist are called the
allotropes of that element.
• Carbon has three allotropes:
o Diamond
o Graphite
o Buckminster fullerene

Diamond
• In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms,
forming a three-dimensional structure.
• The rigid structure of diamond makes it a very hard substance.
• It is a non-conductor of electricity since there are no free electrons in a
diamond crystal.
• It can be synthesized by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and
temperature.
Graphite
• In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms
in the same plane, giving it a hexagonal array.
• One of the bonds is a double bond and thus the valency of carbon is
satisfied.
• Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in
layers, one above another.
• Graphite is smooth and slippery.
• It is a very good conductor of electricity due to the presence of free
electrons.

Fullerene
• It is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60 carbon atoms
joined together to form spherical molecules.
• There are 60 carbon atoms in a molecule of buckminsterfullerene, so its
formula is C60.
• The allotrope was named buckminsterfullerene after the American
architect Buckminster Fuller.

HYDROCARBONS:

Compounds which are made of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons can be classified as follows.

Saturated Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are connected by only
single bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons.
• Saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.
• General formula of alkanes: CnH2n+2, n = number of carbon atoms

Number
of C Formula Prefix Name Structure
atoms
1 CH4 Meth Methane
2 C2H6 Eth Ethane
3 C3H8 Prop Propane
4 C4H10 But Butane
5 C5H12 Pent Pentane
6 C6H14 Hex Hexane
7 C7H16 Hept Heptane
8 C8H18 Oct Octane
9 C9H20 Non Nonane
10 C10H22 Dec Decane

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes)

• Hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double
or a triple bond are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types
o Alkenes
o Alkynes

o Alkenes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are
connected by a double bond is called an alkene.
Alkenes contain the C=C.
General formula: CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
Number
of C Formula Prefix Name Structure
atoms
2 C2H4 Eth Ethene
3 C3H6 Prop Propene
4 C4H8 But Butene
5 C5H10 Pent Pentene

o Alkynes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are
connected by a triple bond is called an alkyne.
An alkyne contains carbon-carbon triple bond, C≡C.
General formula: CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms.

Number
of C Formula Prefix Name Structure
atoms

2 C2H2 Eth Ethyne

3 C3H4 Prop Propyne

4 C4H6 But Butyne

5 C5H8 Pent Pentyne

Isomerism:

Carbon compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae are called isomers. This property is called isomerism.
Examples:
1. Butane (C4H10)

2. Pentane (C5H12)
 3. Hexane (C6H14)

Cycloalkanes:

• General formula: CnH2n

• Prefix: Cyclo

• General name: Cycloalkane

Number of C atoms Formula Name Structure

3 C3H6 Cyclopropane

4 C4H8 Cyclobutane

5 C5H10 Cyclopentane

6 C6H12 Cyclohexane
Homologous series:

• It may be defined as a family of organic compounds having the same

functional group, similar chemical properties and the successive members of
which differ by a CH2 unit.

• Example: Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes

Functional groups

An atom or a group of atoms which decides the chemical properties of a

compound is called a functional group.

Naming the compound

• Identify the number of carbon atoms

• The functional group is indicated either by prefix or suffix

• If a suffix is to be added, the last letter ‘e’ is deleted

• If carbon chain is unsaturated, write ‘-ene’ for a double bond and ‘-yne’ for a
triple bond in the given compound

• The position of the functional group on the carbon chain is given by lowest
possible numerical prefix
Haloalkanes

• General formula: CnH2n+1 X, where X is F, Cl, Br, I

• Prefix: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo

Alcohols

• General formula: CnH2n+1 OH

• Functional group- OH

• Suffix: ol
• General name: Alkanol

Aldehydes

• General formula: CnH2n+1 CHO

• Functional group- CHO

• Suffix: al

• General name: Alkanal

Ketones

• General formula: CnH2n+1 CO CnH2n+1

• Functional group -CO-

• Suffix: one

• General name: Alkanone

Carboxylic acids

• General formula: CnH2n+1 CO COOH

• Functional group -COOH

• Suffix: oic acid

• General name: Alkanoic acid

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

1. Combustion (Burning)
It is a process in which a substance is heated strongly in presence of excess of
oxygen.
C + O2 → CO2 + heat + light
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat + light
CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat + light
• These reactions are exothermic, with the evolution of a large amount of
heat.
• Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame (clean flame).
• Unsaturated carbon compounds burn in air with a yellow, sooty flame
(black carbon particles are produced due to incomplete combustion).
Note:
• All those fuels which are gaseous or get easily converted into vapours on
heating will burn with a flame.
• Few solids (coal and charcoal) which cannot be converted into vapours on
heating burn in an angithi without producing flame. They just glow red.

2. Oxidation
Addition of oxygen to any substance is called oxidation
Substances which are capable of adding oxygen to other substances are called
oxidising agents.
• Alkaline potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
• Acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

3. Addition reaction
• This reaction occurs only in unsaturated compounds, where there is a double
or triple bond.
• The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to obtain a
saturated hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation.
For example:
Ethene, on heating with hydrogen, in the presence of a nickel or palladium
catalyst forms ethane.
𝑵𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒍, 𝟒𝟕𝟑𝑲
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑

• The process of hydrogenation is used in industries to prepare vegetable

ghee (or vanaspati ghee) from vegetable oils.
Vegetable oils develop bad smell when exposed to hot and humid conditions
due to the presence of unsaturated carbon chains.
Hydrogenation reduces the number of unsaturated carbon and hence slows
down the development of bad smell (rancidity).

Note:
• Halogenation (Addition of halogen)
𝑪𝑪𝒍𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓𝟐 → 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
4. Substitution reaction
When one or more hydrogen atoms of alkanes are replaced by halogens or a
group of atoms, it is called a substitution reaction.
Due to the presence of strong C-C and C-H single bonds, saturated
hydrocarbons are quite unreactive.

For example: Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight

to form chloromethane and hydrogen chloride.
𝒔𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
CH4 + Cl2→ CH3Cl + HCl
𝒔𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
CH3Cl + Cl2→ CH2Cl2 + HCl
 SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS
Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Physical properties:
• Colourless liquid
• Boiling point 351K
• Freezing point 156K
• Distinct smell and burning taste
• Soluble in water

Chemical properties

• Combustion:
• CH3CH2OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat + light

• Reaction with sodium:

Sodium reacts with ethanol to form sodium ethoxide along with the evolution
of hydrogen gas.
2CH3CH2OH + 2Na → 2CH3CH2ONa + H2

• Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid: Ethanol, on heating with excess of

conc. H2SO4 at 170°C gets dehydrated to form ethane
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 443𝐾
CH3 – CH2 – OH → CH2 = CH2 + H2O
It is called as dehydration reaction.
Uses of ethanol

• Antiseptic for wounds, sterilizing skin before giving an injection

• Alcoholic beverages (beer, rum, whisky, brandy)

• As a solvent for paints, cough syrups, tincture of iodine

• Preparation of other organic compounds

• Fuel- power alcohol

• Antifreeze

• In thermometers
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

Physical properties:

• Colourless liquid
• Pungent smell
• Boiling point = 391K, melting point = 290K
(when 100% acetic acid freezes, it forms glacier like crystals. Hence it is called
glacial acetic acid)
• Soluble in water
• 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.
Chemical properties

1. Acidic nature:
• Turns blue litmus red
• Dissociates partially to produce H+ ions
• Reacts with alkalis or bases

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

2. Reaction with active metals

Ethanoic acid reacts with active metals (sodium, potassium, calcium,

magnesium). This reaction involves liberation of hydrogen gas along with
formation of a metal salt.

2CH3COOH + 2Na → 2CH3COONa + H2

3. Reaction with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate

When ethanoic acid is treated with sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate,

sodium ethanoate is formed and carbon dioxide gas is evolved.

2CH3COOH +Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O +CO2

Acetic acid Sodium acetate

CH3COOH +NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O +CO2

Acetic acid Sodium acetate

4. Esterification:
The reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form an ester.
Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of a small amount of conc.
sulphuric acid to form an ester, ethyl acetate.
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4, ∆
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂

HYDROLYSIS OF ESTERS
• Esters on heating with aqueous acid or base gives back original alcohol and
original carboxylic acid.

• Alkaline hydrolysis of ester to give the salt of corresponding carboxylic acid

and alcohol is called saponification. It is the reverse of esterification.

Soaps and detergents

• Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of lonf chain carboxylic acids (fatty
acids).
• Detergents are ammonium or sulphate or sulphonate salts of long chain
hydrocarbons.
Manufacture of soap
Saponification of fats and oils gives soap and glycerol.
Fat or vegetable oil + NaOH → SOAP + glycerol

Cleansing action of soap

• Both soap and detergent molecules consist of two parts:

• A long hydrocarbon tail- It is also non-polar in nature and insoluble in water.
Hence called as hydrophobic tail.
• A negatively charged head- It is polar in nature and soluble in water. Hence
called as hydrophilic head.

• When soap is at the surface of water, its non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbon

tail will not dissolve in water. The hydrophilic heads will enter the water
surface.
• Inside water, the soap molecules align themselves in a unique formation
called as micelles.
 • The polar hydrophilic heads dissolve in water while the non-polar
hydrophobic tails come together to form a spherical structure called micelle.
• When a dirty cloth is treated with soap or detergent solution, the non-polar
hydrocarbon tails dissolve in oil/grease while the polar heads are held by the
surrounding water.
• When the surface of the cloth is mechanically scrubbed, the loosened oil
particles are removed from the surface and the cloth is cleaned.

Difference between soaps and detergents