Craniometric

UNIT 1 CRANIOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS* Measurements

Contents
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Human Skeleton
1.1.1 Axial Skeleton
1.1.2 Appendicular Skeleton
1.2 Skull
1.3 Craniometry
1.4 Instruments
1.4.1 Calipers
1.4.1.1 Spreading Caliper
1.4.1.2 Sliding Caliper

1.4.2 Steel Tape

1.4.3 Mandibulometer
1.5 Craniometric Measurements
1.6 Indices
1.7 References

Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the human skeleton system;
 Elucidate the various landmarks of Craniometry;
 Demonstrate the instruments used in Craniometry; and
 Describe some of the craniometric measurements.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Anthropometry is a major technique of physical anthropology. Anthropometry
is a method to take measurements of human body. It is the means of quantifying
variation in body size and shape. It may be defined as the systematic recording
of measurements on human being both living and dead. According to Juan
Comas “Anthropometry is the systematized technique for measuring and taking
observations on man, his skeleton, the skull, the limbs, trunk, etc., as well as
organs, by the most reliable means and scientific methods. Anthropometry can
be divided into Somatometry and Osteometry.
Somatometry is the recording of measurements on living body or cadaver,
including head and face. Osteometry is the measurements on skeleton, including
Craniometry, which deals with measurements on skull. The somatometric
measurements includes; height, sitting height, body weight, head circumference,
chest circumference, abdominal circumference, head length, head breadth,
skinfold thickness measurements such as triceps, biceps, subscapular, etc.

169
*Contributed by Dr. Palla Venkatramana, Discplne of Authropology, SOSS, IGNOU, New
Delhi.
Practical Manual Osteometric measurements includes maximum length of radius, maximum
length of ulna etc. Craniometric measurements (Skull and Mandible) includes,
maximum cranial length, maximum cranial breadth, nasal height, nasal breadth
etc. For the present manual, we shall study Craniometry.
Before going further on craniometric measurements, let us understand Osteology,
which is the scientific study of human skeleton.

1.1 HUMAN SKELETON

The human skeleton system (Figure 1.1) consists of 206 bones and comprises of
two groups. They are Axial and Appendicular skeletal system.

Fig. 1.1: Human Skeleton

(Source: https://in.pinterest.com/pin/416723771742096557/?nic_v2=1a3xBXNa2}

1.1.1 Axial Skeleton (bones-80)

(Source: https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/skeletal/divisions/axial.html):

The axial skeletal system forms the axis of the body and consists of skull,
vertebral column and thoracic cage. The skull has two parts namely cranium and
facial bones. The cranium is made up of eight bones while facial bones consists
of 14 bones. The cranial bones are attached by sutures and not movable. Facial
bones form the face. Mandible is the only movable bone in the face.
The axial skeleton system consists of a total of 80 bones. The composition of
axial skeletal system is as follows:
Skull (Cranial Bones): Temporal-2, Parietal-2, Occipital-1, Frontal-1,
170 Ethamoid-1 and Sphenoid-1.
 Craniometric
Measurements

Fig. 1.2: Skull (Cranial Bones)

Facial Bones: Maxilla-2, Nasal-2, Zygomatic-2, Platine-2, Mandible-1, Inferior

Nasal Concha-2, Lacrimal and Vomer-1; Auditory Ossicles: Incus-2, Malleus-2
and Stapes-2.

Fig. 1.3: Skull (Facial Bones)

Fig. 1.4: Auditory Ossicles

Hyoid bone (1)

Vertebral Column: Cervical-7, Thoracic-12, Lumbar-5, Sacrum-1 and
Coccyx-1. 171
Practical Manual

Fig. 1.5: Vertebral Column

Thoracic Cage: Sternum-1 and Ribs-24.

Fig. 1.6: Thoracic Cage

1.1.2 Appendicular Skeleton (Bones -126)

Source: https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/skeletal/divisions/appendicular.html).

The Appendicular skeletal system comprises of 126 bones. They are as

follows:
Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle-2, scapula-2.

Fig. 1.7: Pectoral Girdles

Fore Limbs (Upper Extremity): Humerus-2, Radius-2, Ulna-2, Carpals-16,

Metacarpals-10 and Phalanges -28.
172
 Craniometric
Measurements

Fig. 1.8: Upper Extremity

Pelvic Girdle: Hip bones-2.

Fig. 1.9: Pelvic Girdle

Hind Limbs (Lower Extremity): Femur-2, Tibia-2, Fibula-2, Patella-2, Tarsals-

14, Metatarsals-10 and Phalanges-28

Fig. 1.10: Lower Extremity

Classification of Bones: There are five types of bones in the body. They are
long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones and sesamoid bones.
1) Long bones: Each long bone has an elongated shaft or diaphysis and two
expanded ends (epiphyses) which are smooth and articular. Examples
of typical long bones are humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula,
metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges.
173
Practical Manual 2) Short bones: Short bones are defined as being approximately as wide as
they are long and have a primary function of providing support and stability
with little movement. Examples: carpal and tarsal bones in the wrist and
foot.
3) Flat Bones: These bones resemble shallow plates and form boundaries of
certain body cavities. The example of a flat bone is the scapula, sternum,
cranium, pelvis and ribs.
4) Irregular bones: The bones, which cannot be grouped under any of the
above groups, are included in this category. Bones of the vertebral column,
sacrum and mandible are the best examples.
5) Sesamoid bones: These are bony nodules found embedded in the tendons
or joint capsules. The patella (knee cap) is a good example.
Since the practical manual deals with craniometry (measurements on skull), a
brief description of the skull (Cranium and Mandible) is presented below.

1.2 SKULL
Skull (Fig. 1.11) is the upper most part of the human skeleton consisting of
head and face. The human skull consists of 22 bones. Except for the mandible
(lower jaw), all the bones of the skull are connected together by sutures. The
skeleton of a skull without mandible is called Cranium which is made up of 8
bones and thirteen bones form the facial skeleton. The mandible is a movable
bone held to the cranium by ligaments. The cranial bones can be divided into
two categories: the calvaria and the cranial base. The calvaria is the dome-
shaped superior portion of the cranium. It is composed of the frontal, occipital,
and parietal bones, and the flat portion of the temporal bones. The cranial base
is composed of the two remaining cranial bones, the ethmoid and the sphenoid
bone. Fourteen facial bones form the other components of the skull. The facial
bones are composed of the inferior nasal conchae, lacrimal bones, mandible,
maxillary bones, nasal bones, palatine bones, vomer and zygomatic bones.

Fig. 1.11: Human Skull

174 (Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/99923685466315503/)
Let us get familiar with the description of the bones of the Cranium and Facial Craniometric
skeleton. Measurements

Cranium
Eight bones constitute the cranium. They are, frontal (1), parietal (2), occipital
(1), temporal (2), sphenoid (1) and ethmoid (1).
Frontal bone: The frontal bone forms the anterior part of the skull above
the eyes. On the upper margin of each orbit, the frontal bone is marked by a
supraorbital foramen and or supraorbital notch.
Parietal bones: The two parietal bones jointly constitute upper part of the lateral
wall of the cranium. One parietal bone is located on each side of the skull, just
behind the frontal bone. Both the parietal bones jointly form the bulging sides
and roof of the cranium.
Occipital bone: This bone forms the back of the skull and the base of the
cranium. The lambdoidal suture connects the occipital bone and the parietal
bones. There is a large opening on its lower surface called the foramen magnum.
Occipital condyles, which are rounded processes are located on each side of
the foramen magnum, articulate with the atlas (first vertebra) of the vertebral
column.
Temporal bone: On each side of the skull the temporal bone joins the parietal
bone along a squamosal suture. Parts of the sides and the base of the cranium
are formed by the temporal bones. The external auditory meatus, is an opening
which is located near the inferior margin and leads to inward parts of the ear.
We find there are two projections-a rounded mastoid process and a long, pointed
styloid process under the external auditory meatus. A zygomatic process projects
anteriorly from the temporal bone and joins the zygomatic bone.
Sphenoid bone: On the anterior portion of the cranium this sphenoid bone is
wedged between numerous other bones. It consists of a central part and two
greater and two lesser wings. The base of the cranium, sides of the skull and
floors and sides of the orbits are formed by the sphenoid bone. A portion of
the sphenoid bone rises up and forms a saddle shaped mass called the sella
turcica.
Ethmoid bone: The ethmoid bone is cubical in shape and is very light. It is
situated at the anterior part of the base of the cranium and contributes in forming
the medial walls of the orbits, the septum of the nose, and roof and lateral walls
of the nasal cavity.
Facial Skeleton: The facial skeleton consists of fourteen bones of which thirteen
are immovable, the lower jaw being a movable bone. These bones include,
Maxilla (2), Zygomatic (2), Lacrimal (2), Nasal (2), Inferior nasal conchae (2),
Palatine (2), Vomer (1) and Mandible (1).
Maxillary bones: The upper jaw is formed by the maxillary bones. The inferior
border of each maxillary bone projects downward forming an alveolar process.
These processes together form a horseshoe-shaped alveolar arch. The anterior
roof of the mouth, floor of the orbits, and sides and floor of the nasal cavity
comprise the portions of maxillary bones. These bones also contain the sockets 175
Practical Manual of the upper teeth. Lateral to the nasal cavity, inside the maxillae are maxillary
sinuses, which are the largest of the sinuses. In course of development to form the
anterior section of the hard palate, portions of the maxillae (palatine processes),
grow together and fuse along the midline. The alveolar process is formed by the
inferior border of each maxillary bone which is projecting downwards. Together
these processes form a horseshoe shaped alveolar arch.
Zygomatic bones: The prominences of the cheeks below and to the sides of the
eyes are formed by these zygomatic bones. In the formation the lateral walls
and floors of the orbits the zygomatic bones help a lot. Each of these zygomatic
bones have a temporal process, which extend posteriorly to unite the zygomatic
process of a temporal bone. Jointly these two processes (temporal process,
zygomatic process) form a zygomatic arch.
Lacrimal bones: The lacrimal bone is situated in the medial wall of each orbit
between the ethmoid bone and maxilla.
Nasal bones: These nasal bones lie side by side and are fused at the midline
and form the bridge of the nose. The nasal bones are long, thin and almost
rectangular.
Inferior nasal conchae: These bones are scroll-shaped, delicate and attached
to the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The inferior conchae, provide support for
mucous membranes within the nasal cavity like that of the superior and middle
conchae.
Palatine bones: Each bone is more or less L-shaped. These palatine bones are
situated at the back the maxillae. The horizontal portions serve as both the posterior
section of the hard palate and the floor of the nasal cavity. The lateral walls of the
nasal cavity are formed by the perpendicular portions of the palatine bones.
Vomer: Vomer is located in the midsagittal line. This bone articulates with the
sphenoid and the ethmoid bones and the left and right palatine bones. It also
articulates with the left and right maxillary bones.
Mandible: The mandible is a movable bone held to the cranium by ligaments
and consists of a horizontal, horseshoe-shaped body with a flat portion projecting
upward at each end. These two processes called an anterior coronoid process
and the other is a posterior mandibular z b zcondyle. The coronoid processes
serve as attachments for muscles used in chewing whereas the mandibular
condyles articulate with the mandibular fossae of the temporal bones. The other
large chewing muscles are inserted on the lateral surface of the mandible. The
alveolar arch that contain the hollow sockets bear the lower teeth.
Morphologically, the human skull can be studied in five different views. They
are:
Norma verticalis - Superior view
Norma basalis - Inferior view
Norma frontalis - Anterior view
Norma Occipitalis - Posterior view

176 Norma Lateralis - Lateral view

 Craniometric
1.3 CRANIOMETRY Measurements
Craniometry is the recording of measurement of the bones of cranium (skull and
mandible). The objective of craniometry is to study the form and shape of human
skull. Different landmarks are used in measuring craniometric measurements.
Hence let us understand what is a landmark? A landmark may be defined as a
definite anatomical point or an indefinite point located by geometrical relations
which form the termini of the direct measurement (Rastogi and Shukla, 2017).
But according to the manual of the International Society for the Advancement
of Kinanthropometry (www.isakonlinve.com), a landmark is an identifiable
skeletal point which generally lies close to the body’s surface and is the marker
that identifies the exact location of a measurement site. They are found by
palpation or measurement and can be used to define anatomical correspondence
between individuals. Most commonly used landmarks are located on specific
bones or are easily identifiable by soft tissue features such as nipples or the
navel (Kouchi etal).
Some of the landmarks listed below are commonly used in craniometry. While
determining various landmarks on the skull, the skull should be placed in the
Frankfurt Horizontal (F.H) plane. When the right and left porion (the deepest
point on the upper margin of the external auditory meatus) and the orbital,
preferably the left one, if not the two (the deepest on the inferior margin if
the orbit) of the skull are on the same horizontal plane, it is said to be on the
Frankfurt horizontal plane. This plane is used as a constant plane in measuring
and describing a skull (https://www.iitg.ac.in/cseweb/vlab/anthropology/
Theory_indices.html).
Landmarks:
Basion (ba): It is the point on the anterior margin of the foramen magnum
which is cut by the mid-sagittal plane. This point lies exactly opposite to the
opisthion (o).
Bregma (b): It is the point where the sagittal suture meets the coronal suture.
Condylion laterale (cdl): It is the most lateral point of the condyle of the
mandible.
Coronale (co): It is the point on the lateral margin of the frontal bone (i.e. on
the coronal suture), one on each side, which marks the termini of maximum
frontal breadth. Anatomically, it is an indefinite point.
Euryon (eu): It is the point which lies most laterally of the skull on the
parietal bones. Anatomically, it is an indefinite point. This landmark can only
be determined while taking the maximum cranial breadth.
Fronto temporale (ft): It is the most projected and inwardly placed point of
the superior temporal line.
Frontomalare temporale (fmt): This point is most laterally placed point on
zygomatico frontalis suture. This point lies toward the temporal end of the
fronto-jugal suture.
Glabella (g): It is the point on the frontal bone between the two supra-orbital 177
Practical Manual ridges of the forehead. It is the most projecting point on the mid-sagittal
plane.
Gonion (go): It is the most posterior, inferior and lateral point of the angle of
the lower jaw formed by the posterior margin of the ramus and the basal margin
of the mandible.
Gnathion (gn): It is the lowest point on the lower margin of the mandible in
the mid-sagittal plane.
Inion (i): It is the most prominent point where the two superior nuchal lines
meet in the mid-sagittal plane. In case of weakly developed superior nuchal
lines, one should extend them in the same plane and take the point where they
meet. The point Inion never lies on the lower end of the external occipital
protuberance.
Nasion (n): It is the point where the frontonasal suture meets the mid-sagittal
plane.
Nasospinale (ns): It is the point on the lower margin of the pyriform aperture
projected in mid-sagittal plane. If the nasal spine is not too strongly developed,
the landmark may be determined by drawing a straight line touching the lowest
points of the margins of right and left pyriform apertures. Nasospinale lies at
the point where this line is cut by the mid sagittal plane.
Opisthocranion (op): It is the most posterior point on the occipital bone in the
mid-sagittal plane. The position of the landmark can only be determined while
measuring maximum cranial length. Anatomically it is an indefinite point
Opisthion (o): It is a point where the posterior margin of the foramen magnum
cuts the mid- sagittal plane.
Prosthion (pr): It is the point which lies on the alveolar margin of the upper
jaw in the mid-sagittal plane, projecting most anteriorly between the two central
incisors.
Zygion (zy): This is the lateral most point on the zygomatic bone. Zygion is
determined while taking the bizygomatic breadth.

1.4 INSTRUMENTS
Instruments like spreading caliper, sliding caliper, steel tape and mandibulometer
are used while recording craniometric measurements.

1.4.1 Calipers
Calipers are the most important instruments available for measuring distances
between two definite points. There are two types of calipers-Spreading and
Sliding.
1.4.1.1 Spreading Caliper
This instrument is available in two sizes i.e 25 cm long for taking smaller
measurements and another one 60 cm long for taking the measurements on
Pelvis and hence it is called as Pelvimeter. The caliper comprises of two long
178 arms which are curved outwards and bounded at one end. A meter scale is
fixed to one of the arms and passes through the socket on the second arm. The Craniometric
spreading calipers are made with blunt or rounded ends and sharp or pointed Measurements
ends. The spreading caliper with rounded or blunted ends is used to make
measurements on living human being, whereas, the spreading caliper with sharp
or pointed end is employed to record measurements on skeletons. The calipers
are graduated up to one millimeter.

Fig.1.12: Spreading Caliper with Rounded Ends

http://www.seritex.com/gpm-small-spreading-caliper-rounded-ends-106

Fig. 1.13: Spreading Caliper with Sharp or Pointed Ends

Source: http://www.seritex.com/gpm-small-spreading-caliper-pointed-107
179
Practical Manual 1.4.1.2 Sliding Caliper
The sliding caliper is used for measuring linear measurements or shorter
breadths.
The sliding caliper consists of a 25cm long straight scale graduated on both the
sides. There are two crossbars, one is fixed at the upper end of the metal plate
while the other is fixed on a sliding casket. The crossbars are projected to an
equal distance on both the sides of the scale. One end of the cross arm is sharp
and pointed whereas the other free end is blunt.
The sharp ends are used for taking measurements on skeleton while blunt ends
are used for taking measurements on living human beings. The calipers are
graduated up to one millimeter.

Fig. 1.14: Sliding Caliper

http://www.seritex.com/gpm-sliding-caliper-martin-104

1.4.2 Steel Tape

It is made of flexible steel graduated on both the sides coiled in a metal case
from which it can be pulled out and can back to its position after use. It is used
for measuring girths of different parts of body and skeleton which encompasses
curvature.

180 Fig. 1.15: Steel Tape

1.4.3 Mandibulometer Craniometric
Measurements
It is used for taking measurements on the mandible. It consists of one horizontal
plate, one vertical plate and a protractor. The vertical plate is graduated on both
the sides and slides on a protractor fixed on the horizontal plate. The horizontal
plate is also graduated and has a short vertical wall at one end. This vertical
plate is fixed with screws and it can be raised so as to suit the angle of mandible.
This angle can be measured with protractor which is fixed at the intersection of
the plates. Front side of the basal plate has a thick vertical piece, which can slide
over the surface, and used to fix mandible on the front side.

Fig: 1.16: Mandibulometer

(Source: http://galaxyscientificindia.com/product/mandibulometer-improved-black- type/)

So far, we have learned about different landmarks of craniometry and the

instruments used in craniometry. Now we shall discuss how to measure some
of the craniometric measurements. But before that let us understand what is a
measurement? Measurement is a distance between two landmarks.

1.5 CRANIOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

The procedures for various craniometric measurements are presented as
below:
Maximum Cranial Length (g - op): It measures the straight distance between
glabella (g) and opisthocranion (op).
Instrument: Spreading Caliper (Pointed end)
Procedure: A skull is placed on the working table or on the seed bag. One
point of spreading caliper is kept on the glabella and other point is moved to
the posterior region of the skull on the occipital bone in midsagittal plane and
wherever the maximum length is observed it should be measured.

Fig. 1.17: Recording of Cranial Length 181

Practical Manual Maximum Cranial Breadth (eu – eu): It is the maximum breadth (width)
measured on the skull on right angle (90º) to the mid-sagittal plane.
Instrument: Spreading Caliper
Procedure: Place the skull on the working table or on the seed bag. Keep the
two points of the spreading caliper on two sides of the euryon with the two
hands in the same horizontal plane and record the measurement.

Fig. 1.18: Recording of cranial breadth

Maximum Bizygomatic Breadth (zy – zy): It measures the straight distance

between two zygia (zy) which are the most laterally placed points on the
zygomatic bone.
Instrument: Spreading caliper
Procedure: A skull is placed on the table in norma verticalis position. Two
points of the spreading caliper are kept on zygion of either side of the skull,
wherever maximum breadth observed it should be recorded.
Basion-Bregma Height (ba – b ): It measures the straight distance between
basion (ba) and bregma (b).
Instrument: Spreading caliper
Procedure: The skull is placed in norma lateralis position while right side rests
on the pad. Basion and bregma landmarks are located on the skull. One end of
spreading caliper is kept on the basion on the backside of the skull and the other
end of the caliper is moved to the bregma of the skull and the measurement is
made.
Upper Facial Height (n – pr): It measures the straight distance between nasion
(n) to prosthion (pr).
Instrument: Sliding caliper
Procedure: The skull has to be placed in such a manner that the occipital region
rests on the pad. One point of sharp end of caliper is kept on nasion and the
movable point is extended to the prosthion and the measurement is recorded.
Minimum Frontal Breadth (ft): It measures the straight distance between
182 frontotemporale located on either side of the skull.
Instrument: Sliding caliper Craniometric
Measurements
Procedure: A skull is placed on the working table. Frontotemporale on either
side of the skull are identified. One sharp end of the caliper is placed on the
frontotemporale on the one side of the skull and the movable point is spread
up to the frontotemporal end on the other side of skull and wherever the least
distance is observed the measurement should be made.
Morphological Facial Height (n – gn): It measures the straight distance
between nasion and gnathion.
Instrument: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The measuring skull should be placed towards the measurer.
Nasion and gnathion landmarks are identified on the skull. The sharp end of
the caliper is kept on the nasion and the movable part of the caliper touches the
gnathion and the measurement is made.
Nasal Height (n – ns): It measures the straight distance between nasion and
nasospinale.
Instrument: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The skull is kept in such a manner that the basal region rests on the
pad. The fixed point of cross-bar is placed on nasion (n) and the movable cross-
bar is adjusted against the nasospinale (ns).
Nasal Breadth: It measures the maximum breadth of the pyriform aperture.
Instrument: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The skull to be kept on the working table. The measurement should
be taken by Sliding Caliper by placing the two ends of the cross-bars on the two
farthest points of the nasal aperture.
Facial length or Facial depth (ba-pr): It measures the straight distance between
basion and prosthian.
Instrument: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The skull is placed in the position of norma basalis on the working
table facing the measurer. Identify the prosthion and basion landmarks on
the skull. One sharp point of Sliding Caliper is kept on the prosthion and the
movable point is spread to the level of basion and the measurement is made.
Upper Facial height (n-pr): It measures the straight distance between nasion
and prosthion.
Instrument: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The skull is placed on the working table in frontal part facing the
measurer. Nasion and Prosthion landmarks are identified. One sharp end of the
sliding caliper is kept on nasion and the movable point is drawn to the prosthion.
Horizontal Circumference of skull (g-op-g): It is the maximum circumference
of the cranium in horizontal plane over glabella (g) – opisthocranion (op)-
glabella (g). 183
Practical Manual Instrument: Measuring tape
Procedure: The skull is placed facing frontal region facing the measurer. The
landmark opisthocranion is located which is found on the back of the skull.
Passing the tape through opisthocranion the maximum circumference between
glabella to glabella is measured.
Morphological Facial height (n-gn): It measures the straight distance between
nasion and gnathion.
Instruments: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The skull is placed on the working table facing frontal region to
the measurer. Identify and mark the nasion and gnathion landmarks. Keep one
sharp point of the Sliding Caliper on gnathion and draw the movable sharp
point towards nasion and record the measurement.
Breadth of the Upper Jaw or Bimaxillary Breadth (zm-zm): It measures the
straight distance between two zygomaxillaria.
Instruments: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: Place the skull on the working table facing the measurer. Identify
Zygomaxillare on either side of the skull. Keep one sharp fix point on left
zygomaxillare and draw the movable sharp point towards the right zygomaxillrea
and record the measurement.
Bi-Auricular Breadth (au-au): It measures the straight distance between two
auricularia.
Instruments: Spreading caliper
Procedure: The skull is placed on working table facing the observer. Identify
the auriculare land marks on either side of the skull. Sharp end of one side of
spreading caliper is placed on the left side and the movable sharp end is drawn
towards the right auriculare and the measurement is recorded.
Bicondylar Breadth (cdl-cdl): It measures the straight distance between two
condylia laterale.
Instruments: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The skull is placed on the working table towards measurer. The
sharp end of the fixed part of caliper is placed on the left side of condylia
laterale and the movable part is spread towards the condylia laterale on the right
side and the measurement is made.
Bigonial Breath (go-go): It measures the straight distance between two gonia.
Instruments: Sliding Caliper
Procedure: The mandible is placed facing towards observer on the working
table. The sharp ends of two sides of the caliper is placed on the gonion of either
side of the mandible and the measurement is recorded.
Mandibular Length or Length of the Lower Jaw: It measures the straight distance
184 from the posterior margin of the chin to the tangent drawn at the two gonia.
Instruments: Mandibulometer or Sliding Caliper Craniometric
Measurements
Procedure: The mandible is placed on the working table facing the observer
in side or lateral view. A thin needle is passed through horizontally connecting
two gonion points. The measurement is made in midsagittal plane from anterior
of the chin to the midpoint of mandibular angles.

1.6 INDICES
An Index represents the relationship between two absolute measurements.
Various indices can be calculated based on craniometric measurements.
However, some of the indices are given below.

1.7 REFERENCES
International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry, available
at www.isakonlinve.com  
Kouchi, M., Gupta, D. & Zakaria, N., Anthropometric methods for apparel design:
Body measurement devices and techniques. Anthropometry, Apparel Sizing
and Design, pp. 67-94, 2014. DOI: 10.1533/9780857096890.1.67   [Links ].
Mukherji, D, Mukherjee, D.P. & Bharathi, P. (2009). Laboratory Manual for
Biological Anthropology, New Delhi: Asian Books Pvt Ltd.
Singh, I. P. & Bhasin, M. K. (2004). A Manual of Biological Anthropology,
New Delhi:Kamla-Raj-Enterprises.
Rastogi, S. & Shukla, BRK. (2017). Laboratory Manual of Physical
Anthropology, Lucknow: Bharat Book Centre.

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