Advanced Hydrodynamics

Lecture – Viscose Fluid

Dr Mahdi Khorasanchi
Description of Flow

 Eulerian approach
• V(x,y,z,t): velocity vector of fluid particle at point (x,y,z) & time t
• F: external force field, e.g. gravitational (ρg)
• Surface stresses
• Direction & surface it acts on  3x3 = 9 stress components
• e.g. τyx acts in y-direction upon a surface of constant (normal to) x

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Stresses on an oblique surface

 n(nx,ny,nz), unit normal vector

• ni = Ai/An

 Balance of forces in x direction

• τxn = τxxnx + τxyny + τxznz

 Stress can be decomposed to 3

orthogonal components (a vector)
• Stress in general, a 2nd order tensor

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Symmetry in stress tensor

 Balance of moments about z axis at centroid

• τyx = τxy

 Similarly for moment about x & y axes

• τzy = τyz
• τzx = τxz

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 Three coordinates with subscript 1, 2, 3
• x = x1, y = x2, z = x3  x(x1,x2,x3)
• Similarly for velocity u(u1,u2,u3)

 Stress tensor

 Symmetric stress tensor

 Decomposition of stress on oblique surface n(n1,n2,n3)

i = 1,2,3 (2)
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Conservation of mass

 A material volume, V(t) = a group of fluid particles

 Conservation of mass, constant in time

S
V

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Conservation of momentum

 Momentum density of fluid particle, vector ρU

• component ρui

 Conservation of momentum
• Sum of all forces on fluid volume = rate of momentum changes

Rate of changes i th component of surface Body forces e.g.

of momentum forces acting on S gravity

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Divergence theorem

Q, any continuous and differentiable vector in volume V

n, unit normal on surface S
n

S
V

 In indicial notation

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Conservation of momentum using Divergence theorem

 Conservation of momentum

 Divergence theorem

 Conservation of momentum in “volume integral” form

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Transport theorem

 A general volume integral

 Volume V(t) varies with time, so does boundary surface S(t)

• Un, normal velocity of surface

• Neglecting higher order terms O[(Δt)2]

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 Similarly for

Second order
error ∝ ∆𝑡

 To integrate over ΔV
• Thickness = normal distance between S(t+Δt) & S(t) = Un.Δt
• ∭∆ 𝑓 𝑑𝑉, of first order, ∝ ∆𝑡, to the same degree integrand f
can be assumed constant over ∆𝑉

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 Transport Theorem

• Surface integral represents the transport of quantity f out of

volume V as a result of movement of boundary S

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 Special cases
• S is fixed, Un = 0 

• V is material volume of same fluid particle, i.e. S moves with

same normal velocity as fluid Un = V.n = ui.ni, using divergence
theorem (5b)

S
V
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The Continuity Equation

 The integrand should be zero because

• Integral at a fixed time, V unnecessary to be material volume
• V can be any arbitrary volume (group of fluid particles)

 For incompressible fluid (ρ constant)

• or in vector form

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Euler’s Equation

 Apply transport theorem (12) to conservation of momentum (6)

 Integrand must be zero (for any arbitrary volume)

• Expansion by chain rule & using continuity Eq ( 0)

Euler’s Eq.

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 In a coordinate system moving with fluid particle

 Left hand side of Euler’s eq. = acceleration of a fluid particle

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Stress relation in a Newtonian Fluid

 If fluid is at rest (no shear stress)

• Only a normal pressure stress
• Using an oblique surface  isotropic pressure

• 𝛿 , Kroenecker delta (1 if i = j, otherwise 0)

 If fluid moves as a rigid mass without deformation

• No viscose forces
• Velocity field

• A: translation velocity
• B: rotation velocity
• r: position vector from origin of rotation
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 Newtonian fluid
• Stress tensor is a linear function of 9 gradients (𝜕𝑢 /𝜕𝑥 )

• Simplest form, uniform shear flow

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 Requirements
• No viscose stresses in uniform translation of fluid --- satisfied
• No viscose stresses in rotation if in the form of
• In isotropic fluid, values of stresses independent of choice of
coordinates
• For flow in one plane, no shear stress normal to this plane
• 𝜏 is symmetric

 Most general linear function that satisfies the requirements

• µ: viscose shear coefficient (coefficient of viscosity)

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 To be a tensor, only a diagonal (i=j) constant can be added

Normal pressure stress Viscose stress tensor

• Diagonal elements, elongation of fluid elements
• Off diagonal elements due to shearing deformation

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Navier-Stokes equations

 Conservation of momentum for a Newtonian fluid

• Substitute stress-strain relation (23) in Euler’s eq. (18)

 Derivatives of stress tensor

• From continuity equation

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 Navier-Stokes equation

• In vector form

• In Cartesian coordinates

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Boundary conditions

 Solid boundary
• Fluid velocity = velocity of body

 Free surface
• Surface of ocean & atmosphere, fluid & vapour in cavitating flow
• Density of water so large  tangential stress are negligible
• The only stress is normal pressure (dynamic BC)
• Normal velocity of fluid & free surface are equal (kinematic BC)

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Body forces

 If F conservative (e.g. gravity)

• Can be represented by gradient of a scalar function 𝐹 𝜌𝛻Ω 𝑥
• Combine with pressure in Navier-Stokes Eq 𝑝 𝑝 Ω
• Effect of body force is to change pressure by Ω
• 𝑝: total pressure
• Ω: hydrostatic pressure
• 𝑝 Ω: hydrodynamic pressure

 F has no effect on fluid motion unless it affects via a BC

• Gravity can be ignored, knowing it adds to hydrostatic pressure
• Exception: wave
• total pressure including hydrostatic pressure = specific value

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Example 1: Plane Couette Flow

 Upper wall (y=h) moves in x direction with velocity U

• 𝑤 0, no driving mechanism (symmetry) in z direction
• 𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑥=0, flow independent of x
• 𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑦=0, continuity Eq.  BC: 𝑣 0 on two walls  𝑣 0

 Navier-Stokes

• BC 𝑢 0 0, 𝑢 ℎ 𝑈
• Eq (26)
• pressure independent of y & z,
• 𝜕𝑝/𝜕𝑥 is constant (u independent of x)

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 Solution by integration

• Pressure gradient  parabolic profile

• Relative velocity  linear shear flow
• Combination of two

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Example 2: Flow through a pipe (Poiseuille Flow)

 X-axis along the tube axis

• u = u(r)
• Symmetry in pipe  v = w = 0
• Reduction of Navier-Stokes Eq similar to previous example

• BC: u(Ro) = 0

 Solution

• Pressure gradient  parabolic profile

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 Volume rate of flow (flux Q of fluid)

 Average velocity (Q/A) ???

 umax / uavg = ???

 Laminar flow up to a critical Re

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External flow past a flat plate

 Prandtl’s introduction of BL
• For large Re, viscose forces negligible to inertia force
• Inviscid flow outside BL

 In a Couette if h
• Viscose effect in entire domain
• Diffusive effect  take infinite time
• Not suitable for finding a BL theory

 To confine diffusion
• Limit time: unsteady flow, time is limited by duration of motion
• Limit space: a plate of finite length in a steady flow

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Unsteady motion of a flat plate

 Half space (y>0), plate moves in its plane U(t) along x-axis
• Flow independent of x & z coordinates
• Symmetry  w = 0
• Continuity & BC  v = 0
• Thus velocity field parallel in x-direction, u = u(y,t)

 Navier-Stokes in absence of any external pressure gradients

• BC
• No slip on plate u(0,t) = U(t) on y=0 (32)
• Tends to zero far away u(y,t) → 0 as y → ∞ (33)

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 If assume a sinusoidal motion U(t) = Uo cos(ωt)
• The resulting flow is sinusoidal. In complex form

• Substitute in governing Eq (31)

• Well-known solution

• BC2 at infinity  A = 0
• BC1 on plate  B

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 • Final solution

• A damped transverse wave,

• Oscillate in x-direction & propagate in y-direction away from plate
• Wavelength 𝜆 2𝜋 2𝜈/𝜔 /

 Linear governing Eq & BC

• more general unsteady motion by superposition
 If complex frequency ω
• Motion of plate increase or decrease exponentially with time
• Im(ω) negative or positive
• BC2 at y=∞  Real(k) > 0  negative Im(ω)  growing velocity
• Motion initially at rest at time = – ∞
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 Alternative case, step-function plate velocity
• Initially at rest, impulsively accelerated to constant U
• Dimensional analysis
• Unknown u(y,t) depends on one nondimensional similarity parameter

• Substitute in governing Eq (31), for nondimensional velocity f = u/U

• BCs: f(ƞ=0)=1, f(∞)=0

• Solution

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 BL thickness
• In theory, infinity
• Eng. criterion, u/U = 0.01

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Laminar BL: steady flow past a flat plate of finite length

 Assumptions
• 2D motion (independent of z-coordinate)  w = 0
• Plate: 0 < x < l of plane y = 0

 Governing Eqs (continuity + Navier-Stokes)

 BC
• u=v=0 on plate (y=0, 0 < x < l)
• u = U, v = 0 large distance from plate (undisturbed flow)

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 BL thickness based on previous example
• If characteristic time viscose effect acts on fluid particle t = l/U
• 𝛿 3.64 𝜈𝑙/𝑈 /  𝛿/𝑙 3.64𝑅𝑒 /

 Simplifications
• ∂u/∂y of order U/δ
• very large compared to changes along the plate (U/l)
• ∂u/∂y ≫ ∂u/∂x
• Continuity Eq  ∂u/∂y ≫ ∂v/∂y
• Changes of normal velocity v across BL is very small
• Since v = 0 on plate  v very small in BL  u ≫ v
• Concept u changes most significantly in y  ∂2u/∂y2 ≫ ∂2u/∂x2

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 Simplified Navier-Stokes

• Eq (47)  p is not changed across BL

• ∂p/∂x can be equal to its value outside BL
• For flat plate, uniform inviscid flow outside BL  ∂p/∂x = 0

 Final form of governing Eq in laminar BL

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 Non-dimensionalise

• Guided by continuity eq., non-dimensionalise velocity

 Nondimensional governing Eqs (substitute in (48) & (49))

• BC

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 To reduce PDE to ordinary PDE
• Assume l is large compared to x
• Local flow unaffected by length l
• So, solution independent of l
• Dependence on space coordinate must involve the ratio

• Dependence on velocity must involve the ratio

• A solution in the form of

• Final mathematical form

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• Using continuity Eq to eliminate one unknown [introducing f(ƞ)]

• Continuity Eq is satisfied automatically

• Final form of governing Eq

• To be integrated numerically (Blasius 1908)

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 Blasius laminar BL (for flat plate)
• u/U = 0.99  ƞ = 4.9
/
• BL thickness 𝛿 4.9 𝜈𝑥/𝑈

 Displacement thickness
• Rectangular region of width equal
to retardation of fluid flux

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 Displacement thickness
• Rectangular region of width equal to retardation of fluid flux

 Momentum thickness

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 Dimensional form of BL
• Magnified in lateral scale ∝ 𝑅𝑒
• Lateral growth ∝ 𝑥 /
• δ.99, outer limit of BL
• δ*, outward displacement of inviscid streamline

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 Viscose shear drag
• Shear stress (𝑅 𝑈𝑥/𝜈)

• Drag on one side

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Laminar BL, steady 2D flow

 BL of flat plate can be extended to a streamlined body if

• Radius of curvature >> BL thickness
• x & y local tangential and normal coordinate
• ∂p/∂x is now significant
• First inviscid solution to find ∂p/∂x
• BL solution using ∂p/∂x
 Geometry can be thickened by δ*
 Recalculate inviscid flow for ∂p/∂x

 ∂p/∂x in a general streamlined body

• High pressure at leading & trailing edge (stagnation point)
• Minimum pressure along the side where velocity is maximum
• Negative ∂p/∂x over the forward portion
• Positive ∂p/∂x over the afterbody
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46
 Separation
• occurs when shear stress is zero (∂u/∂y)y=0 = 0
• Navier-Stokes eq. in BL

• u = v = 0 on y = 0, thus

• Necessary condition (∂2u/∂y2)y=0 > 0

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 Drag due to shear stress (on streamlined body) ???

• Integrate Navier-Stokes (46) across BL

• Bernoulli’s eq. outside BL

• Pressure gradient (constant across BL)

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• Substitute in (65), knowing ∂u/∂y→0 outside BL

• Similarly integrate continuity eq across BL

• knowing v = 0 on y = 0

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• Substitute for v in (68) & integrate by parts

• Using definition of δ* & θ (eq 57-58)

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 Velocity profile in 2D BL with pressure gradient (∂p/∂x≠0)
• Assume a 4th degree polynomial (Pohlhausen)

• 4 BC to find coefficients (a,b,c,d)

• Navier-Stokes (46) on wall

• Outer boundary

• Introducing a nondimensional Shape Factor Λ

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• Λ 0,
• zero pressure gradient (flat plate)
• Λ 0,
• favourable (decreasing) pressure
• Λ 0,
• unfavourable (increasing) pressure
• Λ 12,
• inception of separation
• Λ 12,
• reverse flow in downstream
• Λ 12,
• Impossible, u in BL larger than U

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 Shear stress, δ* & θ for a given shape factor

• Substitute in momentum eq (72)  PDE for Λ x & δ 𝑥

• Eliminate δ 𝑥 by definition Λ (74)

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 • At upstream stagnation point, U=0 while dU/dx > 0
• g(Λ) = 0 to avoid singularity in first term of (78)  Λ 7.052

 Compare accuracy of method for flat plate

• Pohlhausen

• Blasius

• 2-3% error

For other forms of velocity profile in BL (parabolic, sinusoidal)

see “Advanced Fluid Mechanics by Graeble, 2007, p181
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Turbulent Flow

 Highly irregular & oscillatory velocity pattern over smooth flow

• Velocity fluctuation to be included in governing Eqs
• Significant quantitates e.g. mean drag, mean velocity, …
• Average with respect to time/space
• Separate mean & fluctuating parts

• By definition average velocity is 𝑢 , thus 𝑢′ 0

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 Continuity Eq.

• Continuity Eq. applies to average velocity independently

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 Navier-Stokes Eq.

• Using continuity eq. to transform additional term

• New form of Navier-Stokes eq.

Additional stress system

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 • Reynolds stress 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑢′

• Total stress

 Reynolds stress dominant to ordinary viscose stress (in general)

• Exception, viscose sublayer
• Large mean velocity gradient
• Fluctuating component forced to vanish on wall 𝑢′ 0

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 Higher frictional drag in turbulent flow vs. laminar
• Increased stress level due to Reynolds stress
• Higher convection of momentum (represented by Re stress)
• More uniform velocity profile
• Larger velocity gradient & shear stress on wall

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Turbulent BL on a flat plate

 Assumption
• Flat plate with zero pressure gradient
• Only consider the mean velocity 𝑢 (bar will be deleted)

 Non-dimensionalisation
• x with BL thickness δ,
• assumption dδ/dx>0, x correspond to unique value of δ & vice versa
• U with friction velocity 𝑢
• assumption: for any U and fixed x, a unique value of shear stress on
wall & vice versa

 Final form
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 • Non-dimensional form

• Reynolds stress dominate viscose stress except viscose sublayer

 Inner law (law of the wall) [in viscose sublayer 𝑦/𝛿 ≪ 1 ]

• Viscose stress ∝ 𝜈 & hence 𝑢 𝑦/𝜈 significant only at y = 0

• BC on wall (y=0)
• u = 0  f1(0) = 0
• From definition of shear stress

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 • Thus, in viscose sublayer

 Velocity defect law [outer region of BL]

• Reynolds stress dominates viscose stress
• y/δ to be important
• BC u=U @ y/δ=1

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 Overlap region
• Both assumptions are valid simultaneously

• Inner where 𝑦/𝛿 ≪ 1, outer where ≫ 1,

• Can both inequalities (overlap) exist for a y?
• 𝜈/𝑢 ≪ 𝑦 ≪ 𝛿  possible if 𝜈/𝑢 ≪ 𝛿 or 𝑢 𝛿/𝜈 𝑅𝑒 ≫ 1
• f1 & f2 must be logarithmic
• Differentiate (101) with respect to y & multiply by y

• Independent variables

• Integrating

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64
• Morin & Yaglom (1971)

• Sum of above to find friction velocity & shear stress on wall

• Need a second eq. to relate two unknowns uT & δ

• Neglecting pressure gradient, assuming isotropic velocity fluctuation

65
 BL thickness

• From definitions δ* & θ (55,57)

• Three unknowns uT, δ, θ & Three Eqs 107,108, 112

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 Local frictional drag coefficient
• Satisfies

• Total drag coefficient

• Schoenherr’s eq for flat plate

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The 1/7 power approximation

 Simpler velocity distribution

• BC u=U @ y=δ, solve for 𝜏

• Calculating momentum thickness

• Eq 108 & 117

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 If Re high enough or turbulence induced near leading edge
• Set C = 0

• Thickness increase with distance downstream at higher rate

x4/5 compared to laminar BL x1/2

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Roughness effect on turbulent BL

 Significance of roughness height (k) with respect to δ

• k < viscose sublayer  smooth, friction independent of k
• k > δ  BL unimportant to form drag induced by roughness
(independent of Re)

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 For a fixed roughness scale (k/l), frictional drag (cf) is
• That of smooth plate below a Re that depend on roughness ratio
• Effectively constant above this Re

 Smoothness is more important on ship

• If fixed roughness ratio, effect of roughness increases with Re

 For constant Re based on roughness scale

• k/δ constant
• Family of curves parallel smooth curve (independent of length)
• Roughness allowance by a constant additive resistance (cf)
• e.g. 0.0004

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End of Presentation