INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 6: MEMORY

MEMORY THE FOLLOWING ARE SOME OF ENCODING'S

PROCESSES THAT REQUIRE EFFORT:
 Introduction & Nature of Memory
 Memory Encoding 1. Rehearsal - is the conscious repetition of
 Memory Storage information that increases the length of time
 Memory Retrieval that information stays in memory. It works
 Forgetting best when one needs to remember items for
 Memory and Study Strategies brief periods of time.
 Five Ways to Memory Power 2. Deep Processing - involves semantic,
 meaningful, and symbolic characteristics,
thus, information is more likely
THE NATURE OF MEMORY remembered.

 Memory refers to the psychological 3. Elaboration - is the extensiveness of

processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, processing at any given depth in memory.
and later retrieving information. 4. Imagery - improves memory as
 Our memory helps make us who we are. It documented by Paivio (Santrock, 2000).
allows us to function in our daily lives, forge According to him, memory is stored in two
relationships that are vital for our well-being, ways: verbal code and image code.
and remember important events from our 5. Organization. Memory works best when it
past. is organized. There are two ways to do this,
 Memory involves three major processes: these are: Hierarchical organization and
encoding, storage, and retrieval. chunking.
6. Hierarchy - is a system in which items are
THREE MAJOR PROCESSES
organized from general to specific classes.
1. Encoding - involves how information gets
7. Chunking - is another beneficial
into memory.
organizational memory strategy that
2. Storage - consists of the retention of involves grouping or "packing" information
information overtime. into higher-order units that can be
remembered as single units.
3. Retrieval - takes place when information is
taken out of storage (Santrock, 2000).

THE MEMORY PROCESSES In other words, to encode something in

memory more effectively we can rehearse it,
process it at a deep level, elaborate it, form
imagery, organize it, and/or chunk it.

MEMORY STORAGE

Once information has been encoded it is important

that we can retain or store information. There are
three main storages of memory namely; sensory
memory, working or short-term memory, and
MEMORY ENCODING
long term memory.
Encoding has much in common with learning.
1. Sensory Memory - holds information from
According to Gerong (2000) if you remembered the world in its original sensory form for only
nothing from your experience you could learn an instant, not much longer than the brief
nothing. Some information gets into memory time it is exposed to the visual (Iconic),
virtually automatically, while getting other auditory (Echoic), and other senses.
information in takes effort. Information stored in sensory memory is
quickly lost unless certain processes are
engaged in.

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYCHAPTER 6:
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MEMORY
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 6: MEMORY

2. Working or Short-Term Memory - is a CLASSIFICATION OF LONG-TERM MEMORY’S

limited-capacity memory system in which CONTENTS
information is retained for as long as 30
seconds, unless the information is • Nondeclarative or Implicit
rehearsed. Memory/Procedural - is the memory in
which behavior is affected by prior
3. Long-Term Memory - is a relatively experience without that experience being
permanent type of memory that holds huge consciously recollected. Examples include
amounts of information for a long period of skills in playing tennis, riding a bicycle, and
time. typing.
THE MEMORY SYSTEM MODEL MEMORY RETRIEVAL

In order to retrieve something from our "data

bank", we search our store of memory to find the
relevant information.
1. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Phenomenon - is
a type of "effortful retrieval" that occurs
when people are confident they know
something but just can't quite seem to pull it
out of memory.
• This phenomenon arises because we can
retrieve some of the desired information but
CLASSIFICATION OF LONG-TERM MEMORY’S not all of it.
CONTENTS
2. Serial Position Effect - states that recall is
• Declarative or Explicit Memory - is the superior for items at the beginning and at
conscious recollection of information, such the end of a list.
as specific facts or events, and, at least in
humans, information that can be verbally • Those items best recalled at the beginning
communicated. of a list are referred to as the primary effect
while those items best recalled at the end of
• Recounting the events of the date you had the list is called the recency effect.
last weekend involves declarative/explicit
memory. 3. Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task.
Two factors involved in retrieval are the
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF nature of the cues that can prompt one's
DECLARATIVE/EXPLICIT MEMORY: memory, and retrieval task that we set for
ourselves.
1. Episodic Memory - is the retention of
information about the where and when of • Though cues help, the success of retrieving
life's happenings. Our memory of our first information also depends on the task we
day in school involves episodic memory. set.

2. Semantic Memory - is our knowledge • The presence or absence of good cues, and
about the world. This involves the memory the retrieval task required are involved in an
of the information we need to know in order important memory distinction that is referred
to do well in the next psychology test to as recall versus recognition.
involve semantic memory.
Recall - is a memory measure in which we must
TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY retrieve previously learned information, as on an
essay test.
Recognition - is a memory measure in which we
only have to identify ("recognize") learned items, as
on multiple- choice tests.

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CHAPTER 6: MEMORY

4. Autobiographical Memory - is our FORGETTING

recollections of our life experiences. There
are three levels in this process. In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus tested his own
memory of nonsense syllables (Santrock, 2000).
• The first level consists of life time periods
(long segments of life that are measured in He discovered that his forgetting was rapid and
years and even decades). extensive.

• The second level is made up of general However, researchers have found that we forget
events (these are extended composite less than Ebbinghaus envisioned, especially when
episodes that are measured in days, weeks, we learn meaningful material.
or months).
TWO THEORIES EXPLAIN WHY WE FORGET:
• And the lowest level is comprised of event-
specific knowledge (individual episodes 1. Interference Theory - states that we forget
that are measured in seconds, minutes, or not because memories are actually lost from
hours). storage, but because other information gets
in the way of what we want to remember.
When we tell our life stories, all three levels of
information are usually present and intertwined. There are two kinds of interference; proactive and
retroactive.

a) Proactive Interference - occurs when

5. Emotional Memories. When we remember material that was learned earlier disrupts
life experiences our memories are often the recall of material learned later.
wrapped in emotion. The following are
different types of emotional memories: b) Retroactive Interference - occurs when
material learned later disrupts retrieval of
a) Flashbulb Memories - are memories of information learned earlier
emotionally significant events that are often
recalled with more accuracy and vivid ILLUSTRATION OF INTERFERENCE THEORY
imagery than everyday events.
b) Personal Trauma. Memory for personal
traumas is usually accurate than memory
for ordinary events, but it is also a subject to
some distortion and inaccuracy.
c) Repressed Memories. Personal trauma
can cause us to repress emotionally laden
information so that it is not accessible to the
awareness of our conscious mind.
Repression doesn't erase a memory; it just makes 2. Decay Theory - states that when something
it extremely difficult to remember consciously. new is learned, a neuro- chemical "memory
trace" is formed, but over time this trace
tends to deteriorate.
We tend to remember the core information about a
personal trauma but might be distorted with some of
the details. Some of the cases of personal trauma Another reason why we forget is due to extreme
result in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). memory deficits known as Amnesia that comes in
two forms.

6. Mood-Congruent Memory. This principle • Anterograde Amnesia - is a memory

states that we tend to remember information disorder that affects the retention of new
better when our mood is similar during information or events.
encoding and retrieval.
• Retrograde Amnesia - involves memory
loss for a segment of the past but not for
new events.

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYCHAPTER 6:
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CHAPTER 6: MEMORY

MEMORY AND STUDY STRATEGIES II. TAKING GOOD NOTES

(SANTROCK, 2000)
a) Summarizing – large amounts of
Using the right memory and study strategies can information into a shorter version by
help you improve your academic performance. highlighting key points and main ideas.
The following are carefully chosen strategies that  The goal is to capture the essence of the
might be of help: material while leaving out unnecessary
details, making it easier to review and
I. EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES: understand.
 Pay attention and minimize distraction b) Outlining – this method involves organizing
 Understand the material rather than rotely information hierarchically using headings
memorize it and subheadings to structure content.
 Organize what you put into memory
 Use mnemonic strategies  Outlines break down material into main
 Ask yourself questions topics, subtopics, and supporting details,
 Spread out and consolidate your learning making it easier to understand relationships
 Cognitively monitor your progress between ideas and improve clarity.
 Be a good time manage and a planner
c) Concept Mapping – this technique involves
visually representing relationships between
a) Method of Loci – also known as the concepts by creating diagrams or
Memory Palace Technique, is a mnemonic flowcharts.
strategy used to enhance memory by
 Concepts are written in nodes (usually
associating information with specific
circles or boxes) and connected by lines to
locations.
show how they are related
 The process involves imagining a familiar
d) Cornell Method – is a note-taking system
place, such as your home, and mentally
that divides the page into three sections: a
placing the items you need to remember in
narrow left-hand column for key terms or
different spots within that environment.
questions, a larger right-hand column for
b) Acronyms – this will help identifying the detailed notes, and a bottom section for
first letters of the items needs to be summarizing the main points.
remembered, and to vividly get the main
 This structured approach helps with
points of what you are studying.
organization, review, and retention of
c) Keyword Method – pairing a word with information.
mental images. To choose a familiar word
(keyword) that sounds similar to the new III. THE PQ4R
word you're trying to learn.
 Additionally, visualization creating a vivid
mental image that links the keyword with the
meaning of the new word.
d) Peg-Word method – is a mnemonic
technique used to memorize lists by
associating items with a pre-memorized set
of "peg words" that are linked to numbers.
 These peg words typically rhyme with
numbers. To remember a list, you create
vivid mental images that connect each item
with its corresponding peg word.

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYCHAPTER 6:
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CHAPTER 6: MEMORY

FIVE WAYS TO MEMORY POWER

WHERE DOES YOUR MEMORY GO?

As we age, memory loss can occur due to

decreased neurotransmitters in the brain, slowing
down memory and thought processes. The
memories themselves don't disappear; rather, the
brain's pathways for accessing them become less
efficient, like a library with a disorganized catalog.
Factors like hormonal changes, stress, lack of
sleep, and reduced blood flow can further
contribute to this decline. Alzheimer's disease,
however, involves the death of brain cells, causing
a more severe and progressive memory loss. If you
experience difficulty learning or worsening memory,
especially if it's progressive, consult a physician for
diagnosis and management strategies.
If your brain function is not quite as sharp as it once
was, here are 5 natural ways to protect your
memory and boost your brain power, no matter
what age you are!
1. Eat Brain Foods
2. Stay Social
3. Combat Mental Decline with L-carnitine
4. Supplement Your Memory
5. Drink Green Tea

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYCHAPTER 6:
AUHSLEIGN
MEMORY