LEARNING MODULE ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

INTRODUCTION:

The learner is the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves

around the learner. This module introduces you to the Fourteen (14) learner
centered principles which shall be use throughout this course as guide in
determining appropriate pedagogy for learners at different life stages.

Advance Organizer

Cognitive and Motivational and

Metacognitive Factors Affective Factors
( 6 principles ) ( 3 principles )

14 LEARNER-
CENTERED
PRINCIPLES

Developmental and Individual Difference

Social Factors Factors
( 2 principles ) ( 3 principles )

OBJECTIVES:

In this topic, the students will be able to :

1. Classify the 14-learner centered principles in significance to the teaching-

Learning process; and
2. Adhere the 14-learner centered principles as keys to understanding
Teaching process.
3. Generate ways on how to apply 14 principles in instruction as a future
teacher based on the researched studies.

Teaching

 Approaches -refers to the set of principles or beliefs or assumptions to use

for the students to learn.
Ex. The learner -centered approach cooperative /collaborative approach
 Methods -procedure /step by step [ flow of teaching ]
Ex. Demonstration method.

 Strategies- focus or give emphasis on the activity that the student should
perform or accomplish.
Ex. Students should excel in their Critical/speaking.
Ex. Debate or impromptu. Speaking or hosting.

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 Techniques- remember the personal art and style of the teachers

or tricks of the teacher
Ex. Teacher being strict to minimize the noise inside the classroom.
Rewards system to participate in oral recitation etc…

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process.

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
Intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SUCCESFUL LEARNERS

1.ACTIVE 2. GOAL -ORIENTED 3. SELF REGULATING

2. Goals of the learning process.

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
Guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representation of knowledge.

3.Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge
In meaningful ways.

4.Strategic thinking.
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

5 .thinking about thinking.

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.

6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
Technology, and instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.

What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation.
To learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
Interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
Contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is simulated by tasks of
Optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
Personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort.

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice. Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert
this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Development and social Factors

10. Effects of motivation on effort.

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice. Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert
this effort is unlikely without coercion.

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11. Development Influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constrains
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within
and across physical, intellectual, and social domains is taken into account.

12. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interaction, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.

13. Individual differences in learning.

Learners have different strategies approaches and capabilities that are a
function or prior experience and heredity.
14. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural
and social backgrounds are taken into account.

15. Standards and assessment.

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress - including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment - are integral parts of the learning process.

Alexander & Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled

them into five areas;

1. The Knowledge base

 One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The
learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how
he represents new information, makes associations,and filters new
experiences.

2. Strategic process and control

 Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and
behaviors in order to learn more effectively. ( metacognition )

3. Motivation and Affect

 Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within). reasons for wanting to
learn, personal goals, and enjoyment of learning tasks all have crucial roles
in the learning process.

4. Development and individual differences

 Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his
own unique combination of genetic and environment factors that influence
him.

5.Situation or context
 Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING. CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES

“All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and entrances, And one man in his time plays
many parts………”

----
William Shakespeare

INTRODUCTION:

Why we are the way we are? It’s one of the oldest questions in human
existence. After all, human beings are nothing more than 46 chromosomes, their
genetic instruction duplicated across trillions of cells. Despite the fact that 99.9%
of our DNA I identical, all 7.5 billions people on earth are unique. We have
different personalities,wants,needs,and likes. How is that possible?

A number of researches on human development have been conducted. A

lot of theories on human development have been forwarded. Researches on
human development continue as existing theories get corrected, complemented
or replaced. Up to the present several issues on human development are
unresolved and so the search for explanations continue.

In this lesson you will be acquainted with human development as a

process,the developmental tasks that com along with each development stage
and relevant issues that are raised about human development.

OBJECTIVES:

In this topic, you should be able to:

1. Derive the meaning of human development in your own words.

2. Relate developmental changes of learners in light to its educational
implications.
3. Distinguish between the traditional and lifespan approach of development.

What is Human Development?

 Human development is the pattern of movement or change the begins at

conception and continues through the life span.
 It includes growth and decline.
 Development can be positive or negative.

Two Approaches To Human Development

APPROACHES VIEW
Traditional Approach Believes that individuals will show extensive
change from birth to adolescence, little or no
change in adulthood and decline in late old age
Life span Approach Believes that even in adulthood,developmental
change takes place as it does during childhood.
What are the characteristics of human development from a life-span
perspective?Paul Baltes (Santrock,2002),an expert in life-span development,
gives the following characteristics:

1. Development is lifelong.
It does not end in adulthood.

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2. Development is plastic
Plastic refers to the potential for change. Development is possible
throughout the lifespan. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “I
am too old for that…”
3. Development is multidimensional
Development consist of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
dimensions.

Biological Process involve changes in the

individual physical nature.

Cognitive Process involve changes in the

individual’s thought,intelligence and language.

Socioemotional Process include changes in

the individual’s relationships with other people,
changes in emotions and changes in personality.

Some Major Principle of Human Development

Principle 1: Development is relatively orderly.

Proximodistal Pattern
The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes
earlier as compared to the hands and fingers.

Cephalocaudal Pattern
During infancy the greatest growth in always occurs at the
top-the head-with physical growth in size,weight and future
differentiation gradually working its way down from top to
bottom.

Principle 2: While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcome

of developmental process and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals.
Principle 3: Development takes place gradually.
Principle 4: Development as a process is complex because it is the product of
biological,cognitive and socioemotional processes.

4. Development is contextual
 Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
 Respond to and act on contexts.

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulations

Growth,maintenance and regulations are three goals of human
development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages.

In summary, development includes the processes of growing, maintaining

progress, and effectively managing or regulating various aspects of one's life.
These elements work together to promote positive and well-rounded personal
growth and maturation.

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THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

“ All human life at every stage of its development is worth of

protection.”
Mark Rubio

For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental

task. What happens when the expected developmental task are not achieved at
the corresponding developmental stage? How can you help children achieve
these developmental tasks?

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the study the students must be able to:

 Define development in your own words.
 Understand the importance of having knowledge in development task.
 Differentiate the stages of development.
 Write the stages of development tasks orderly.

 John Santrock’s research focuses on family processes and children’s

socioemotional development. He conducted the first major research study on
comparisons of children in mother and father custody families.

A stage of development is an age period when certain needs, behavior,

experience and capabilities are common and different from other age periods.

1. Prenatal Period ( Conception to birth)

Conception occurs and development begins. All of th
major structures of the body are forming and the health of
the mother is of primary concern.
a. Germinal - fertilization to 2 weeks.
Conception, implantation, formation of placenta.
b.Embryo - 2 weeks to 2 months.
Formation of vital organs and systems.
c. Fetal Stage = 2 months- birth
Bodily growth continues, movement capability begins,

2. INFANCY
This period extends from birth to 18 months of age. This is
called the age of trust v/s mistrust. The infant who comes to the
new environment, from mother’s womb needs only nourishment.
If the child’s caretaker,the mother anticipates the needs
consistently,the infant learns to trust others, develops
confidence. Inevitably the child will experience moments of a
anxiety and rejection. If the infants fails to get needed support
and care,it develop mistrust which affects the personality and
later the stages of life.

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1 year old 2 years old

 Change from plump baby to learner  Begins to communicate verbally
more muscular toodler.
 Begins to walk and talk  Can usually speak in 3 to 4 word
sentences
 Ability for passive language (better  Famous for negative behavior
understanding of what’s being said) “ NO! To everything!
Temper tantrums
 Tentative sense of independence  Will play side by side other
children, but does not actively play
with them
 Determined explorer  Great imitators

3. Early Childhood (18 months -3 years old)

This stage ranges from 18 to 3 years. By second year
of life, the muscular and nervous systems have developed
markedly, and the child is eager to acquire new skills, is no
longer content to sit and watch. The child moves around
longer examines its environment, but judgement develops
more slowly.
The child needs guidance. In the crisis of autonomy v/s
doubt faced during this period, the critical issue is the child’s
feeling of independence.

3 years old 4 years old 5 years old

 Wants to be just  Sentences are  Can hoop on one
like parents more foot and skip
complex;speaks
well enough for
strangers to
understand
 Vocabularyand  Imagination is  Can accurately
pronunciation vivid;line between copy figures
continue to expand what is real and
imaginary is often
indistinct
 Climbs stairs with  Develops  May begin to read
alternating feet fears(common
fears:fear dark, fear
animal and fear of
death)
 Can briefly stand  Socialize with other
on one foot children their age

4. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ( 3-5 years old)

This stage extends from 3 to 5 years. The crisis faced during this period is
initiative v/s guilt. Once a sense of independence has been established, the child
wants to tryout various possibilities. It is at this time the child’s willingness to try
new things id facilitated or inhibited.

If the caretaker recognizes the child’s creative effort in attempting to do some

activities is encouraged, the crisis will be resolved in favorable direction and this
outcome, if repeated, should influence the future initiative. Otherwise the child
develops feelings of guilt.

5.Late Childhood (5-12 years old )

This period ranges from 5 to 12 years. During this period the child develops
greater attention span,needs,less sleep and gains rapidly in strength;

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therefore,the child can expand accomplishment, regardless of ability. The crisis

faced during this period is industry v/s inferiority.
 Both large and small muscles well-developed
 Developed complex motor skills
 From independent activities to same sex group activities
 Acceptance by peers very important
 Parental approval still important

The child aims to develop a feeling of competence,rather than inability.

The success in this endeavor leads to further industrious behavior,failure results
in development of feelings of inferiority. Hence, the caretakers should guide the
child to take appropriate tasks.

6. Adolescence (13- 20 Years old)

This is a period if transition from childhood to adulthood individual which

extends from 13 to 20 years. During this period the individual attains puberty
leading to many changes. These changes have enormous implications for the
individual’s sexual,social,emotional and vocational life;that is why Stanley Hall
has rightly described this period as a “period of storm and stress”.
 Traumatic life stage for child and parent
 Puberty occur
 Extremely concerned with appearance
 Trying to establish self-identity
 Confrontations with authority

7. Early Adulthood ( 20 -30 years old )

This stage extends from 20 to 30 years. As an adult,the individual takes a

firmer place in society,usually holding a job,contributing to community and
maintaining a family and care offspring. These new responsibilities can create
tensions and frustrations and one solution involves is, an intimate relationship
with family. This situation leads to s crisis called intimacy v/s isolation.

If these problems are solved effectively by the love, affection and support of
family the individual leads a normal life, otherwise he will develop a feeling of
isolation which in turn his personality negatively.

 Physical development complete

 Emotional maturation continues to develop
 Usually learned to accept responsibility for actions and accept
criticism
 Usually knows how to profit from errors
 Socially progress from age related peer groups to people with similar
Interests.

8. Middle Adulthood

Physical changes begin to occur :

 Hair begins to thin and gray
 Wrinkles appear
 Hearing and vision decrease
 Muscles loose tone
Main concerns: children,health,job,security,aging,parents and fear aging
Love and acceptance still take a major role.

9. Late Adulthood ( 61 years and above)

Also called as Senescence. As we grow older to 65 years and above and

become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life
as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our

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accomplishments and are able to develop integrity. If we see ourselves as

leading a successful life.

 Fastest growing age bracket of society

 Physical deterioration (brittle bones,poor coordination
 some memory problems
 Coping with retirements and forms of entertainment
 Very concerned with health and finances
 Significant number become depressed, suicide rate is high.

Robert Havighurst defines

developmental task as one that “ arises at
certain period in our life, the successful
achievement of which leads to happiness
and success with later tasks while failure
leads to unhappiness,social disapproval,
and difficulty with later tasks”.
(Havighurst,1972).

Developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth)- it involves tremendous growth

from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioural
capabilities.
2. Infancy(from birth to 18-24 months)- a time of extreme dependence on
adults. Many Psychological activities are just beginning – language, symbolic
thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years ( grade 1) – these are the
preschool years. Young children learn to become more self- sufficient and to
care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in
play with peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school
years)- the fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered.
The Child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world and self-
control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age)- Begins
with rapid physical changes- dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in
body contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as
enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening
of the voice.
Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical,
abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood(from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30’s – it
is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career
development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate
way, starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle adulhood (40-60 years of age) – It is a time of expanding personal
and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining
satisfaction in a career.
8. Late Adulthood (60s and above)- It is time for adjustment to decreasing
strength and health. Life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

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Infancy & Middle Adolescenc Early Middle Later Maturity

early Childhood e (13-18) Adulthood Adulthood ( 61 and over)
childhood (6-12) (19-29) (30-60 years)
( 0-6)

1.learning 1.Learning 1.Achieving 1.Selecting a 1.Helping 1. Adjusting to

to walk physical skills mature mate teenage decreasing
necessary for relations children to strength and
ordinary games with both become health
sexes happy and
responsible
adults
2.learning 2.Building a 2.Achieving 2.Learning 2.Achieving 2. adjusting to
to take wholesome a masculine to live with a adult social retirement and
solid foods attitude toward or feminine partner and civic reduced income
one self social role responsibility
3.learning 3.Learning to 3. accepting 3.Starting a 3. 3. Adjusting to
to talk get along with one’s family Satisfactory death of spouse
age mates Physique career
achievement
4. Learning 4.Learning an 4. Achieving 4. Rearing 4. Developing 4. Establishing
to control appropriate sex emotional children adult leisure relations with
the role independenc time activities one’s own age
elimination e of adults group
of body
wastes
5. Learning 5.Developing 5. Preparing 5. Managing 5. Relating to 5. Meeting
sex fundamental for marriage a home one’s spouse social and civic
differences skills in and family as a person obligations
and sexual reading,writing life
modesty and calculating
6. Acquirin 6.Developing 6. Preparing 6. Starting a 6. Accepting 6. establishing
g concepts concepts for an occupation the satisfactory
and necessary for economic physiological living quarters
language everyday living career changes of
to describe middle age
social and
physical
reality
7. Readine 7.Developing 7. Acquiring 7. Assuming 7. Adjusting
ss for conscience,mor values and civic to aging
reading ality,and a ethical responsibility parent
scale of values system to
guide
behavior
8. Learning 8.Achieving 8. Desiring
to personal and
distinguish independence achieving
right from socially
wrong and responsible
developing behavior
a
conscience
9.Developing
acceptable
attitudes toward
society

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ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

“The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive

that to ask which is more important, nature or nurture, is like asking
which is more important to rectangle, height or width. “

-William Greenough

INTRODUCTION:

Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other
people’s development. These paradigms of human development while obviously
lacking in scholastic vigor,provide us with a conceptual framework for
understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own
models of human development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on
issues on human development.

OBJECTIVES:

In this topic,you should be able to:

1. Explain every issue of development with regards to human development.

2. Justify every issue on development as to how it affects the learner’s behavior.
3. Advocate your stand about human development in light to its processes.

Pretest:

Agree or Disagree
1. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than environment.
2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can longer
be changed.
3. From the perspective of life span developmentalist, later experiences the key
determinants of a person’s development.
4. The development of a person depends on their environment.
5. The development of a person needs the interaction of different theories.

NATURE VS. NURTURE

CONTINUITY ISSUES ON STABILITY

VS. HUMAN Vs.
DISCONTINUITY DEVELOPMENT CHANGE

1. Nature Vs. Nurture

Nature:
This perspective focuses on the influence of genetics and
hereditary factors on human development.
Nurture:
This perspective emphasizes the impact of environmental
factors, such as upbringing, education, and social surroundings, on
an individual's development.

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Descartes: Plato:Ideas such as Aristotle: All

Some ideas “ the good and knowledge
are innate beauty “are inborn comes through
the senses.

NATURE VS. NURTURE

Charles Darwin:some traits become

part of our nature through natural John Locke: The mind is
selection:they help us survive long the blank state (blank
enough to pass the traits to the next chalkboard or screen )”
generation. written on” by experience.

Classroom application:
 Teachers must understand that there are certain biological influences that
affects student learning
 Environmental factors do influences learning
 Students are supported in a positive manner
 Teachers can be the support and role-model

2. Continuity Vs. Discontinuity

Continuity
This concept suggests that human development occurs gradually and
steadily, with quantitative changes over time.
Discontinuity
This idea proposes that development occurs in distinct stages, with
qualitative shifts in behavior and understanding.

Classroom application:
 It is vital to understand both areas of continuity and discontinuity
 Children should be on track developmentally
 With continuity, teachers need to set expectations
 With discontinuity, teachers develop learning goals in certain stages

3. Stability Vs. Change
Stability
This viewpoint suggests that certain traits and characteristics remain
consistent over time, regardless of external influences.
Change
This perspective highlights the capacity for individuals to adapt and evolve
over time, resulting in alterations in behavior, attitudes, and capabilities.

Classroom application
 Teachers believe in change
 Growth mindset is vital in education

The key to the development is the INTERACTION of all the theories in

human development rather than one factor alone.

Heredity and environment operate together or cooperate and interact to

produce a person’s intelligence,temperament,height,weight,ability to read and so
on.

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RESEARCH IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Teachers as consumers/End Users of Research

 Research enables teachers to come up with informed decision on what to
teach and how to teach. This involves decisions related to educational
policies, curriculum, effective teaching learning processes and even those
involving research too.

Teachers as Researchers
 The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation
writers. It is for students and teachers too.

The Scientific Method

One important principle of research is adhere to the scientific method, since
research is a systematic and logical process.

5 steps of the Scientific Method. ( john Dewey)

1. Identify and define the problem

2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Research Design:

CASE STUDY
Description: An in-depth look at an individual group or situation.
Strengths: It provides information about an individual’s fears, hopes,fantasies,
traumatic experiences, upbringing, family relationships, health, and anything that
helps a psychologist understand that person’s development.
Weaknesses: Need to exercise caution when generalizing from the information;
the subject of a case study is unique,with a genetic make-up and experiences no
one else shares; involves judgments of unknown reliability, in that usually no
check is made to see if other psychologists agree with other observations.

CORRELATIONAL STUDY
Descriptions: A research design that determines association.
Strengths: Useful because the more strongly two events are correlated; the
more we can predict one from the other.
Weaknesses: Because correlational research does not involve the manipulation
of the factors, it is not a dependable way to isolate cause.

EXPERIMENTAL
Description : A research design that determines cause and effect relationships.
Strengths: The only true reliable method of establishing cause and effect.
Weaknesses: Experimental research is limited to what is observable,testable,
and manipulate cause and effect.

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Description: A research design that focuses on children’s experiences in natural
setting.
Strengths: One of the advantages of this type of research is that it allows the
researchers to directly observe the subject in an natural setting.
Weaknesses: The disadvantages of naturalistic observation include the fact it
can be difficult to determine the exact cause of behavior and the experimenter
cannot control outside variables.

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LONGITUDINAL
Description: The research design studies and follows through a single group
over a period of time.
Strengths: Allows them to record and monitor development trends:
Weaknesses: They are expensive and time-consuming.

CROSS-SECTIONAL
Description: A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are
compare to one time.
Strengths: Allows them to record and monitor developmental trends.
Weaknesses: it gives no information about how individuals change or about the
stability of their characteristics.
Researchers use this design to compare different age groups and identify
developmental differences. For instance, a cross-sectional study might compare
the cognitive abilities of children aged 5,10 and 15 to understand how cognitive
skills develop with age.

SEQUENTIAL
Description: This is the combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches
to learn about lifespan development.
Strengths: It provides information to obtain from cross-sectional or longitudinal
approaches.
Weaknesses: It is complex,expensive and time consuming.
Sequential studies combine the features of both cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies. Researchers use this design to compare different age
groups over an extended period. In the context of child and adolescent
development, a sequential study might involve assessing different age groups of
children and adolescents over several years to track changes in their
cognitive,social and emotional development. This allows researchers to
understand how developmental patterns unfold over time across various age
groups.

ACTION RESEARCH
Description: Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem
solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a “community
of practice” to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.
Strengths: Appropriate in a particular setting when the purpose of the study to “
create changes and gain information on processes and outcome of the strategies
used”.
Weaknesses: Typically take place in one organization only at a particular time
and could not be interpreted within different organizations in the same way.
Therefore, research findings are hard to generalize.
In the realm of child and adolescent development,action research might
involve implementing a new teaching method in a classroom and assessing its
impact on student’s learning outcome. The aim is to actively improve the
education or developmental experiences of children and adolescents based on
research findings and observations.

Data-Gathering techniques

1. Observation - can be made in either laboratory or materialistic settings. In

naturalistic observation behavior is observed in the real world like
classroom,home in neighborhood.
2. Psychological Measures - Certain indicators of the children’s development
such as, among others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone growth, body weight,
and brain activity are measured.
3. Standardized Tests - These are prepared tests that assess individuals
performance different domains. These tests are administered in a consistent
manner.

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4. Interviews and Questionnaires - Involves asking the participants to provide

information about themselves based on the interview or questionnaire given by
the researchers.
Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed questionnaire, over
the telephone, by mail, in person, or online.
Information is obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so that every
participant is asked the same questions in the same manner. It entails asking
participants for information in some structured format.
5. Life-History Records - These are records of information about a lifetime
chronology of events and activities. They often involve a combination of data
records on education, work, family and residence. These include public records
or historical documents or interviews with respondent.

Ethical Principles
Ethical principles provide a generalized framework within which particular
ethical dilemmas may be analyzed.

Details of these ethical principles are found in the documents.

1. Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association

2. Ethical standards for Research with Children- Society for Research in Child
Development.
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research

Code of ethics that govern the behavior of our teachers,we also have
researchers.

The following consideration for research conducted with young children and other
vulnerable populations. National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC).

Some key points are :

1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.

2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the research
in which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their
decision to participate must be based on what is called “ informed consent”.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a truthful
manner and in ways that children can understand.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research
with children should remain confidential.

Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement on Teachers

1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more reflective
more critical and analytical in their teaching and more open and committed to
professional development. ( Oja & Pine 1989, Herson 1996 Keyes 2000; Rust
2007).
2. Participating in teacher research also help teachers become more deliberate
in their decision making and actions in the classroom.
3. Teacher research develops the professional depositions of lifelong learning,
reflective and mindful teaching and self transformation ( Mills 2000; Stringer
2007).
4. Engaging in teaching research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and
consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and
prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to
inquire (Borko et al. 2007).

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FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

“The ego is not master in its own house”.

-Sigmund Freud

INTRODUCTION:

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

argued that human behavior was the result of the
interaction of three component parts of the mind: the id,ego
and superego.

 Sigmund Freud ( 6 May 1856- 23 September 1939)

considered the First 5 years of a child’s life to be most
important because he believed that an individual’s
basic character had been formed by the age of 5.
 Freud’s personality theory can be conceptualized
according to structure of personality, topography of
mind and stages of personality development.

FREUDAN COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY

The Id

The Ego

The Superego

STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

FREUD THEORIES
 The Id is ruled by The Pleasure Principles: (I WANT, I WANT, I WANT!!!!)
 Pleasure Principle: Cares only about immediate self-gratification;does not
care about deferring,doesn’t care about others.

EGO
 The Ego is ruled by The Reality Principle, the Ego is pragmatic. “You can’t
always get what you want.”
 The Ego mediates between the Id and the world. The Ego develops
strategies to help the Id make it until the urge can be satisfied.
 It takes a tremendous amount of psychic energy to help suppress the Id’s
urges.

SUPEREGO
 Works on perfection principle.
 The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are
learned from one’s parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 - 5
during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

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Two Parts Of Superego

The Ego Ideal : It includes the rules The Conscience : includes information
and standards for good behavior. about things that are viewed as bad by
These behaviors include those which parents and society. These behaviors
are approved of by parental and other are often forbidden and lead to bad
authority figures. Obeying these rules consequences,punishments and
leads to feelings of pride and enhanced feeling of guilt.
self esteem.

ID SUPEREGO
“ I want that right “ Good people don’t think
now”. about those things

EGO
‘Let’s figure out a way to
work together”

ICE BERG MODEL

Psychoanalytic theory of the conscious and

unconscious mind is often explained using an iceberg
metaphor.

Conscious awareness is the tip of the iceberg, while

the unconscious is represented by the ice hidden below
the surface of the water.

TOPOGRAPHY OF MIND

The Conscious Mind

It includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental
processing that we can think and talk about rationally.
Events and experiences that are easily remembered or retrieved are
considered to be within one’s conscious awareness. Example Telephone
numbers, birthday of self and dates of special holidays.

The Preconscious Mind

It Includes all memories that may have been forgotten or are not in present
awareness but with attention can be readily recalled into conscious.
Example:
Telephone numbers,addresses once known but little used.
It is thought to be partially under the control of the superego,which helps to
suppress unacceptable thoughts and behaviors.

The Unconscious Mind

It includes all memories that one is unable to bring to conscious awareness. It

is the largest of the three topographical levels.

It consists of unpleasant and non essential memories that have been

repressed and can be retrieved through therapy, hypnosis ad with other
substances that alter awareness.

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According to Freud,the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and

experience,even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

ID: Pleasure principle

SUPEREGO : Morality principle
EGO: Reality principle

Conscious: the part of mind we are aware of-

everyday thoughts and feelings.
Preconscious: Thoughts and memories not
accessible at all times,but easily recalled.
Unconscious :The deep dark shameful part
represented thoughts,memories and feelings.

STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

 The theory of psychosexual development was proposed by the famous
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and described how personality developed
over the course of childhood.
 Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the
age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development
and continue to influence behavior later in life.
 Erogenous zone - a specific area that becomes focus of pleasure needs.
This may be the mouth,anus and genitals.
 Fixation- results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual
stage.

1. Oral Stage : Birth - 18 months

 During the oral stage, the infant’s primary source
of interaction occurs through the mouth,so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important
 The mouth is vital for eating and the infant derives
pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such s tasting and sucking.
 The primary conflict at this stage is weaning processes.
 If fixation occurs at this stage,Freud believed the individual would have
issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems
with drinking,eating,smoking or nail biting.
 Oral stage fixation might have 2 effects:

1.Neglected child might become psychologically dependent adult continually

seeking the oral stimulation denied in infancy,thereby becoming a manipulative
person in fulfilling his/her own needs,rather than maturing to independence.

2. The over-protected child might resist maturation and return to dependence

upon others in fulfilling his or her needs. Theoretically,oral-stage fixations are
manifested as garrulousness(talkativeness),smoking,continual oral stimulus
(eating,chewing objects),and alcoholism.

2. Anal Stage : 18 months - 3 years

 During this anal stage,Freud believed that the

primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder
and bowel movements. The major conflict at this
stage is toilet training-- the child has to learn to
control his or her bodily needs.
 According to Freud,inappropriate parental responses
can result in negative outcomes.
 Not resolved? Anal retentive (rigid and obsessive personality) or anal
expulsive (messy and disorganized personality).

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3.Phallic Stage: 3 - 6 years

 During the phallic stage,the primary focus of the libido is
on genitals. At this age,children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females and become
aware of sexuality.
 Oedipus Complex (boys)
- Unconscious sexual desires towards mother,father is competition.
- Simultaneously fears the dad- “castration anxiety”
 Electra Complex (girls)
- Unconscious sexual desires towards father and mother is competition.
- Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a
means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
 If fixation occurs this stage,it will lead to sexual identity problems,difficulty in
accepting authority.

4.Latency Stage: 6-12 years

 During the elementary school years,the focus changes

from egocentrism to more interests in group
activities,learning an socialization with peers.
 The latent period is a time of exploration in which the
sexual energy is still present,but it is directed into other
areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
 If fixation occurs at this stage,it will lead to inability to conceptualized,lack of
motivation in school or job.

5.Genital Stage: 13 years- Adulthood

 During the final stage of psychosexual development,the

individual develops a strong sexual interests in the opposite
sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout
the rest of a person’s life.
 If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced and caring. The
goal of this stage is to establish the balance between the
various life areas.

RELEVANCE OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

 Knowledge of the structure of the personality can assist nurses who work in
the mental health setting.
 The ability to recognize behavior associated with the id,ego and the superego
assists in the assessment of developmental level.
 Understanding the use of ego defense mechanisms is important in making
determination about maladaptive behaviors, is planning care for client’s to
assist in creating change or in helping clients accepts themselves as unique
individual.

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT

‘’The principle of goal is to create men who are capable of doing new
things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done-men
who are creative,inventive and discoverers.’’
--Jean Piaget
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Analyze Piaget’s stages in relation to teaching-learning process.
2. Evaluate learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) HISTORY

Born: August 09,1896, Switzerland

Died: September 16,1980 ( Age 84 )
Parents: Eldest son of Arthur Piaget and Rebecca Jackon.
Education: Received Ph.D. from University of Neuchatel in
1918.
Wife: Married to Valentine Chatenay in 1923.
Children: 3 children namely Jacqueline,Luciene and
Laurent. Whose intellectual development from infancy to
language was studied by Piaget.
 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century’s most influential
researchers in the area of developmental psychology.
 He was originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and
considered himself a “Genetic Epistemologist”.
 Piaget wanted to know how children learned though their development in the
study of knowledge.
 He administered Binet’s IQ test in Paris and observed that children’s answers
were qualitatively different.
 Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures.
 He believes that the child’s cognitive structure increases with the
development.
 Piaget’s theory o infant development were based on his observations of his
own three children.
 Piaget argued that children’s cognitive development occurs in stages.
Specially, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to
the next, their behavior also changes, reflecting these cognitive development.

Cognitive development means how children think, explore and figure

things out. It is development of knowledge, skills, problem solving and
dispositions, which help children think about and understand the world around
them. Brain development is part of cognitive development.

BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS

1. Schema - refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually
adapt to and organize their environment.
 It is an individuals way to understand or create meaning about a thing or
experience.
 It is like the mind has a filling cabinet and each drawer has folders that
contain files of things he has had an experience with.
2. Assimilation - this is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or schema.
3. Accommodation - this is the process of creating a new schema.
4. Equilibration - Piaget believed that people have the natural need to
understand how the world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in
their life.
 Is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
5. Cognitive disequilibrium- when experiences do not match our schemata or
cognitive structures.

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage 1. Sensori-motor stage (birth to infancy)

 This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking
and reaching becomes more organized in his movement.
 The first face of children’s cognitive development. During this stage,children
primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor
activities.
The term sensoi-motor focuses on the prominence of senses and
muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the
world.
 Object Permanence - this is the ability of the child to know that an
object still exists even when out of sight.
 This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.

The sensori-motor stage comprises six substages, where children’s

behavior moves from being reflex driven to more abstract.

1. Use of reflexes ( 0-2 months ) - during this stage, children typically

use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate information from their sensory
organs into a single united concept.
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) - children start to
consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to
engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) - children’s behaviors
become more intentional and the types of behaviors that they repeat
expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to
their body.
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes - at this point, children’s
behaviors become more goal oriented and they can combine different
behaviors to achieve goals.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions ( 12-18 months ) - instead of performing
the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve
different results. These behavior are not spontaneous or by accident, but
are purposeful. Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can
combine more complicated behaviors and even perform a behavior
similarly but not the same to get the desired result.
6. Mental Combinations - children start to rely on mental abstractions to
solve problems, use gestures and words to communicate and can
pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve
problems/puzzles children can deliberate and carefully choose their
actions.

Stage 2. Pre-Operational stage (2-7 yrs. Old)

 Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. The child can now make
mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever
closer to the use of symbols.
 At the end of the sensorimotor stage, children start to use mental
abstractions.
 In this stage, children also learn more about “ Categorization”. they can
classify items based on similarities or differences.
 Although abstract thought advances quickly in the pre-operational stage,
other cognitive process develop more slowly.

1. Symbolic function -the ability to represent objects and events.

- a symbol is a thing that represents something else.
- Gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years
old.
2. Egocentrism— this is the tendency of the child to only see his
point of view and to assume that everyone also has the same point of view.
- the child can not take the perspective of others.

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3. Centration- this refers to the tendency of the child to only

focus on one aspect of thing or event and exclude other aspects.
4. Irreversibility- pre-operational children still have the inability to
reverse their thinking.
5. Animism- this is the tendency of children to attribute human
like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
6. Transductive reasoning- this refers to the pre-operational
child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
- Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.g., If A
causes B, then B causes A.

Stage 3 concrete-operational stage- (8-11 yrs. old)

This is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically
but only in terms of concrete objects.
During this stage, children are more capable of solving
problems because they can consider numerous outcomes and perspective all of
their cognitive abilities are better developed in this stage.
1.Conservation- this is the ability to know that certain
properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance
the children progress progress to attain conservation
abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then a
conserver.
2.Seriation- this refers to the ability to order or arrange things
in a series based o one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
3. Decentering– this refers to the ability of the child to
perceive the different features of objects and situations.
- No longer is the child focused or limited to one
aspect or dimension.
4.Reversibility- during the stage of concrete operations, the
child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.

Stage 4. Formal operational stage (12-15 yrs. Old.)

- Thinking becomes logical.
- They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
- Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think
about abstract concepts and are not limited to a current time,person or situation.

1. Hypothetical reasoning- this is the ability to come up with

different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weight
data in order to make a final decision or judgement. This can
be done in the absence of concrete objects .The individuals can
now deal with “What if’ questions.
2. Analogical reasoning- this is the ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage
can make an analogy.
3. Deductive reasoning - this is the ability to think logically by applying a
general rule to a particular instance or situation.

From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following
principles:
1. Children will provide explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive
development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that
engage learners and require adaptation (i.e assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor
and mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform
tasks that are beyond their cognitive capabilities.
4.Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.

The
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VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL CULTURAL THEORY

‘’What a child can do in cooperation today,tomorrow she/he

will be able to do alone.’’
-Lev Vygotsky

OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called ‘’Socio-cultural “ theory.

2. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.
3. Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching skill.

HISTORY: LEV VYGOTSKY

 Born: Russia on November 17, 1896 and died on

June 11, 1934 at the age of 37.
 His father Semi L’vovich,founded the society of
education in Gomel”,and held a wide range of
active interests including foreign language, history,
literature, theater and art.
 His work began when he was studying learning and
development to improve his own teaching.
 He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art,
learning and development and educating students
with special needs.
 His experience together with his interest in literature and his work as a
teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central
factors in cognitive development.
 His theory became known as soci- cultural theory of development.

Social . Cognitive Language

interactions Developme
nt
Cultural Context

 Socio cultural theory of development emphasizes the crucial influence that

social interactions and language,embedded within a cultural context,have on
cognitive development.
 Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in
social activities.
 Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner‘s environment all contribute
to the process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide
feedback.
 Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning
experience.

Language
 Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture.
 Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
 It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
 It is use to know and understand the world and solve problems. It serves a
social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the
learner to regulate and reflect on his own thinking.

Private speech - is a form of self talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.

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Zone of Actual Development - refer in which the child may perform

at a certain level of competency and she/he may not immediately proficient at it.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- represents the range of tasks that a

learner can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable person but cannot
perform independently. It's the gap between what a learner can do alone and
what they can do with assistance.

SCAFFOLDING- The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task
he can not accomplish

Scaffold and fade away technique - as the learners become more proficient,
able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do without
assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn.

When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:

 I do, you watch
 I do, you help
 You do, I help
 You do, I watch

Implications of Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory:

1. Education: Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the importance of a supportive

social environment in education. Collaborative learning, peer interaction, and
teacher guidance are seen as critical components of effective learning.
2. Cultural Context: The theory underscores the significance of cultural
influences in shaping cognitive development. Different cultures provide unique
tools and ways of thinking that contribute to individual learning.
3. . Application to Real-World Settings: Vygotsky's ideas are often applied in
educational practices, particularly in designing instructional strategies that take
into account the social and cultural context of learners.
Piaget Vygotsky
 More individual focus  More social in focus
 Believe that there are universal  Did not propose stages but
stages of cognitive development emphasized on cultural factors in
cognitive development.
 Did not give much emphasis on  Stressed the role of language in
language cognitive development.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS:
PIAGET Vygotsky
 Piaget emphasized the role of
individual exploration and  Vygotsky placed a stronger
interaction with the physical emphasis on the role of social
environment. He believed that interaction in cognitive
cognitive development occurs development. He believed that
through a series of stages and children learn through social
children actively construct their interactions and collaboration with
understanding of the world through more knowledgeable others such
direct interaction with objects and as parents, teachers and peers.
events.  The concept of the “zone of
 According to Piaget, social proximal development “(ZPD) is
interaction plays a secondary role, central to Vygotsky’s theory. This is
serving as context for individual the difference between what a
exploration. He saw social learner can do without help and
interaction as important but what he/she can achieve with
believed it primarily influenced guidance and support.
individuals within the context of
their current cognitive stage.

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CULTURAL FACTORS
PIAGET VYGOTSKY
 Vygotsky argued that cognitive
 Piaget theory is often considered development is deeply influenced
more universal and less culturally by cultural context. He emphasized
specific. He proposed that cognitive the importance of cultural tools,
development follows a set symbols and social practices in
sequence of stages that are largely shaping cognitive processes.
invariant across cultures.  The “cultural-historical theory”
 While Piaget acknowledged the posited by Vgotsky suggests that
influence of cultural factors he did cognitive development cannot be
not emphasize them as strongly as separated from the cultural and
Vygotsky did. historical context in which it occurs.

LANGUAGE
PIAGET VYGOTSKY

 Piaget saw language development  Considered language to be a

as a product of cognitive fundamental tool in cognitive
development. He believed that as development. He proposed that
children’s thinking becomes more language not only reflects but also
advanced. They are better able to shapes thought. Social interactions,
use language to represent their including language use, play a
thought. crucial role in the development of
higher mental functions.

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

“ You only live once, so enjoy the ride”

INTRODUCTION:

ERIKSON’S was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular
and influential theorist of development ,while his theory was impacted by
psycho-analyst SIGMUND FREUD WORK .

ERIKSON’S theory centered on psycho- social development rather than psycho-

sexual development.

ERIKSON’S theory was based on EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE .This principle

suggest that people grow in a sequence that occurs overtime and in the context
of a larger community.

Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words---- namely
Psychological ( or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc)
and Social (external relationships and environment), both at the heart of
Erikson’s theory.

The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality
and behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating personal
development-of self and others.

Erikson’s eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model.

Accessible and obviously relevant to modern life from several different

perspectives for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior
develops in people.

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The Epigenetic Principle

-as Boeree explains “ this principle says that we develop through a
predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress
through each stage is part determined by our success, or lack of success in all
previous stages.

A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain
time in a certain order, which nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we
interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward
prematurely or out of order we ruin the development of the entire flower.”

Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces.

If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or a psychosocial

strength that will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.

Successfully passing through each crisis involves “ achieving “ a healthy ratio or

balance between the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.

Malignancy – is the worst of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too
much of the negative aspects of the tasks.

Maladaptation – is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and
too little of the negative.

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)

The goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity

for mistrust.

the first stage of psychologist theory of psychosocial development. This

stage begins at birth and lasts until a child is around 18 months old and is the
most fundamental stage in life.
Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

 Sensory maladjustment:(  Withdrawal-  Hope- the strong

maladaptive) overly characterized by belief that, even
trusting, even gullible, this depression, when things are
person cannot believe paranoia, and not going well,
anyone would mean them possibly psychosis they will work out
harm, and will use all the well in the end.
defenses at their command
to find an explanation or
excuse for the person who
did him wrong.

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Stage 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME DOUBT

(Toddler years from 18 months to three years)

People often advise new parents to be “firm but tolerant” at this

stage .This way the child will develop both self control and self- steem.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of ERIK

ERIKSON’S stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the
age of 18 months and around age 2 or 3 years. According to Erikson, children at
this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-control.

Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

 Impulsiveness-  Compulsiveness-  Willpower and

Maladaptation a sort of too much shame determination –
shameless willfulness that and doubt proper positive
leads you, in later balance of
childhood and even autonomy and
adulthood, to jump into shame and doubt
things without proper
consideration of your
abilities.

Stage 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

(Preschool years from three to five)

Initiative – means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on

responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful.

Initiative vs. guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs during the preschool years, at this point children
begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and
other social interactions.

Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

 A good balance leads to the
 Ruthlessness –  Inhibition- psychosocial strength of
Maladaptation-too Malignancy too purpose. A sense of purpose
much initiative and much guilt is something many people
too little guilt crave in their lives, yet many
 the extreme form of do not realize that they
ruthlessness themselves make their
Sociopathy purposes, through imagination
and initiative.
 Courage- the capacity for
action despite a clear
understanding of your
limitations and past failings

Stage 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

(Middle school years from six to 11)

Children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to

education and to learning the social skills their society requires od them.
Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory
of psychosocial development .Through social interactions ,children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishment and abilities.

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Maladaptation/Malignancy Virtue
 A happier thing is to develop
the right balance of industry
 Narrow virtuosity- too much and inferiority– to keep us
industry sensibly humble. Then we
 Inertia- much more common have the virtue called
malignancy. competency.

Stage 5: IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION

(Teen years from 12 to 18)

Identity versus role confusion is the fifth stage of ego in psychologist Erik
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development .This stage plays an essential role
in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of the person’s life.

Maladaptation/Malignancy Virtue
 Fidelity
 Repudiation –the lack of identity
 If an adolescent is unable to
explore or find a sense of
identity due to societal or
personal constraints, they may
experience role confusion and a
lack of direction.

Stage 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

(Young adult years from 18 to 40)
The sixth stage of Erik Erikson theory of development . Young adults
needs to form intimate loving relationship with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships while failure result in lone lines and isolation .This stage
cover the period early of adulthood when people are exploring personal relation.
If a young adult is unable to form intimate relationships, they may
experience feelings of loneliness and isolation.

Maladaption Malignancy Virtue

 promiscuity – the  Exclusions-  Love

maladaptive form malignancy which
refers to the
tendency to isolate
oneself from love,
friendship, and
community and to
develop a certain
hatefulness in
compensation for
one’s loneliness

Stage 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

(Middle age from 40 to 65)
If an adult becomes self-centered and stagnates, they may feel a lack of
purpose and a sense of unproductiveness.
If an adult becomes self-centered and stagnates, they may feel a lack of
purpose and a sense of unproductiveness.
Generativity vs. stagnation is the seventh stage of Erik Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development. During this stage, middle-aged adults strive to
create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by parenting children or

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fostering positive changes that benefit others. Contributing to

society and doing things to promote future generations are important needs at
the generativity vs. stagnation stage of development.
Maladaption Malignancy Virtue

 Overextension-  Rejectivity –  Care

illustrates the (malignant) too little
problem: Some generativity and too
people try to be so much stagnation
generative that they
no longer allow time
for themselves to rest
and relaxation

Stage 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

(Older adulthood from 65 to death)
If an older adult feels regret and bitterness about the past, they may
experience despair and a sense of futility.

Maladaption Malignancy Virtue

 Presumption  Disdain  Wisdom

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

‘’Right actions tends to be defined in terms of general individual

rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed
upon by the whole society.”
- Lawrence kohlberg

OBJECTIVES:

In this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the stages of moral development in light to making daily decisions.

2. Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral
dilemmas.
3. Cite how theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a
teacher later on.

INTRODUCTION:

Individuals when confronted by situations where they need to make

moral decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence
Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He
based his theory on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our
ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and
reason logically.

Lawrence Kohlberg

 (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987)

 Was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who
served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard
University.

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 Having specialized in research on moral education and

reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development.
 A close follower of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Kohlberg's
work reflected and extended his predecessor's ideas, at the same time
creating a new field within psychology: "moral development".
 Kohlberg was one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.

The Stages

 In a 1958 dissertation, Kohlberg wrote what are

now known as Kohlberg's stages of moral
development.
 These stages explain the development of moral
reasoning.
 Created while studying psychology at the
University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by
the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination with children's reactions to moral
dilemmas .

Kohlberg’s theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical
behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages - each more
adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the last

JUSTICE!

He determined that the process of moral development was principally

concerned with justice and that its development continued throughout the life
span.

Moral Scenarios

 Kohlberg studied moral reasoning by presenting subjects with moral

dilemmas.
 He would then categorize and classify the reasoning used in the responses,
into one of six distinct stages, grouped into three levels: pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional. Each level contains two stages.

Moral reasoning is the process of thinking about what is right and wrong, and
making decisions based on those considerations. It involves weighing different
moral principles and applying them to specific situations.

Preconventional level - moral reasoning is based on the consequences/result

of the act, not on the whether the act itself is good or bad.

Stage 1. Punishment/obedience.
One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to
avoid punishment.
Stage 2. Mutual benefit
One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later.
You’ll scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.

Conventional - moral reasoning is based on the conventions or “norms” of

society. This may include the approval of others, law and order.

Stage 3. Social approval

One is motivated by what others expect in behavior- good boy,
good girl. The person acts because he/she values how he/she will appear to
others. He/she gives importance to what people will think or say.
One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order . The
person will follow the law because it is the law.

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Stage 4. Law and order

One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order . The
person will follow the law because it is the law.

Post-conventional - moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent

principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law.

Stage 5. Social contract

Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on
social justice and the common good.

Heinz's Dilemma:
 Heinz's wife is dying from a rare form of cancer. There is a drug that can
potentially save her, but the drug is extremely expensive to produce. The
pharmacist who invented the drug is charging a price that only the wealthy
can afford. Heinz has tried to borrow money, negotiate a lower price, and
even asked for help, but nothing has worked. Heinz is desperate and
considers stealing the drug to save his wife.

A person at the pre-conventional level might focus on the fear of punishment for
stealing or the personal benefit of saving his wife.

Someone at the conventional level might consider the importance of following

the law or societal rules and may weigh the potential consequences for social
relationships.

An individual at the post-conventional level might evaluate the situation in

terms of universal ethical principles, such as the right to life, justice, and the
inherent value of human beings.

Stage 6.Universal principle

This is associated with the development of one’s conscience.
Having a set of standards that drives one to possess moral responsibility to make
societal changes regardless of consequences to oneself. Examples of persons
are Mother Theresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.

CAROL GILLIGAN’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this presentation, you will be able to:

1. Explain the history of Gilligan's Theory.

2. Differentiate from Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development.

3. Understand how women develop their sense of self in the world.

INTRODUCTION:

CAROL GILLIGAN
 Carol Gilligan was born on November 28, 1936,
New York City.
 She graduated summa cum laude from
Swarthmore College in 1958.
 She went on to do advanced work at Radcliffe
University receiving a Masters in clinical
psychology in 1960.
 She earned her doctorate in social psychology from
Harvard university in 1964.

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 Gilligan began teaching at Harvard in 1967 with renowned

psychologist Erik Erikson.
 In 1970 she became a research assistant for Lawrence Kohlberg.
Kohlberg is known for his research on moral development and his stage
theory of moral development, justice and rights.
 Gilligan’s primary focus came to be moral development in girls. Her interest
in these dilemmas grew as she interviewed young men thinking about
enlisting for the Vietnam War and women who were contemplating abortions.

Theory Background

 While teaching at Harvard in 1968, Gilligan worked with Erik Erikson and
Lawrence Kohlberg, two of the leading theorists in mainstream psychology.
 She criticized both Erikson’s theory of identity due to it reflecting his own life,
and Kohlberg’s ideas about the moral dilemmas which mirrored his own
experiences and were ultimately biased against women.
 She found that Kohlberg’s investigations concluded that women scored lower
and less developed than that of men. Her research found that neither theory
women’s identity and experience (Medea, 2009).

How it differs from Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kholberg’s Stages of Moral Development consist Gilligan’s Stages of the

of 3 levels and Ethic of Care consists of 3
6 stages stages

Level 1 – Preconventional Morality Stage 1 – Preconventional

Stage 1 – Obedience & Punishment Orientation Stage 2 – Conventional
Stage 2 – Individualism & Exchange Stage 3 - Postconventional
Level 2 – Conventional Morality
Stage 3 – Good Interpersonal Relationships
Stage 4 – Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 – Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 – Social Contract & Individual Rights
Stage 6 – Universal Principles

Gilligan would go on to criticize Kholberg’s work. This was based on two things:

 First, he only studied privileged, white men and boys. She felt that this
caused a biased opinion against women.
 Secondly, in his stage theory of moral development, the male view of
individual rights and rules was considered a higher stage that women’s point
of view of development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships.

Carol Gilligan’s Theory

Carol Gilligan is a psychologist best known for her innovative views on the
development of women's morality and sense of self, which she detailed in her
1982 book In a Different Voice.

Gilligan developed her ideas in response to the theory of moral development

proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, which she criticized for ignoring women's
perspectives.

Gilligan proposed that women come to prioritize an "ethics of care" as their sense
of morality evolves along with their sense of self while men prioritize an "ethics of
justice."

Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory

Her theory is divided into three stages of moral development:

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Stage Goal
Preconventional Goal is individual survival
(selfishness)
Transition is from selfishness – to responsibility to others

Conventional (social) Self sacrifice is goodness

Transition is from goodness – to truth that she is a person too
Postconventional Principles of nonviolence:
(principled morality) do not hurt others or self
 Women must learn to deal to their own interests and to the interests of
others.
 She thinks that women hesitate to judge because they see the complexities
of relationships.

PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
 Person only cares for themselves in order to ensure survival.
 This is how everyone is as children.

Transition 1
During the first transition from the Preconventional to the Conventional Level,
the woman realizes that she has a responsibility to others. It is the first time that
she realizes her previous moral perspective could be characterized as selfish.

CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
 Responsibility
 More care shown for other people.
 Gilligan says this is shown in the role of Mother & Wife.
 Situation sometimes carriers on to ignoring needs of self.

Transition 2
During the second transition from the Conventional to the Postconventional
Level, the woman starts to experience tension between the needs of others and
the needs of the self. She begins to realize she must strike a better balance
between her needs and the needs of others.
This leads to a shift in moral judgment away from "goodness" to "truth" as
she starts to honestly assess her own desires, not just her responsibility to
others.

POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY

 Acceptance of the principle of care for

self and others is shown.
 Some people never reach this level.

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Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory

Gilligan didn't identify specific ages when the levels of moral development would
be reached.

However, as Kohlberg did with his theory, she noted some women might not
reach the highest level.

She also observed that it wasn't life experience that pushed a woman to higher
levels, but cognitive ability and changes in a woman's sense of self.

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

“CHILDREN NEED PEOPLE IN ORDER TO BECOME HUMAN”

INTRODUCTION:

ECOLOGICAL THEORY in our world, there's a theory we explore, Ecological

Theory, let's learn some more. It's about how environments play a part, In
shaping who we are, right from the start. Ecological Theory, it's all around, Micro,
meso, exo, macro, profound. From family to society, big and small, Let's
understand how they influence us all. Microsystem, the closest to our heart,
Family and friends, where we first start. Teachers and classmates, in our school,
They shape our experiences, making us cool. Ecological Theory, it's all around,
Micro, meso, exo, macro, profound. From family to society, big and small, Let's
understand how they influence us all.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the learners are able to…

1. Described each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.

2. Identified factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s
development.
3. Used the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors
that affect a child and adolescent development.

HISTORY:

Urie Bronfenbrenner

 Born on April 29, 1917 in Moscow,Russia and died

September 25, 2005.
 American psychologist
 formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to
explain how the inherent qualities of children and
their environments interact to influence how they
grow and develop.

He wrote 3 Books:

1. Two Worlds of Childhood (U.S. and U.S.S.R. in 1970),

2. Ecology of Human Development ( 1979)
3. Making Human Beings Human (2005)

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 Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory explains how the inherent

qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they
grow and develop.
 His theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple
environments.
 According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, children typically find themselves
enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological
system to the larger school system and then to the most expansive system
which includes society and culture. Each of this ecological systems inevitably
interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
 Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems Theory,
present child development within the context of relationship systems that
comprise the child’s environment. It describes multi part layers of
environment that has an effect on the development of the child.

 The term“bioecological” points out that the child’s own biological make-up
impacts as the key factor in one’s development.

Through the child’ s growing and developing body and the interplay between
his immediate family/community environment and the societal landscape,fuels
and steers his development.Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple
throughout other layers.

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL:STRUCTURE OF

ENVIRONMENT

Microsystem
 is the smallest and most immediate environment in which children live.
 Is the system closest to the person and the one in which they have direct
contact.
 This is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
 Microsystem typically includes family, peers or caregivers.
 Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional. In other words, your
reactions to the people in your microsystem will affect how they treat you
in return.

Mesosystem
 encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children
find themselves in
 Consists of the interactions between the different parts of a person ’ s
microsystem.
 The mesosystem is where a person ’ s individual microsystems do not
function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon
one another. This interactions have an indirect impact on the individual.

Exosystem

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 pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more

settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect
them indirectly nonetheless.
 Parent's workplace, community services, and mass media.
 Refers to a setting that does not involve the person as an active
participant, but still affects them.
 This includes decisions that have bearing on the person, but in which
they have no participation in the decision making process.

Macrosystem
 is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the
children that still have significant influences on them.
 This ecological system is composed of the children ’ s cultural patterns
and values,specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas as well as
political and economic system.

Chronosystem
 adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of
both change and constancy in the children‘s environments.
 The overarching chronosystem represents the temporal changes of a
child, his or her experiences and his or her environments.
 The chronosystem, representing dynamic environmental transitions such
as milestones and turning points, produces new conditions that affect the
development of the child.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological

Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on
children‘s development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can
sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different settings.

According to Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, teachers and

schools are integral to a child's development by influencing their immediate
microsystem, facilitating connections between different microsystems, and being
influenced by broader systems such as the educational and cultural context.
Positive and supportive interactions within these systems contribute to a child's
overall well-being and development.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

 Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head start, the publicity-funded early

childhood program in the US. He concluded that “the instability and
unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child’ s
development.
 ” Researches tell us that absence or lack of children ’ s constant mutual
interaction with important adults has negative effects on their
development.
 According to bioecological theory, “if the relationships in the immediate
microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other
parts of his environment.
 ” Bronfenbrenner ’ s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their
very important role. Schools and teachers crucial role is not to replace the
lack in the home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an
environment that welcomes and nurtures families.
 The schools and teachers can contribute stability and long-term
relationships, but only to support and not replace the relationships in the
home.
 Bronfenbrenner believes that, “the primary relationship needs to be with
someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a
lifetime.This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within
the immediate sphere of the child’ s influence.

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PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

“The body of the unborn baby is more complex than ours. The preborn
baby has several extra parts to his body which he needs only so long as he lives
inside his mother. He has his own space capsule, the amniotic sac. He has his
own lifeline, the umbilical cord, and he has his own root system, the placenta.
These all belong to the baby himself, not to his mother. They are all developed
from his original cell.”

OBJECTIVE:

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to :

1. trace the course of the prenatal developmental process that you went
through.
2. explain the most common hazards to prenatal development.
3. become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti abortion
stand.

“ HUMAN LIFE BEGINS AT CONCEPTION”

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT is the process in which the fetus develops inside

the mother wombs.The process normally takes about 9 months for a full term
pregnancy.A full term pregnancy last 280 days which is 40 weeks, this is
counting the first day of your last menstrual period.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT IS DIVIDE INTO THREE PERIOD :

1. GERMINAL PERIOD
happens 2 weeks after conception.Its include:

a. the creation of zygote

b. continued cell division
c. the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.

The following are the details of development during this period

a. 24- 30 hours after fertilization - the male (sperm) and female (egg)
chromosome unite.
b. 36 hours - the fertilized ovum,zygote,divides into two cells;
c. 48 hours (2 days) - 2 cells become 4 cells.
d. 72 hours (3 days)- 4 cells become small compact ball of 16-32 cells.
e. 96 hours (4 days)- hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4-5 days- inner cell mass ( blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days- blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h. 11-15 days- blastocyst invades into urine wall and becomes in it (implantation).

In this period the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer
layers of the organism are formed.

Blastocyst - the inner layer of cells that develops during

later into embryo.

Trophoblast - the outer layer of cells that develops also

during the germinal period, later provides nutrition and
support for the embryo.

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2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD
It will happens 2 to 8 weeks after the conception.
In this stage the name of mass cells, zygote become embryo. The following
development takes place.
 Cell differentiation
 Life support systems for the embryo develop
 Organ appears

Cell differentiation

Inner layer of cells, develops into the

Embryo’s endoderm digestive system and respiratory
systems.

The outermost layer which becomes

Embryo’s ectoderm the nervous systems, sensory
receptors (eyes,ears,nose) and skin
parts (nails,hair).

The middle layer which becomes the

Embryo’s mesoderm circulatory,skeletal,muscular,excretory
and reproductive systems.

Life support systems for the embryo develop

 is a bag or an envelope  consist of disk shape group
that contains clear fluid of tissues in which small
in which the developing blood vessels from the
embryo floats mother and the offspring
intertwine but do not join.

 contains two
arteries and one
vein that connects
the baby to the
placenta.

ORGAN APPEAR
(ORGANOGENESIS)
Process of organ formation

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3. FETAL PERIOD
The fetal period last from the 9th week until the baby is born. As soon as
the embryo enters this period, it becomes a fetus and remains once until
delivered. The fetal phase is the longest and contains the most development.

 3 inches long, 1 ounce;

 become active,moves it arms and legs,opens and closes
its mouth, and move its head; the face,forehead,eyelids,
nose, chin can now be distinguished and also the upper
arms,lower arms,hands and lower limbs; the genitals can
now be identified as male or female.

 6 inches long, 4 to 7 ounces;

 growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; prenatal
reflexes are stronger; mother feels arm and leg
movements for the first time.

5 months
 12 inches long, close to a pound;structure of the skin
(fingernail,toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.

6 months
 14 inches long, and weighs 1/2 pound: eye and eyelids
are completely formed; fine layer of head covers the
head;grasping reflex is present and irregular movements
occur.

7 months
 16 inches long, and weighs 3 pounds

8 and 9 months
 fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about 4
pounds.

TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

TERATOLOGY - is the field that investigate the causes of congenital (birth)

defects.

TERATOGEN - is that which cause birth defects. It comes from Greek word
“Tera” which means “ monster”.

 Ex. prescriptive drugs is Antibiotic.

 Ex. of non prescriptive drugs are
1. Prescription and non diet,pills,aspirin and coffee.
prescription drugs  Cocaine exposure during prenatal
development is associated with reduced
birthweight,lenght and head
circumference,impaired motor
development ,impaired information
processing and poor attention skills.

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 Nicotine,caffeine and illegal drugs such as

marijuana,cocaine and heroine.
 Researches found that a pregnant woman
2. PSYCHOACTIVE who drank more caffeinated coffee were more
DRUGS likely to have a preterm deliveries and
newborn with lower birthweight comapred to
their counterparts who did not drink
caffeinated coffee.
 heavy drinking by pregnant women results to
the so called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

 radiation in jobsites and X-rays,

3.ENVIRONMENTAL environmental pollutants, toxic wastes and
HAZARDS prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and
bath tubs.

 Rubella(german measles),syphills,gentitl
4.OTHER MATERNAL herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and
FACTOR stress, age ( too early or too late, beyond 30).

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS & TODDLERS

“A baby is God’s opinion that life should go on. ”

-Carl Sandburg

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the brain’s role in infant and toddler physical development.

2. Identify infant and toddler physical and motor developmental milestones.
3. Familiarize baby’s senses functions and perceptual development.

OUTLINE

 Definition of Terms
 Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
 Height and Weight
 Brain Development
 Motor Development
 Sensory and Perceptual Development

Physical Development pertains to the baby’s bodily growth, fine and gross
motor skills, and the abilities of various organs of the body. When a baby
achieves a new physical capability, his life improves, and that is an event in his
physical growth calendar.

TODDLER
INFANT
 a young child who is just
 a child in the first period of life
 a baby or a very young child that learning to walk.
can neither walk or talk.
 a person who is not of full age

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CEPHALOCAUDAL TREND

Cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal

growth from conception to 5 months when
the head grows more than the body.

PROXIMODISTAL PATTERNS

Proximodistal is the prenatal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus
grows from the inside of the body outwards.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

 Drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth

 Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first
six months
 An infants length increase by about 30percent in the first five months.

" Colostrum is a nutrient-rich, yellowish fluid that is produced by the mammary

glands in the breast during pregnancy and in the first few days after giving birth.
It is often referred to as "first milk" or "premilk.“

Is distinct from mature breast milk and has unique properties. It is rich in
antibodies, immunoglobulins, and other bioactive compounds that provide the
newborn with passive immunity, helping to protect them from infections.
Colostrum also contains essential nutrients and growth factors necessary for the
early development and health of the newborn.

 A babies weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the
second year of life.
 Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress a long
a natural curves of steady development.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

Myelination- is the process by which the axons are covered and insulated by
layeres of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth this process
increasing the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.

 25% of its adult weight (at birth),

75% of its adult weight (2nd
birthday)
 A baby’s brain produces trillions
more connections between
neurons than it can possibly
use. The brain eliminates
connections that are seldom or
never used (Santrock, 2002).

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

REFLEXES are involuntary movements or actions. Some movements are

spontaneous and occur as part of the baby's normal activity. Others are
responses to certain actions.

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 Sucking Reflex: initiated when something touches the roof an infant’s

mouth.
 Rooting Reflex: most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby
responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening
their mouth for feeding.
 Gripping/Grasping Reflex: babies will grasp anything that is placed in their
palm.
 Startle/ Moro Reflex: infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements
by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back.
 Galant Reflex: shown when an infant’s middle or lower back stroked next to
the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his/her body toward the
side which being stroked.
 Tonic Neck Reflex: demonstrated in infants who are placed on their
abdomens.

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS - movements involving larger muscles, like those

in the arms, legs, feet or the entire body.

FINE MOTOR SKILLS - movements involving small muscles, like those in

hands, wrist and fingers.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES – INFANTS AND TODDLERS

4 Months
2 Months
 Holds head steady without support
 Holds head up with support
 Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard
 Begins to push up when lying on surface
tummy  Rolls over from tummy to back
 Makes smoother movements with  Holds and shakes toys, swings at dangling toys
arms and legs  Brings hands to mouth
 Pushes up to elbows when lying on tummy
6 Months 9 Months

 Rolls over both from stomach to back and  Crawls

from back to stomach  Sits without support
 Moves into sitting position with
 Begins to sit with support
 Supports weight on legs when standing and support
might bounce  Stands, holding on to adult or
 Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawls furniture for support
backward before moving forward.  Pulls to stand

1 Year
18 Months
 Moves into sitting position without support
 Pulls up to stand and walks alone while holding  Walks alone
 Runs
onto furniture
 Pulls toys while walking
 Takes few steps without support of adult or  Helps undress self
furniture  Drinks from a cup
 Stands alone  Eats with a spoon

2 Years

 Begins to run
 Climbs onto and down from furniture without support
 Walks up and down steps while holding on for support
 Throws ball overhand
 Draws or copies straight lines and circles
 Stands on tiptoes
 Kicks a ball

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SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Sensory and
Perceptual Characteristics
Development

 It requires several days of experience to recognize

Smell their mother’s breast pad odor

 Definition: the ability to relate, connect and integrate

Intermodal information about two or more sensory modalities
Perception such as vision and hearing
 It gets sharpened through experience

 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision

Vision  (6 months) vision become better
 (1 yr. old) vision approxiamates that of an adult

 Develops much before the birth

Hearing  Infants sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than
those of adult

 They do feel pain

 Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an
Touch and Pain indicator of stress) after circumcision than prior to
surgery
 Babies respond to touch

 Sensitivity taste might be present before birth

Taste

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory that categorizes

human needs into a hierarchical structure, with the idea that individuals must
satisfy lower-level needs before progressing to higher-level ones.

Physiological needs
 These are the most basic needs
necessary for human survival.
Examples:
Food: Having enough to eat to sustain
life.
Water: Access to clean and safe
drinking water.
Shelter: Protection from the elements
and a secure place to live.
Sleep: The need for sufficient rest to
maintain physical health.

Safety Needs:

 Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek safety and security.
Examples:
Personal Security: Protection from harm, danger, or threats.
Financial Security: Having enough resources to meet basic needs.
Health and Well-being: Access to health care and a safe environment.

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Love and Belongingness:

 After physiological and safety needs, people seek social connections and
relationships.
Examples:
Family: Relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family.
Friendships: Building connections with peers and friends.
Intimacy: Establishing romantic relationships.

Esteem Needs:

 Once social needs are met, individuals seek self-esteem and recognition.
Examples:
Achievement: Personal accomplishments and recognition for one's efforts.
Status: Recognition and respect from others.
Competence: Developing skills and feeling competent in various areas.

Self-Actualization:

 The highest level of the hierarchy involves personal growth, self-fulfillment,

and realizing one's potential.
Examples:
Creativity: Expressing oneself through artistic or intellectual pursuits.
Morality: A commitment to ethical principles and personal values.
Problem Solving: A focus on personal growth and realizing one's capabilities.

Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can do Physically

Domain : Physical Health, Well-Being and Motor Development

Physical Health:

Standards 1 : The child demonstrates adequate growth

(weight,height,head,circumference)
Standards 2 : The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily
activities.

1-6 months 7-12 months

 Startles to sounds  Reacts with pleasure when

 Visually follows a moving object from he/she smells something nice
side to side  Reacts by making a face
 Visually follows moving object up and when/she smells something foul.
down
 Reacts to pain by crying
 Withdraws or cries when in contact
with something lot
 Withdraws or reacts with surprise
when in contact with something cold
 Reacts with pleasure/smiles or
relaxed expression when he/she
tastes something delicious
 Reacts by making a
face/frowns/grimaces when he/she
tastes something he/she does not like

Standards 3 : The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities.

 Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.g.,chairs,large boxes)
 Walks without tiring easily

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13-18 months 13-24 months

 Plays without tiring easily,able to  Sustains physical activity (e.e.,

keep pace with playmates. dancing,outdoor games,swimming)
 Participates actively in games, for at least 3-5 minutes.
outdoor play and other exercises.

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKILLS )

Standards 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements

involving large muscle groups.
 Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on
and/ or performed by a child on the specified age?

1-6 months 13 - 18 months

 Holds head steadily  Walks without support
 Moves arms and legs equally to reach at  Walks backwards
dangling object  Walks up the stairs with hand
 Rolls over held, 2 feet on each step
 Bounces when held standing,briefly bearing  Walks down the stairs with
weight on legs hand held, 2 feet on each step
 Sits with support  Jump in place
 Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this  Climbs onto a steady elevated
surface (e.g., bed,adult chair or
bangko)etc.
 Kicks a ball but with little
control of direction
 Throws a ball but with little
control of direction
 Throws a ball but with little
control of speed
 Runs without tripping or falling
 Maintains balance walking on a
low,narrow,ledge:between 2
lines) without assistance
 Moves with music when he
hears it
 Can move body to imitate
familiar animals
 Can move body to imitate
another person/tv character
7-12 months 19-24 months
 Sits alone steadily without support  Walks up the stairs with
 Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary alternating feet, without help
means of moving around  Walks down the stairs with
 Stands without support alternating feet,without help
 Stands from a sitting position without any  Kicks a ball with control of
help direction
 Squats from a standing position with ease  Throws a ball with control of
 Stands from a standing position with ease direction
 Bends over easily without falling  Throws a ball with control of
 Stands from bent position without falling speed
 Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of
crib or furniture (cruises)
 Walks with one hand held

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ( FINE MOTOR SKILLS )

Standards 1 : The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements.

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 Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on

and /or performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months 13-18 months
 Hands open most of the time  Puts small objects in/out container
 Brings both hands together towards  Unscrews lids
dangling object/toy  Unwraps candy/food
 Use either hand interchangeably to  Hold thick pencil or crayon with
grasp objects palmar grip (I.e., all 5 fingers
 Uses all 5 fingers in a raking wrapped around pencil)
motion to get food/toys placed on a  Scribbles spontaneously
flat surface
 Grasps objects with the same hand
most of the time (hand preference
emerging )
7 - 12 months 19-24 months
 Pulls toys by the string  Colors with strokes going out of the
 Bangs 2 large blocks together lines
 Picks up objects with thumb and
index fingers
 Grasps and transfers objects from
hand to hand
 Grasps objects with the same hand
all the time (definite hand
preference established)

PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE ( ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)

Standards 1 : The child participates in basic personal care routines.
 Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on
and /or performed by a child on the specified age?

0-6 months 7 - 12 months

 Sucks and swallows milk from  Holds a feeding bottle by
breast/bottle himself
 Begins to take complementary or  Helps hold cup of drinking
semi-solid foods by the end of 6  Chews solid foods well
months  Feeds self with finger foods
 Keeps reasonably still while being  Scoops with a spoon with
dressed,undress bathed and while spillage
diaper is being changed
13-18 months 19 - 24 months
 Feeds self with assistance  Gets drink for self unassisted
 Feeds self using fingers to eat  Removes loose sando
rice/viands with spillage  Removes socks
 Feeds self using spoon with spillage  Informs caregiver of the need to
 No longer drinks from feeding bottle urinate so he/she can be
 Participates when being dressed by brought to the comfort room
lifting arms or raising legs  Goes to the designated place to
 Pulls down gartered short urinate but sometimes wets
pants/underpants or panties his/her pants
 Informs caregiver of the need to move  Goes to the designated place to
his bowels so he/she can be brought move his/her bowels but
to comfort room sometimes still soils his/ her
 Takes a bath with assistance pants
 Brushes teeth after meals with  Goes to the designated place to
assistance from adult move his/her bowels but needs
 Washes and dries hands under adult help with wiping and washing
supervision  Brushes teeth after meals with
 Washes and dries face with the adult supervision
assistance of an adult  Washes and dries face under
adult supervision

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Cognitive development of Infants and toddlers

OBJECTIVES:
 Know the importance of the cognitive development of infants and toddlers.
 Find out what are the factors that affect and enhance cognitive
development in this stage.
 To know and understand the sub-stages of cognitive development of
infants and toddlers.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Refers to the process of growth and change in intellectual/mental abilities
such as thinking, reasoning, and understanding. It includes the acquisition of
knowledge.
 Brain development is part of cognitive development.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY refers to development in the way a

baby thinks . This includes his/her language, communication and exploration
skills.
Examples of cognitive activities:
 Paying attention
 Remembering leaning to talk
 Interacting with toys
 Identifying faces

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
 The first stage of the four cognitive development
 Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform
on it
 Progress from reflexive, instinctual actions (birth) to the beginning of
symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

SIX SUB STAGES OF SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

1. SIMPLE REFLEX (birth to 1 month)

 In the first month of life, infants reflect more reflexes.

Automatic responses to particular stimuli.
Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget:
 Sucking objects in the mouth (babies suck, grasp, and look in much the
same way no matter what experience they encounter )
 Moving or interesting objects with his/her eyes
 Closing hands when an object makes contact with the palm

2. PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS (1-4 months)

There are things that Piaget observes and there are:

 Habit reflex – (Moving and Sucking)
 Primary circular reactions- Actively involve his/her own body in
some form of repeated activity.

3. SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS (4-8 MONTHS)

 Infants becoming more object-oriented
There are 3 abilities that Piaget observes:
 Intentional grasping for the desired object
 The infant begins to interact with objects in the environment.
 Secondary circular reactions
 Repeated motion brings particular interest.
 Differentiations
 The infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside
world and takes delight in being able to make things happen.

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4. COORDINATION OF SECONDARY CIRCULAR

(8-9 MONTHS)

 this substage the infant has the first proper intelligence and has a logical
thinking ability, the infant can combine these basic reflexes and uses
planning and coordination to achieve a specific goal.

5. TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

(12-18 MONTHS)
 The child begins exploring the world in a trial-and-error manner,
using both motor skills and planning abilities.
 In this substage Piaget describes a child as a “young scientist”.

6. BEGINNING OF REPRESENTATIONAL THOUGHT

(18-24 months)

 This initial movement from a hands-on approach to knowing about

the world to the more mental world of substage six marks the transition to
pre-operational thought.
 In this substage, there is a first and important accomplishment of a
child and that is the object permanence.
 Object permanence means knowing that an object still exists even
if it is hidden.

LEARNING AND REMEMBERING

 Do infants learn and remember?
✓YES
✓But all of us experience an INFANTILE AMNESIA -
—The Inability to recall events that happened when we were very young.
✓Reports of childhood usually involve memories of significant events.

Language development
Stages in producing language:
COOING
 A typical coo consist of a single-syllable, open-vowel sound like 'ahh' or
'ohh'.
BABBLING
 When your child is playing around making different speech sounds e.g.,
“baba”. They are just having fun producing different sequence of sounds.
ONE-WORD UTTERANCES
 Limited in both bowels and consonants. Example: Usually refer to
important people (“mama,” “papa), animals (“kitty,” “puppy”, “Doggie”).

TWO-WORD UTTERANCES AND TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH

 Example: “go play,” “door open,” “mama milk,” and etc.

BASIC ADULT SENTENCE STRUCTURE (4YEARS OLD)

 With continuing vocabulary acquisition.
 As children become sophisticated in their language, they over-generalize
rules in ways that are inconsistent with common usage. For example, “I
comed home” for “I came home” (sometimes called creative grammar).
Correct forms are temporarily replaced as rules are internalized.

HOLOPHRASES
 One-word utterance conveying intentions, desires, and demands
Ex: “ball,” “mama,” “dada”

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18 MONTHS
 3 to 100 words; child overextends the meaning of the words.
Ex: any four-legged animal is a doggie.
 This is termed as extension error.

1.5 to 2.5 years

 Combining single words to produce two-word utterances
 Two or Three-word utterances that lack articles and prepositions -
telegraphic speech
2 years
 300 words
3 years
 1,000 words
4 years
 Foundation of adult syntax and language structure

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD)

Noam Chomsky - a linguist claimed that humans have an innate Language

Acquisition Device (LAD).
LAD – the metaphorical organ responsible for language learning; programmed to
learn a language.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito – “By 5 months of age, babies are already
specializing by using the left side of their brains for language sounds and the
right side for expressing emotion…”

OTHER COGNITIVE ABILITIES

INFANT MEMORY

 They view memory as one of the most critical abilities in cognitive

development.
 Babies have been found to remember person’s actions, and objects at a
very early age. In classic memory study, 8 week old were found to
remember a learned behavior for up to 2 weeks.
 Babies have been found to acquire impressive visual memory skills by
the age of 6 0r 7 months.
Visual memory - an ability acquired by 6 or 7 months of age, in which an infant
recognizes objects that were seen at an earlier time.

 Results of a study show that 2 1/2 year old could reenact a task they did
at 6 months.
 Baby’s visual memory has been found to be associated with language
and reading ability, quantitative competence and general intelligence at
age 6.

TOODLER MEMORY

Recall a type of memory that allows a person to scan and retrieve information
that is previously stored in the brain.

 This requires greater cognitive ability than simply recognizing something

familiar.
 Toddlers also begin to develop working memory; the ability to actively
keep several pieces of information available in the brain at any one time,
so they can be accessed as needed to solve a problem or learn
something new.

INFANT ATTENTION

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Another ability emphasized by information processing theorists is

attention. Babies who attended to objects study their features in an efficient way
may remember them for longer periods.

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The style of attending may also affect infant learning, as

discussed in chapter 6 some babies attend by taking brief looks,referred to as
short looking, a style of attending where infants take several looks at different
aspects of an objects,allowing them to process more quickly. Babies who are
long looking look at one feature for a long period of time.

TODDLER ATTENTION
Parents and caregivers play an important role in promoting a toddler’s ability
to pay attention.
The play environment has also been found to promote toddler attention to
objects and play tasks.

INFANT AND TODDLER PLAY & COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky (1976) argued that play is one of the primary ways that children
acquire intellectual maturity. One sophisticated form of playing --pretend play -- is
particularly useful in enhancing intellectual abilities before age 3.

INFANT MOTOR PLAY

 Motor play : spontaneous, repetitive, physical activity,common in infancy,
that is nonliteral,intrinsically motivated ,self-chosen and pleasurable.
 Some early motor play is social,babies play with other people even in the
earliest months of life in many cultures,parents are the first
playmates,they initiate or respond to playful infant behaviors.
 All noise making and pounding,laughter and surprise,wiggling and
bouncing that characterize early social motor play provide unique
opportunities for babies to construct their understanding of the world.

TODDLER PRETEND PLAY

 Pretend play: a form of play which children transform themselves into

make believe characters,change real objects into imaginary ones,and
carry a complex make believe enactments.
 Vygotsky (1976) argued that this kind of play is practice at symbolizing.

Simple Pretense : the make-believe use of familiar objects to enact

customary routines such as using a toy cup pretend to drink.
 During the second year,play takes a significant leap forward. For the first
time, children use objects in their play to represent things that are
completely different.
 As a children demonstrate this more symbolic form of make-believe, their
parents and caregivers can provide more challenging play props.

VARIATIONS IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Each child has their own development time clock to get to a healthy
typical childhood.
 Other children ,will get their through experience from their families and
communities and might have unique patterns.
 While others might suffer from illness,genetic disorder or poverty that will
influence their cognitive development.

CULTURE & COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Bronfenbrenner an ecological system theorist influenced cognition in

infancy and toddler hood.
 Different cultures will give different resulted based on the children.

POVERTY

 One of the biggest threats to a child’s development

 A child’s more likely to experience delays in language and cognitive skills.

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 Not all families will experience this, depends on the support

they gave from the family and the neighborhood.

LOW IN-COME FAMILIES

 Who live in safer compounds and more likely to have children that will have
typical cognitive and language competence.

NUTRITION DEFICIENCY
 Low in come families are more likely to be common with poor nutrition.
 This will allow a child to perform poorly on measures of early cognitive
development.

PARENTING
 Parents in poverty will most likely experience more stress and harm the
relationship they have with their child.
 If a child is not receiving warm interactions acceptance and organized care
are found to have poor cognitive functions.

In low in-come families,if a parents is more positive to the child they will have
better a chance of enhancing their intellectual abilities.

CHALLENGING CONDITIONS AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Challenges with cognitive development are often injury,illness,or genetic

disorders.

1. Down Syndrome - Extra chromosome that leads to disabilities,heart

problems,and unique physical features.

A. Challenges with down syndrome are often less apparent in early

months.
B. By second year children start to show mental delays.
C. Delays occur in play skills and language.

Children who receive significant social,intellectual and motor stimulation from

parents will show more cognitive development than others.

INTELLIGENCE THEORY

WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as
abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision
making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to
meet the demands of the environment effectively.

Intelligence is the ability to:

Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an
important component of intelligence.
Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify
possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed.
Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to
come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world
around them.

Major Theories of Intelligence

1. Psychometric Theories
2. Cognitive Theories
3. Cognitive-contextual Theories
4. Biological Theories

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PSYCHOMETRIC THEORIES

Psychometric theories are based on a model that portrays intelligence as a

composite of abilities measured by mental tests. This model can be quantified.
For example, performance on a number-series test might represent a weighted
composite of number, reasoning, and memory abilities for a complex series.
Mathematical models allow for weakness in one area to be offset by strong ability
in another area of test performance. In this way, superior ability in reasoning can
compensate for a deficiency in number ability.

CHARLES E. SPEARMAN (1863–1945)

 An English psychologist, established the two-factor theory of intelligence

back in 1904 (Spearman, 1904). To arrive at this theory, Spearman used a
technique known as factor analysis.
 He noticed what may seem obvious now—that people who did well on one
mental-ability test tended to do well on others, while people who performed
poorly on one of them also tended to perform poorly on others.
 Concluded that there is a single g-factor which represents an individual’s
general intelligence across multiple abilities, and that a second factor, s,
refers to an individual’s specific ability in one particular area

General intelligence - also known as g factor, refers to a general mental ability

that, according to Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills, including verbal,
spatial, numerical and mechanical.

Factor analysis - is a procedure through which the correlation of related

variables are evaluated to find an underlying factor
that explains this correlation.

SPEARMAN DEVISED FACTOR ANALYSIS

1. The first and more important factor, which he labeled the

“general factor,” or g, pervades performance on all tasks
requiring intelligence. In other words, regardless of the task,
it requires intelligence, it requires g.
2. The second factor is specifically related to each particular
test. For example, when someone takes a test of arithmetical reasoning, his
performance on the test requires a general factor that is common to all tests (g)
and a specific factor that is related to whatever mental operations are required for
mathematical reasoning as distinct from other kinds
of thinking.

SEVEN PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES IN THURSTONE'S MODEL

L.L. THURSTONE
 Thurstone (1938) challenged the concept of a g-factor. After analyzing data
from 56 different tests of mental abilities, he identified a number of primary
mental abilities that comprise intelligence, as opposed to one general factor.

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 disagreed with Spearman’s theory, arguing instead that there

were seven factors, which he identified as the “primary mental abilities.”
 Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of
general intelligence altogether, he instead theorized that intelligence consists of
both general ability and a number of specific abilities, paving the way for future
research that examined the different forms of intelligence.

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COGNITIVE THEORIES
Derive from studying the processes involved in intelligent performance. These
processes range from the very simple (e.g., inspection time) to the fairly complex
(e.g., working memory). Different theorists have focused on different processes
(or aspects of these processes, such as processing speed).

PHILIP E. VERNON RAYMOND B. CATTELL


have suggested that both were right in
some respects. Vernon and Cattell viewed
intellectual abilities as hierarchical, with g,
or general ability, located at the top of the
hierarchy.
Two further kinds of general ability
1. Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem
solve in novel situations without referencing prior knowledge, but rather through
the use of logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence can be applied to any
novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is required (Cattell, 1963). As
you grow older fluid increases and then starts to decrease in the late 20s.
2. Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously-acquired knowledge,
such as specific facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory
(Cattell, 1963). As you grow older and accumulate knowledge, crystallized
intelligence increases.

The Cattell-Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that
intelligence is composed of a number of different abilities that interact and work
together to produce overall individual intelligence.

COGNITIVE-CONTEXTUAL THEORIES

Cognitive-contextual theories emphasize processes that demonstrate intelligence

within a particular context (such as a cultural environment).

Major theories include Sternberg’s

 Triarchic theory
 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
 Piaget’s theory of development.

TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory
of intelligence, integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory.
This theory is based on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve
success based on your personal standards and your sociocultural context.

THREE ASPECTS ACCORDING TO THE TRIARCHIC THEORY OF

"SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE"

1. Analytical intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to

intelligence that is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at
solutions. This is what a traditional IQ test measure.
2. Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel
and interesting ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation
and problem- solving.
3. Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems
faced in daily life, when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the
demands of the environment. Adapting to the demands environment involves
either utilizing knowledge gained from experience to purposefully change oneself
to suit the environment (adaptation), changing the environment to suit oneself
(shaping), or finding a new environment in which to work (selection).

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THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

 Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist Howard Gardner

built off the idea that there are multiple forms of intelligence.
 Howard Gardner proposed that there is no single intelligence, but rather
distinct, independent multiple intelligences exist, each representing unique
skills and talents relevant to a certain category.
 Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven multiple intelligences:
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal, and he has since added naturalist
intelligence.

EIGHT DIFFERENT INTELLIGENCES BASED ON SKILLS AND ABILITIES

THAT ARE VALUED IN DIFFERENT CULTURE

1. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements

and to handle objects skillfully
2. Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately
to the moods, motivations, and desires of others
3. Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with
inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes
4. Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and
abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns
5. Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and
timbre.
6. Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals,
plants, and other objects in nature
7. Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to
the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words
8. Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to
visualize accurately and abstractly.

Existential Intelligence Gardner (1998) added existential intelligence as the

ninth intelligence which refers to the sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep
questions beyond sensory data and about human existence such as meaning of
one’s life, why have we come to this world, why do we die, where do we go after
death etc. It concerns the ‘big picture’ in life and the ultimate truth of life.
Cosmologists and philosophers are high on this aspect of intelligence.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move

through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only
on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the
nature of intelligence.

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

PIAGET'S STAGES ARE:

1. The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them

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 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world around them

2. The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from
the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to
think about things in very concrete terms.

3. THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

AGES: 7 TO 11 YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of
liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to
a general principle

4. THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

AGES: 12 AND UP

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

 Biological theories emphasize the relationship between intelligence, and the

brain and its functions. Numerous relationships have been found, but none
have been elaborated into a detailed theory of the neuro psychology of
intelligence.
 Biological intelligence is a new concept that’s nearly four billion years old.
How does your body create and use knowledge? Biological intelligence
teaches your body to teach itself. Just like you educate your brain, you can
teach your body.
 Lots of people have heard about artificial intelligence, or AI. But why haven’t
you heard about biological intelligence, or BI? Because most of biological
intelligence is quiet and unconscious. You see your hair grow. You don’t see
your body learn.
 Biological intelligence is the basic stuff that keeps you going. It teaches your
body to do what it needs to do.

BIOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE VS. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

 Biological intelligence engages all the conscious and unconscious knowledge

of a human being.
 Biological intelligence is connected to everything inside you—every
information system you use.
 Biological intelligence has different goals than artificial intelligence. What is it
for? In our case,
the survival of our species. Biological intelligence is built to keep humanity going.

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 Unlike the artificial intelligence you experience in glitching

software, biological intelligence has survived almost everything thrown at it. It
survived the asteroids that wiped out the dinosaurs.
 Biological intelligence provides us genes and physiology that's built to survive
stresses that do not yet exist and may never exist. Chance rules the world,
and we are built to survive all that chance can throw at us.
 Unlike artificial intelligence, biological intelligence does not operate just within
us, but over a huge ecosystem. That ecosystem is you. There are at least 40
trillion bacteria in your gut. They not only digest food, but now appear to
change your mood, your ability to fight off infections, how cancer drugs work.

OTHER TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

Emotional Intelligence
 is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to
discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to
use emotional information to guide thinking and behaviour” (Salovey and
Mayer, 1990).
 is important in our everyday lives, seeing as we experience one emotion or
another nearly every second of our lives. You may not associate emotions
and intelligence with one another, but in reality, they are very related.
 refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and
problem-solve on the of them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999).

FOUR KEY COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

In other words, if you are high in

emotional intelligence, you can
accurately perceive emotions in
yourself and others (such as reading
facial expressions), use emotions to
help facilitate thinking, understand the
meaning behind your emotions (why
are you feeling this way?), and know
how to manage your emotions

GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SI) THEORY

 Joy Paul Guilford, an American psychologist, was born in March 7, 1897 in

Marquette, Nebraska.
 He is best known for his psychometric studies of human intelligence,
including the distinction between convergent and divergent production.
 After completing his graduation from University of Nebraska, he studied
under Edward Titchner at Cornell during 1919 to 1921 and conducted
intelligence testing on children. He taught in different universities, like
University of Kansas, University of Nebraska and University of Southern
California till his retirement in 1967.
 Unlike Spearman, Guilford believed that intelligence is a combination of
multiple activities.
 By the 1950’s, he tried to develop a system to classify the new mental
abilities being discovered and the first version of the Structure of Intellect (SI)
model was presented.
 This model was based on factor analysis. He argued that intelligence
consists of numerous intellectual abilities
 He first proposed a model with 120, later on revised to 180 independently
operating factors in intelligence
 In this Structure of Intellect Model, all the mental abilities were organized
along three dimensional framework: Content, Operations, and Product. This
model is represented as a ‘cube’ with each of the three dimensions
occupying one side (5×6×6 = 180 specific abilities).

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The Contents Dimension

1) Visual - information perceived through seeing or the information arising from

the stimulation of retina in the form of an image.
2) Auditory - information perceived through hearing or information arising from
the stimulation of cochlea of the inner ear as a sound.
3) Symbolic - information perceived as symbols or signs that stand for
something else, has no meaning by themselves (Arabic numerals, letters of an
alphabet, musical and scientific notations).
4) Semantic - concerned with verbal meaning and ideas.
5) Behavioural - information perceived as acts or behaviour of people

The Operations Dimension

1. Cognition - the ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become

aware of information.
2. Memory recording - the ability to encode information.
3. Memory retention - the ability to recall information.
4. Divergent production - the ability to generate multiple solutions to a
problem; creativity.
5. Convergent production - the ability to deduce a single solution to a problem;
rule-following or problem-solving.
6. Evaluation - the ability to judge whether or not information is accurate,
consistent or valid.

The Products Dimension

1. Units - represents a single item of information or knowledge.

2. Classes - a set of items that share some common attributes.
3. Relations - represents a connection between items or variables; may be
linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies.
4. Systems - an organization of items or networks with interacting parts.
5. Transformations - changes perspectives, conversions, or mutations to
knowledge; such as reversing the order of letters in a word.
6. Implications - predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of
knowledge.

PASS THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

 The PASS theory of intelligence developed by J P Das et. al. (Das, Naglieri &
Kirby, 1994) follows an information processing approach.
 The PASS stands for Planning, Arousal-Attention, Simultaneous and
Successive processing.
 The theory is based on Luria’s (1973) conception of three functional units of
brain.
 The first unit is concerned with cortical arousal and attention, and is located
in the brain stem and the reticular activating system
 The second unit involves coding of information, either simultaneous
or successive coding/processing. Thus it deals with how we receive, store
and analyze the information. Simultaneous processing of information is
represented by a holistic or comprehensive approach to processing of
information. It is associated with the occipetal and parietal lobe of the brain.

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 Successive processing refers to processing of information in a

sequential way and is carried out by frontal-temporal part of the brain.
 The third unit deals with planning which includes decision making, self
monitoring, self regulation and problem solving. It is broadly located in the
prefrontal area of the brain.

CROSS CULTURAL CONCEPTION OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence has been viewed and theorized in various ways, starting from
unitary notion to multiple intelligences. Majorly, it has been viewed as a
decontextualized entity involving logical thinking, abstract reasoning and problem
solving. Cross-cultural studies have pointed out cultural differences in the way
intellectual abilities are reflected. You must have seen your local grocery shop
owner doing mathematics calculation so easily even if he has not gone to school.
Similarly, the rural and tribal cultures may not be very proficient in using paper
and pencil as their urban counterparts, and may exhibit expertise in oral or other
medium of expression. Thus there are cultural differences in the
conceptualization and expression of intelligence. The western culture views
intelligence
more in terms of abstraction and generalization; whereas the non-western
cultures relate intelligence more to the social context (e.g. Srivastava, 2013).

As Srivastava and Misra (1996) have pointed out, intelligence in the Indian
context, is viewed in terms of relations or sensitivity to the context rather than the
context-free western notion of intelligence. In their study, they reported that
Indian notion of intelligence is multifaceted which includes not only the cognitive
competence, but also the emotional, social and entrepreneurial competence
(Srivastava & Misra, 2007).
Cognitive competence includes aspects such as planning, decision-making,
sensitivity to context, reflection and communication. Emotional competence
includes features such as control of emotions, expressing kindness, patience,
adjustment, empathy, and honesty. Social competence involves attributes like
obedience, helping the needy, adherence to norms, respecting parents and
elders etc. Finally, intellectual behaviour also reflects entrepreneurial
competence such as ability to do hard work, commitment, efficiency,
patience and discipline.

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