DIFFUSION

1. How many types of diffusion - 4 types

2. What is the definition of each type?
- Thermal diffusion: Diffusion due to a temperature gradient. Usually negligible unless the
temperature gradient is very large.
- Pressure diffusion: Diffusion due to a pressure gradient. Usually negligible unless the
pressure gradient is very large.
- Forced diffusion: Diffusion due to external force field acting on a molecule. Forced
diffusion occurs when an electrical field is imposed on an electrolyte ( for example, in
charging an automobile battery), centrifugal force
- Knudsen diffusion: Diffusion phenomena occur in porous solids.
3. (chung 1, 2)
4. (chung 1,2)
5. Which factors have an effect on diffusion? 7 factors
Factor Effect on Diffusion

Molecular size Larger molecules diffuse slower

Medium viscosity Higher viscosity slows diffusion

Temperature Higher temperature increases diffusion

Concentration gradient Steeper gradient increases diffusion flux

Pressure (gases) Lower pressure increases diffusion coefficient

Solubility Greater solubility enhances diffusion

Barriers (e.g., membranes) Can restrict or allow selective diffusion

6. Which diffusion use diffusion coefficient ?

𝑑𝐶
Fick’s law of molecular diffusion: 𝐽𝐴𝑧 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐴
𝑑𝑧
where : 𝐷𝐴𝐵 is diffusion coefficient ( diffusivity)
𝐶𝐴 is concentration of A in mixture A and B
z is the distance
 7. Different between Diffusion coefficient and mass transfer coefficient

Properties Mass transfer coefficient Diffusion coefficient

A parameter that quantifies the rate of mass A property of the material and
transfer between two phases or across a medium, describing the rate at
Definition
boundary (e.g., from a fluid to a solid surface or which particles move due to
across a liquid interface). molecular diffusion.

Describes mass transfer at a macroscopic scale, Intrinsic property based on

Nature incorporating both diffusion and convective molecular interactions, medium
effects. properties, and temperature.

m/s (meters per second), or

Unit 2
𝑚2 /𝑠
mol/ 𝑚 .s.Pa depending on context.

using Fick’s first law:

Equation J = Kc x ( C-C ) 𝛿𝐶
J = -D x
𝛿𝑥

Applies to systems with phase boundaries or Applies to diffusion in

bulk flows (e.g., gas-liquid, liquid-solid, gas- homogeneous media (e.g., gases,
Scope solid interfaces) liquids, solids).
Combines diffusion with convection or Describes molecular-level
turbulence transport.

Fluid velocity or flow patterns (convective

effects). Medium's viscosity or density.
Influence
Properties of the phases (e.g., solubility, Temperature.
factor
density, viscosity). Size of the diffusing species.
Geometry and system configuration.

MASS TRANSFER
8. Mass transfer between two phases involves the transfer of a solute or substance across the
interface separating the phases due to a driving force (e.g., concentration gradient). This
transfer can occur via diffusion, convection, or a combination of both.
9. Equation for mass transfer: N = Kc x (C - C).
10. Different between mass transfer coefficient of 1 phase and 2 phases

Aspect Single - phase Two - phase

Phases involved one phase only (liquid or gas) two distinct phases (gas-liquid or
liquid-solid)

Driving force Concentration gradient within Concentration or partial pressure

the phase gradient across phases

Mass transfer Denote as K for the phase Split into 𝐾𝐿 (liquid side), 𝐾𝐺 (gas
coefficient side) and overal K

Resistance Single resistance (diffusion or Combined resistances in both

convection in the phase). phases.

Applications Internal diffusion, single-phase Interphase transport like gas

mixing. absorption or liquid extraction.

equation K for each phases overall K:

1 1 𝐻
= +
𝐾𝐿 𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝐺

11. (chung 8)
12. Method to determine mass transfer coefficient ? 4 methods (chung 13)
a. Dimensional analysis combined with experiments
This method uses dimensional analysis to construct dimensionless groups, such as Sherwood
number (Sh), Reynolds number (Re), and Schmidt number (Sc). Empirical relationships are
then established from experimental data.
b. Exact boundary layer analysis
Based on boundary layer theory, this method analyzes mass transfer in the flow by solving
differential equations that describe the distribution of concentration and flow velocity within
the boundary layer.
c. Analogy between momentum, heat, and mass transfer
This method relies on the analogy between momentum transfer, heat transfer, and mass
transfer. Results from heat and momentum transfer (e.g., Nusselt number and Prandtl
number) are used to determine the mass transfer coefficient (e.g., Sherwood number).
d. Approximate boundary layer analysis
Instead of exact analysis, this method applies reasonable assumptions to simplify the
boundary layer equations, providing approximate relationships between related quantities.
 coi thêm tham khảo:

Method Phase Type Notes Equation

Film theory Single/Two Best for steady-state measurements 𝐽

𝑘=
experiment - Phase across interfaces. 𝛥𝐶

Batch stirred Two - phase Suitable for unsteady-state systems, 𝑑𝐶

tank evaluates volumetric coefficient. = 𝑘(𝐶 − 𝐶)
𝑑𝑡

Sherwood Both Useful for estimating kkk in flows 𝑘𝐿

correlations using dimensionless numbers. 𝑆ℎ =
𝐷
𝑆ℎ = 0.664𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑆𝑐 1/3

CFD simulations Both Detailed numerical analysis of

complex geometries.

Wetted wall Two - phase Classic method for gas-liquid mass 𝑁

𝑘𝐿 =
column transfer studies. 𝛥𝐶

Due and tracer Single/Two Tracks solute distribution, good for

methods phase visualizing mass transfer dynamics.

14. The driving force for mass transfer between two phases is the difference in the
concentration of the substance at the interface compared to the bulk of each phase. For example:
-In gas-liquid systems, the difference in partial pressures drives gas absorption or desorption.
-In liquid-liquid systems, the concentration difference of the solute across the interface drives
transfer.
15. The height of a mass transfer column depends on the following relationship:
H = 𝑁𝑇 . 𝐻𝑇
● H: Total column height (m).
● 𝑁𝑇 : Number of transfer units (dimensionless).
● 𝐻𝑇 : Height of one transfer unit (HTU), which depends on the column and mass transfer
properties (m).
Key Terms:
- Height of a Transfer Unit (HTU): Represents the height of the column needed for one mass
transfer unit.
1 1
𝐻𝑇 = (Liquid phase) or 𝐻𝑇 = (Gas phase)
𝑘𝐿 𝑎 𝑘𝐺 𝑎

○ 𝑘𝐿 , 𝑘𝐺 : Liquid and gas-phase mass transfer coefficients.

○ a: Interfacial area per unit volume of the column.
 - Number of Transfer Units (NTU): Represents the difficulty of the mass transfer process
and is given by:
𝐶2
𝑑𝐶
𝑁𝑇 = ∫
𝐶1 𝐶 ∗ − 𝐶
Where:
○ 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 : Concentrations at the inlet and outlet of the column.
○ C*: Equilibrium concentration.

16. How many mass transfer column in the separation process: 7 types

Distillation a. Binary Distillation:

● A single distillation column is usually sufficient for separating two
components, provided the difference in their boiling points is significant.
b. Multicomponent Distillation:
● Multiple distillation columns may be required if the feed mixture contains
several components with similar boiling points.
● Example: Petroleum Refining often involves a series of distillation
columns, such as: 3
○ Crude distillation column.
○ Vacuum distillation column.
○ Fractionators for lighter components.
c. Azeotropic or Extractive Distillation:
● Requires at least 2 columns:
○ One for separating the mixture with the addition of a solvent.
○ A second column for recovering the solvent.

Adsorption ● Absorption Column: Used to capture a gas into a liquid phase (e.g., CO2
and Stripping capture).
(2 columns) ● Stripping Column: Used to remove the absorbed solute from the liquid
phase.
● Often, one absorption column and one stripping column are paired
together in processes like gas treatment.
Liquid-Liquid Typically involves one extraction column for transferring solute from one liquid
Extraction phase to another.
Additional columns may be required for solvent recovery or further separation.

Reactive a. Reactive Distillation:

Separations ● Combines reaction and separation in a single column. However,
downstream separation columns may still be needed for product
purification.
b. Gas Treatment:
● Gas scrubbing (e.g., in ammonia or sulfur dioxide removal) often uses two
columns:
○ Absorber (for reaction/absorption).
○ Stripper (for regeneration).

Crystallization May require multiple steps:

or Adsorption ● One column for adsorption or crystallization.
● Additional columns for regeneration of adsorbents or purification.

Multistage Some separation processes involve multiple stages or interconnected columns:

Separation 1. Fractional Distillation (Petrochemical):
Processes
○ Refining involves a train of distillation columns to fractionate
crude oil into components like gasoline, kerosene, and diesel.
2. Air Separation Units:
○ Typically involve two distillation columns:
■ A high-pressure column.
■ A low-pressure column for further purification of oxygen,
nitrogen, and argon.

Hybrid In some cases, separation processes combine different techniques, requiring

Processes multiple columns:
● Membrane and Distillation Hybrid: A membrane unit for bulk
separation followed by a distillation column for high-purity separation.
● Extraction and Stripping: An extraction column followed by one or
more stripping columns.
20. The application of tray column and packaged column (chung 17)

Column Type Advantages Disadvantages Best application

Packed Column High efficiency, low Difficult maintenance, Absorption, low-

pressure drop flooding risk pressure systems

Tray Column Robust, easy to High pressure drop, bulky Large-scale

maintain design distillation

Spray Column Simple, low cost Low efficiency, high liquid Gas absorption with
loss low efficiency

Bubble Column High interfacial area, Limited scalability, Gas-liquid reactions

simple design foaming issues

Wetted Wall Precise Research-focused, low Research, small-scale

Column measurements, efficiency studies
simple construction

Pulsed/Agitated Improved efficiency, High maintenance, energy- Extraction, complex

Column handles low flow intensive systems
rates

Hybrid Column Space-saving, high Expensive, complex design Reactive separations

efficiency

18-19. What is the structure of the mass transfer column? name of each part ?
1. Packed Column Structure: A packed column consists of:
a) Column Shell: A cylindrical vessel made of materials like stainless steel or carbon steel,
designed to withstand operational pressure and temperature.
b) Packing Material: Provides surface area for mass transfer. Types include:
+ Random packing: Raschig rings, Pall rings, Berl saddles.
+ Structured packing: Corrugated metal or plastic sheets arranged in an organized pattern.
c) Support Plate (Packing Support): Located at the bottom to hold the packing material in
place.
d) Liquid Distributor: Ensures even distribution of the liquid phase over the packing. Types
include perforated plates, spray nozzles, or drip tubes.
e) Gas Distributor: Distributes gas evenly at the column base, avoiding maldistribution.
f) Mist Eliminator (Demister): Installed at the top to remove entrained liquid droplets from
the outgoing gas.
g) Feed Inlet(s): Points where gas and liquid enter the column:
Liquid enters near the top, while gas enters near the bottom.
 h) Collection Systems:
○ Liquid collector: Gathers the liquid at various stages.
○ Gas outlet: Removes treated gas at the top.
2. Tray (Plate) Column Structure
A tray column is structured with horizontal trays placed at intervals:
a) Column Shell: Similar to a packed column, built to withstand high pressure and temperature.
b) Trays (Plates): Installed horizontally to facilitate mass transfer. Types include:
+ Sieve Trays: Flat plates with perforations allowing gas to bubble through.
+ Bubble Cap Trays: Equipped with caps to direct vapor flow.
+ Valve Trays: Use movable valves for efficient phase interaction.
c) Downcomers: Channels allowing liquid to flow from one tray to the next.
d) Weirs: Structures on each tray to maintain liquid hold-up, ensuring proper contact with rising
vapor.
e) Gas Inlet and Outlet: Gas enters at the bottom and exits at the top after interaction.
f) Liquid Inlet and Outlet: Liquid flows from the top to the bottom, countercurrent to the gas
phase.
3. Spray Column Structure
A spray column is simple in design:
a) Column Shell: A cylindrical vessel, typically without internal packing or trays.
b) Spray Nozzles: Installed at the top or along the length of the column to atomize the liquid
into fine droplets.
c) Gas Inlet and Outlet: Gas enters at the bottom and exits at the top.
d) Droplet Collection: Liquid droplets fall by gravity and are collected at the bottom.
4. Bubble Column Structure
A bubble column has the following components:
a) Column Shell: A simple cylindrical vessel.
b) Gas Sparger: Installed at the bottom to disperse gas as small bubbles into the liquid.
c) Liquid Phase: Occupies most of the column volume, providing the medium for gas-liquid
interaction.
d) Gas Outlet: Located at the top to remove treated gas.
e) Liquid Outlet: Allows discharge of the liquid phase.
5. Hybrid or Special Columns:
Reactive Distillation Columns
a) Structured Packing or Trays: Combination of reactive zones and separation zones.
b) Catalyst Bed: May be integrated within packing for reactions.
c) Reboiler and Condenser: To maintain temperature profiles for reactions and separation.
6. Pulsed Columns
a) Agitation Mechanism: Internals for creating pulses or agitation to enhance phase contact.
b) Packing or Trays:Added for increased surface area and interaction.
7. General Schematic of a Mass Transfer Column
a) Top Section:
- Gas Outlet.
- Mist Eliminator.
- Liquid Distributor.
b) Middle Section:
- Mass Transfer Zone:
+ Packing or Trays.
+ Downcomers (in tray columns).
c) Bottom Section:
- Liquid Collector and Reboiler (in distillation).
- Gas Inlet and Distributor.
21. How can we build operating line for each column
1. Tray Column Operating Line: In a tray column, vapor and liquid interact in discrete stages
(trays). The operating line represents the relationship between the compositions of the vapor and
liquid phases at each stage.
Steps to Build the Operating Line:
a) Establish the Mass Balance:
○ Assume countercurrent flow of vapor and liquid.
○ For a distillation column:

■ Rectifying Section:

■ Stripping Section:
■ 𝑦𝑛+1 , 𝑥𝑛 : Liquid and vapor compositions, respectively.
■ L,V: Liquid and vapor molar flow rates.
■ 𝑥𝐷 , 𝑥𝐵 : Distillate and bottom compositions.
b) Plotting the Operating Line:
○ For the rectifying section:
■ Start from the point (𝑥𝐷 , 𝑥𝐵 ) (at the distillate composition) on the x=y diagonal.
■ Slope: L/V, determined by the reflux ratio.
 ○ For the stripping section:
■ Start from (xB,xB) (at the bottoms composition).
■ Slope: L/V, depending on the liquid-to-vapor ratio in the stripping section.
○ The feed line (q-line) intersects the two operating lines, linking the stripping and
rectifying sections.
c) McCabe-Thiele Diagram: consider both ROL and SOL as straight lines
○ Draw the equilibrium curve (y=f(x)).
○ Plot the operating lines for the rectifying and stripping sections.
○ Use step-by-step construction (from xD downward) to determine the number of stages.
2. Packed Column Operating Line
In a packed column, the liquid and vapor phases interact continuously, and the operating line
represents the bulk concentration relationship between the two phases along the column.
Steps to Build the Operating Line:
1. Mass Balance:
○ Use overall and component material balances:

■ For absorption: , where:

■ y: Solute concentration in the gas.
■ x: Solute concentration in the liquid.
■ L,G: Molar flow rates of liquid and gas, respectively.
■ 𝑦1 : Solute concentration in the entering gas.

■ For stripping: , where 𝑦2 is the outlet gas composition.

2. Plotting the Operating Line:
○ Obtain equilibrium data (y=f(x)).
○ Plot the equilibrium line first.
○ Calculate and plot the operating line, starting at (x1,y1) (inlet liquid and gas
compositions).
○ Slope: L/G, determined by the liquid-to-gas flow ratio.
3. Column Height (HTU and NTU Method):
○ For packed columns, the number of stages is replaced with the height equivalent to a
theoretical plate (HETP):
■ H=HTU×NTUH ,
■ where NTU is calculated by integrating the operating line and equilibrium
curve.
22. giống 31
ABSORPTION
23. Define adsorption/ absorption/ desorption:
- Adsorption: Separation due to adhesion of one or more components of a gas or liquid on a
surface of a solid adsorbent.
- Absorption: It is a gas-liquid mass transfer operation in which liquid solvent is contacted
with gas mixture for differential dissolution of one or more components of gas and provide a
solution of them in liquid.
- Desorption: Reverse of absorption, liquid absorbed into gas => Act of regenerating the
absorbent.
24. The solubility at absorption:
The solute (gas feed) should solute well in the absorbent (liquid stream).
- If the given liquid had high concentration and we increase pressure => Relatively insoluble in
liquid
- If the given liquid had low concentration and we increase pressure => Highly solubility.
25. Define the solubility of gas:
The solubility of a gas refers to the maximum amount of gas that can dissolve in a liquid at a
given temperature and pressure. It is often expressed as the concentration of the gas in the liquid,
typically in units like moles per liter (mol/L) or grams per liter (g/L).
26, 27. What factors affect the solubility? How do these parameters affect the solubility?
- Temperature: (T increase => Solubility decrease)
As temperature increases, the solubility of most gases in liquids decreases. This is because gas
molecules gain more energy and are more likely to escape from the liquid phase into the gas phase
at higher temperatures, decrease viscosity -> solubility increase
- Pressure (Low concentration liquid): (P increase => Solubility increase)
The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the liquid. This
relationship is described by Henry's Law, which states that at a constant temperature, the amount of
gas that dissolves in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas.
pA = HxA
- Pressure (High concentration liquid): (P increase => Solubility increase slowly, relatively
insoluble) Because the concentration is near the saturated limit, cannot increase further.
- Nature of the gas: (Polarities and Molecular size)
+ Polarities
Polar gas dissolve well in polar solvent (CO2 in water)
Non-polar gas dissolve well in non-polar solvent (O2 in organic compounds)
+ Molecular size : Smaller gas dissolve betters in liquid.
- Nature of the liquid: (Polarities and viscosity)
+ Polarities:
Polar gas dissolve well in polar solvent (CO2 in water)
Non-polar gas dissolve well in non-polar solvent (O2 in organic compounds)
+ Viscosity: Low viscosity => Better
28. How can we choose absorbent (stripping agent) for absorption?
- High solubility for the solute (High absorbtion power) - Highly selective
- Low volatility - Stable
- Easy to recover - Noncorrosive
- Low viscosity - Non-foaming
- Non-toxic and non-flammable
29. How to increase absorption efficiency of gas in solvent/ liquid/ solution?
- Increase pressure of the gas.
- Decrease temperature. (Higher temperature causes gas to move chaotically and escape the
liquid)
- Increase surface area for gas-liquid contact.
- Choose the right solvent and potentially use chemical absorption.
- Optimize gas flow rates, mixing. (Counter-flow, trickling, spraying,
- Residence time.
- Use absorption promoters or catalysts for chemical interactions.
30. Meaning of operating line and equilibrium curve in absorption?
- Equilibrium curve: Show the relationship between mole fraction compostions of gas and
liquid component at equilibirum stages
- Operating line: Express the mole fraction compostions after each stages
==> By interploe between 2 lines, we can determine the required stages to achieve the desired mole
fraction compositions.
● For absorption: Operating line lies above the equilibrium line.
● For Stripping (Desorption): Operating line lies below the equilibrium line.
31. For desired absorber, what is the meaning of the slope of the operating line? How does this
ratio affect the driving force?
The slope of the operating line in an absorber represents the ratio of the liquid flow rate
to the gas flow rate. It indicates how effectively the liquid is absorbing the gas. A steeper (L>G)
slope suggests more liquid relative to gas, leading to a more efficient absorption process.
The fomula for the slope of the operating line in the context ò a distillation column (or
similar separation process) is typically given as:
𝐿
Slope of operating line =
𝑉
With + L is the liquid flow rate (mol/s, kg/s)
+ V is the vapor flow rate (mol/s, kg/s)
• L/G increase => The slope goes up => Driving force increase => Smaller number of stages
required
• L/G decrease => The slope goes down => Driving force decrease => Larger number of
stages required
 32. How can we determine the driving force of any point on the equilibrium curve in
absorption?
From that point, construct a parallel straight line of the Oy until it reaches the operating line,
the distance from the equilibrium line and operating line is the driving force.
Driving force: Difference between the concentration in gas and liquid phase (or partial
pressure difference between gas and liquid phase).
DISTILLATION
33/ What is the definition of distillation?
- Distillation is a method used to separate the components of liquid solution, using vaporation,
which depends upon the distribution of these various components between a vapor and a liquid
phase. (All components are present in both phases).
Ex: - The separation of a mixture of alcohol and water into its component.
- The separation of crude petroleum into gasoline, kerosene and fuel oil.
The process using for seperation of a liquid - liquid or liquid - gas mixture due to the difference in
volatility of the individual components in the mixture.
=> In other words, at the same temperature, different components have different saturated vapor
pressure.
=> Differentiate between other process:
- Absorption: unlike absorption, distillation does not bring in a new phase to contact with the existed
phase. Instead, it creates new phase due to evaporation or condensation.
- Concentration: In concentration, only the solvent evaporates, not the solute. But in distillation,
both solvent and solute evaporates, but with different ratio.
- Composition of a distillation system:
+ Rectifying section: High-volatile, upper part
+ Stripping section: Low-volatile, lower part
34/ Compare distillation and concentration processes:
Feature Distillation Concentration
Principle Based on volatility Based on solvent removal

Phase Liquid to vapor (and back) Often liquid to vapor (or none for
Change membranes)
Energy High Moderate to low (depends on method)
Requirement
Product Distillate and residue Concentrated solution/ slurry
Application Liquid-liquid separations Solvent-solute systems
Scope · Purification of liquids (e.g., ethanol- · Food and beverage industry (e.g., juice
water separation). concentration, milk powder production).
· Petroleum refining. · Wastewater treatment.
· Production of spirits and essential oils. · Pharmaceutical manufacturing.
Thermal Limited to heat-stable materials Suitable for heat-sensitive materials (ex:
Sensitivity membrane processes)

Typical Scale Large-scale (ex: petrochemical) Small to medium-scale (ex: food

processing)

- Distillation is better suited for separating volatile components and achieving high purity.
- Concentration processes excel in systems where solvent removal or processing heat-sensitive
substances is the goal.
35/ The mechanism separation for the distillation:
The separation mechanism in distillation relies on the principles of vapor-liquid equilibrium and
relative volatility.
- Vaporization and Condensation
+ Vaporization: When a liquid mixture is heated, the more volatile components (those with
lower boiling points) vaporize first. The vapor becomes enriched in these volatile components
relative to the liquid.
+ Condensation: As the vapor rises in the distillation column, it encounters cooler regions,
condensing some of the vapor. The condensed liquid (reflux) flows back down the column, creating
countercurrent contact between rising vapor and descending liquid.
- Separation by Relative Volatility
+ Relative Volatility (α): It quantifies the ease of separation between two components, A&B:

Mole fractions of A and B in the vapor phase.

Mole fractions of A and B in the liquid phase.

+ Higher relative volatility means easier separation because one component vaporizes more
readily than the other.
- Countercurrent Contact
+ Inside a distillation column, liquid flows downward while vapor rises.
+ Mass Transfer occurs between the liquid and vapor at each stage or plate, enhancing the
separation.
○ Stripping Section: Below the feed, heavier (less volatile) components are stripped
from the vapor into the liquid.
○ Rectifying Section: Above the feed, lighter (more volatile) components are enriched in
the vapor.
- Use of Reflux
+ Reflux: A portion of the condensed distillate is returned to the top of the column.
○ It improves separation by creating repeated vapor-liquid equilibrium stages.
○ Higher reflux ratios result in better separation but increase energy usage.
- Stages of Separation
+ Distillation columns are divided into stages (theoretical plates).
○ Each stage represents one equilibrium step where liquid and vapor achieve partial
equilibrium.
○ McCabe-Thiele Diagram is often used to determine the number of theoretical plates
required for a desired separation.
36/ How many popular distillation process as you know:
- 2 types of operation:
+ Batch distillation
+ Continuous distillation
- 2 types of continuous distillation process:
+ Flash distillation (without reflux)
+ Rectification distillation (with reflux)
37/ How many types of distillation column as you know: 2 types
- Flash distillation (without reflux)
- Rectification distillation (with reflux)
+ Sieve Plate Column
+ Bubble-cap Plate Column
+ Valve Tray Column
38/ The advantages and disadvantages of distillation column:
Advantages Disadvantages
High purity and separation efficiency High energy consumption
Scalable for large or small operations High initial capital and operational costs
Flexible in operation (batch, continuous) Ineffective for non-volatile or thermally
sensitive compounds
Cost-effective for continuous large-scale Limited to volatile components
operations
Can handle complex mixtures Requires large space and footprint
Widely used in industrial processes Maintenance can be complex and costly

39/ How many diagrams can we apply in distillation: 2 diagrams

- McCabe-Thiele diagram
- Ponchon-Savarit diagram
40/ The meaning of each diagram:
- McCabe-Thiele diagram:
+ McCabe-Thiele diagram is a graphical method used to design and analyze binary distillation
columns by determining the number of ideal stages (trays) required for a given separation.
+ It is based on the concept of vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) and operating lines (rectifying and
stripping lines).
 Temperature- Composition (T-x-y) diagram: shows the relationship between temperature and
composition for a binary mixture at constant pressure
 Pressure- Composition (P-x-y) diagram: represents the relationship between pressure and
composition at constant pressure
- Ponchon-Savarit diagram:
+ It is used to design distillation columns for non-ideal mixtures and multi-component systems,
where simpler methods might not be sufficient.
+ It integrates material balances with enthalpy balances
41/ How many methods to determine the number of ideal trays (in distillation): 2 methods
- McCabe-Thiele method
- Ponchon-Savarit method
42/ The advantages and disadvantages of each method
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Simple and easy to use for binary Limited to binary mixtures; no
mixtures energy considerations.
Quick results and widely used in Assumes ideal conditions and can be
McCabe-Thiele
industry. inaccurate for complex systems.
Ideal for preliminary design Graphical and less detailed for
multi-component mixtures.
Integrates energy and material More complex and requires
balances, ideal for multi- thermodynamic data.
component systems.
Ponchon-Savarit Optimizes energy use and heat Not ideal for simple systems or
integration. binary mixtures.
Provides a more accurate and Requires more advanced knowledge
detailed design. and can be difficult to apply.

43. What parameters can affect distillation efficiency

1. Temperature:
- Boiling Point: The difference in boiling points of the components being separated is crucial. A
larger difference generally leads to better separation.
- Reboiler Temperature: Higher temperatures can increase vaporization rates but may also lead
to thermal degradation of sensitive compounds.
 2. Pressure:
- Operating Pressure: Lowering the pressure can reduce boiling points, which is particularly
useful for heat-sensitive materials (vacuum distillation).
- Pressure Drop: Excessive pressure drop in the system can lead to inefficiencies and reduced
separation.
3. Column Design:
- Height and Diameter: Taller columns provide more theoretical plates, enhancing separation,
while the diameter affects the vapor and liquid flow rates.
- Packing Type: The choice of packing (e.g., structured or random packing) can influence
surface area and mass transfer efficiency.
4. Reflux Ratio:
The ratio of liquid returned to the column versus the liquid taken as distillate. Higher reflux ratios
generally improve separation but can reduce overall throughput.
5. Feed Composition:
- Feed Quality: The composition and concentration of the feed mixture can affect the efficiency
of separation. A more complex mixture may require more stages for effective separation.
- Feed Temperature: The temperature of the feed can influence vaporization and mass transfer
rates.
6. Flow Rates:
- Vapor and Liquid Flow Rates: The rates at which vapor and liquid move through the column
can impact mass transfer efficiency. Imbalances can lead to flooding or weeping, reducing
efficiency.
7. Mass Transfer:
- Diffusion Rates: The efficiency of mass transfer between the vapor and liquid phases is critical.
Factors such as temperature, pressure, and column design can affect diffusion rates.
8. Heat Transfer:
- Heat Input: Adequate heat must be supplied to the reboiler to maintain the desired temperature
and vaporization rate.
- Heat Losses: Insufficient insulation or heat losses can reduce the efficiency of the distillation
process.
9. Impurities:
- Presence of Non-volatile Impurities: Non-volatile components can affect the boiling point and
vapor-liquid equilibrium, complicating the separation process.
10. Operational Conditions:
- Stability of Operation: Fluctuations in temperature, pressure, or flow rates can lead to
inefficiencies.
- Control Systems: Effective monitoring and control systems can optimize operational
parameters for better efficiency.
44. What is azeotropic mixture ?
Physical chem lab: Azeotropic mixture has constant boiling point and the components in liquid
phase is the same as vapor phase. Cannot separate an azeotropic mixture by using simple
distillation. Azeotropic point is at the highest boiling point.
Organic chem lab: A mixture of two or more liquids whose proportions cannot be changed by
simple distillation or extraction
45. How can we separate azeotropic mixture by distillation?
- Azeotropic distillation with an additional component
- Distillation under a reduced pressure
- Selective absorption using molecular sieves
- Chemical separation by a reaction selective only with one of components (E.g: CaO to remove
water from Ethanol but not MgSO4)
- Membrane methods
46. What are ROL and SOL?
- (ROL) Rectifying Section Operating Line: For Upper Part

- Đây là phương trình đường thẳng trên tọa độ xy, liên hệ giữa nồng độ của hai pha vào và ra khỏi
một mâm thứ n bất kì có hệ số góc là L/G = R(R +1) và tung độ gốc là xD/(R +1). Khi xn=xD thì
yn+1 = xD cho thấy đường thẳng đi qua điểm D(x=y=xD) nằm trên đường 45o. Điểm này và điểm
tung độ gốc giúp ta xác định dễ dàng đường làm việc phần cất.
- Khi vẽ đường cân bằng này, giả sử rằng áp suất không đổi trong cả tháp. Nếu cần thiết, xác định
độ giảm áp qua mỗi mâm để điều chỉnh đường cân bằng khi tính số mâm thực. Quá tình tính toán
được thực hiện bằng đo dẫm. Thông thường việc điều chỉnh chỉ cần thiết khi quá trình chưng cất
được thực hiện ở áp suất rất thấp.
 - (SOL) Stripping Section Operating Line: For Bottom part

48. How many heat stage of the feed solution : 5 stages

- Subcooled liquid (q>1) -Saturated liquid (q=1)
- L- V - E (0<q<1) - Saturated vapor (q=0)
- Superheated vapor (q<0)
49. How effect of heat stage of feed solution on the no. of ideal trays
Each heat stage corresponds to each value of q. which made different type of q line. when the
q line goes from bigger than 1 to smaller than 0 the number of ideal trays will increase
50. How many the reflux ratio as you know in distillation
There are three main reflux ratios commonly discussed in distillation:
1. Minimum Reflux Ratio (R_min): The lowest reflux ratio that allows the desired separation
with an infinite number of stages.
2. Optimal Reflux Ratio: The practical ratio balancing cost and efficiency, typically 1.2–1.5
times R_min.
3. Total Reflux: When all vapor is condensed and returned as reflux, requiring no product
withdrawal.
51. Meaning of the reflux ratio
- Reflux is the returning of a portion of the condensate to the reboiler
- 2 quantities of reflux ratio:
a) ratio of the reflux to the overhead product
RD = L/D = ( V-D)/D
b) ratio of the reflux to the vapor
RV = L/V = L/ (L+D)
(GPT) The reflux ratio (R) is the ratio of the liquid returned to the distillation column as reflux to
the liquid withdrawn as distillate. It controls the energy balance and separation efficiency of the
distillation process:
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
R=
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
52. If the ↑ or ↓ in reflux ratio what/how will affect to distillation
The reflux ratio in a distillation column refers to the ratio of the amount of liquid returned to the
column as reflux to the amount of distillate removed. This ratio significantly influences the
separation efficiency of the distillation process.
- Effect of Increasing the Reflux Ratio (↑)
1. Improved Separation: Increasing the reflux ratio provides more liquid for the column,
allowing for better mass transfer between the vapor and liquid phases. This results in a better
separation of components.
2. More Stages: Higher reflux usually means more theoretical stages are available for
separation, leading to a more refined product.
3. Increased Energy Use: While increasing the reflux ratio enhances separation, it also requires
more energy to reboil the liquid at the bottom of the column. This can increase operational
costs and energy consumption.
4. Longer Operation: The column may operate for a longer time to reach the desired separation,
which can affect throughput.
- Effect of Decreasing the Reflux Ratio (↓)
1. Reduced Separation Efficiency: Lowering the reflux ratio reduces the amount of liquid
returned to the column, which leads to poorer separation. It may not be sufficient to achieve
the desired purity of the distillate.
2. Fewer Stages: With a lower reflux ratio, the number of effective theoretical stages decreases,
resulting in a less refined separation of components.
3. Lower Energy Use: Decreasing the reflux ratio reduces the need for reboiling, leading to
lower energy consumption. However, this may be at the cost of product quality and
separation.
4. Increased Throughput: With a lower reflux ratio, distillation can process more material in a
shorter time, though the quality of the output may suffer.
 - Trade-off
The reflux ratio represents a trade-off between separation efficiency and energy consumption.
Increasing the reflux ratio improves purity but increases energy and operational costs, while
decreasing it can lower costs but reduce separation performance.
DRYING
53/ For drying, how may stages of drying for drying process? Meaning of each stages? 3 main
1. Preheating stage: The material is gradually heated to facilitate moisture removal.
2. Constant rate drying stage: The drying rate remains steady as moisture is removed from the
surface.
3. Falling rate drying stage: The drying rate decreases as moisture is drawn from the interior of
the material.
- Equilibrium moisture content: The moisture content stabilizes, balancing with the
surrounding environment. Equilibrium attained when solid attain a definite moisture content
after prolonged exposure to air under specific humidity and temperature of air
55/ What is vacuum drying ? Application of vacuum drying in the practice ?
- Is a drying process that removes moisture from materials by reducing the pressure in the
drying chamber, allowing for lower drying temperatures
- Vacuum drying removes moisture at low temperatures by reducing pressure, protecting heat-
sensitive materials and speeding up the process
Application:
• Pharmaceuticals (e.g., drying of drugs, APIs).
• Food products (e.g., freeze-dried fruits or coffee).
• Chemicals or heat-sensitive polymers.
• Electronics and other sensitive components.
57/ Distinguish vacuum drying and freezing drying ?
- Vacuum drying: faster and suitable for moderately sensitive materials
- Freeze drying: gentler, preserving structure and activity, ideal for delicate or biological products.

ASPECT Vacuum drying Freeze drying

Process Removes moisture by heating Freezes the material and removes moisture
under reduced pressure by sublimation ( solid to vapor)

Temperature Operate at low to moderate Operates at very low temperatures (-50 to -

temperature (25-50) 80)
Moisture Direct evaporation of liquid Removes frozen water directly as vapor (no
removal moisture liquid phase)

Material Suitable for moderately heat- Ideal for highly heat- sensitive material
sensitivity sensitive material (biological products)

Structure May alter the material’s structure Retains the structure and shape of material
due to heating
 Energy use Less energy- intensive than freeze More energy-intensive due to freezing and
drying vacuum maintenance

Applications Pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food Pharmaceuticals (vaccines), delicate food,

drying biological samples.

58/ What is humidity diagram ? Humidity diagram can be applied ?

A chart of properties of air- water vapor mixture at 1 atm absolute pressure. Humidity (H) is plotted
versus actual temperature of air- water vapor mixture ( dry bulb temp)
(Chat GPT) A humidity diagram graphically
represents properties of humid air, such as
temperature, humidity, and energy content. Key
features include the saturation curve, relative
humidity lines, and enthalpy lines

Application:
• Drying Processes: Analyze drying efficiency and optimize conditions.
• Air Conditioning: Determine the cooling, heating, and dehumidification requirements.
• Industrial Processes: Design and control of humidifiers, dehumidifiers, and air-handling systems.
60/ What is absolute humidity? How many ways to express humidity for dried material and
wet material?
Absolute humidity (moisture content) of a gas is the amount of water vapor contained in 1kg of dry
air, symbol ̅𝑌 (kg water vapor/kg dry air)
Humidity can be expressed in various ways for dried and wet materials, depending on the context.
Here are the primary methods:
1. For Dried Materials:
- Moisture Content (Dry Basis):
+ Definition: The mass of water per unit mass of dry material.
+ Formula: Moisture content ( dry basis)=(Mass of water)/(Mass of dry material)
+ Commonly Used In: Drying processes, industrial applications, and agriculture.
+ Relative Humidity of Air: The humidity of air surrounding the dried material affects its
equilibrium moisture content.
2. For Wet Materials:
- Moisture Content (Wet Basis):
+ Definition: The mass of water per unit mass of the total material (wet material).
+ Formula: Moisture content ( wet basis)=(Mass of water)/(Mass of wet material )
+ Commonly Used In: Food science, pharmaceuticals, and quality control.
- Equilibrium Moisture Content: The moisture level at which the material neither gains nor loses
water when in equilibrium with the surrounding air.
61/ What is relative humidity?
(Slide TA): ratio of how much water vapour is in the air and how much water vapour the air could
potentially contain at a given temperature.

(Sách TV): Relative humidity of air (noted as ᵩ), also known as steam saturation, is defined as pA/PA
where pA is partial pressure of water vapor in a moisture mixture
PA is the saturated vapor pressure of water at the same dry bulb temperature . If the amount
of water vapor in the air increases until it is saturated ( pA = PA) so the relative humidity reaches
maximum ᵩ=1 = ᵩ max
62. When does the humidity decrease linearly?
decreases linearly during the constant-rate drying period when:
- When water vapor is removed at a linear rate
- During the initial phase of evaporation
- The drying process operates under stable air temperature and velocity.
- The material has a high amount of free water.
- The surrounding air has low relative humidity, allowing efficient evaporation
63. Parameters for drying process?
Rate of drying

X*: EMC, kg equilibrium moisture/kg dry solid

X: free moisture content, kg free
For adiabatic:
 - For the air flowing parallel to drying surface:

For the air flowing perpendicular to drying surface:

Time for drying:

64. Which parameter is unchanged

Thông số kh đổi: air velocity, material stickness, pressure (if in fixed pressure systems like vacuum
drying), drying gas composition.

EXTRACTION
66. How many types of extraction?
The three most common types of extractions are: liquid/liquid, liquid/solid, and acid/base (also
known as a chemically active extraction).
67. What kind of extraction is being used in this subject?
In this subject, we study liquid-liquid extraction.
Định nghĩa: Liquid-liquid: A solute is transferred from one liquid phase to another using solvents
that selectively dissolve the solute.
Slide: Liquid-liquid extraction (solvent extraction): is the separation of the constituents of a liquid
solution by contact with another insoluble liquid.
It is a mass transfer operation where a liquid sln (feed) is contacted with an immiscible or nearly
immiscible liquid (solvent) that exhibits preferential affinity or selectivity towards one or more of
the components in the feed.
68. Applications of liquid-liquid:
- Pharmaceutical Industry: To extract active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from natural
products or reaction mixtures.
- Petroleum Industry: Used in the refining of crude oil (e.g., separating aromatic hydrocarbons
from non-aromatic fractions).
- Chemical Synthesis: Recovery of catalysts or intermediates.
- Food Industry: Extracting flavors, essential oils, and fragrances (e.g., extracting caffeine
from coffee or tea).
- Environmental Engineering: Removal of organic pollutants, such as phenols or pesticides,
from wastewater.
69. What equipment can be applied in liquid-liquid extraction (giống câu 77)
70. The liquid-liquid extraction can be apply in what in industry (purpose)
- Pharmaceuticals: Extracting active compounds.
- Petrochemicals: Removing impurities (e.g., sulfur).
- Food Industry: Isolating flavors or vitamins.
- Metal Processing: Separating and purifying rare elements.
71 . How many stages in extraction
The number of stages depends on the desired separation efficiency and solute concentration. Single-
stage or multi-stage systems can be used, with countercurrent extraction being common in industrial
applications.
72 . What diagram extraction can be used in 3 cấu tử
SLIDE 24 Ternary Phase diagram
( Nếu hỏi Stage-wise extraction: McCabe-Thiele diagrams)
73 .How can we use the triangular diagram to determine(check the composition at any point
in diagram)
A triangular (ternary) diagram is used to represent the composition of three-component systems,
such as in liquid-liquid extraction. Here's how it can be used to determine composition at any point:
1. Axes Representation: Each corner of the triangle represents 100% of one component (pure
component), with the opposite side representing 0%. The axes are scaled for the proportion
of each component.
2. Reading a Point: A point within the triangle shows the percentage composition of all three
components, determined by drawing perpendicular lines from the point to each side of the
triangle.
3. Process Application: Locate feed, solvent, and equilibrium compositions to design or
evaluate the extraction process.
74 . How can we choose any solvent for liquid-liquid extraction?SLIDE CÔ GENERAL
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
- High selectivity for targeted solute to be extracted, not react chemically with desired
component
- High capacity for dissolving solute
- Minimum or no corrosion problem
- Large density difference with carrier
- High thermal and chemical stability
- No or low toxicity
- Low price
75 . What mechanism for liquid-liquid extraction? SLIDE CÔ TRANG 2 3
Liquid-liquid extraction (solvent extraction):is the separation of the constituents of a liquid
solution by contact with another insoluble liquid.
It is a mass transfer operation in which a liquid solution (feed) is contacted with an immiscible or
nearly immiscible liquid (solvent) that exhibits preferential affinity or selectivity towards one or
more of the components in the feed.
*WORKING PRINCIPLE
When liquid-liquid extraction is carried out in a test tube or flask the two immiscible phases are
shaken together to allow molecules to partition (dissolve) into the preferred solvent phase.
76 . What process will occur in any stage of liquid-liquid extraction?
1. Mixing: Two immiscible liquids are brought into contact to transfer the solute.
2. Partitioning: The solute distributes between phases based on its partition coefficient (KK).
3. Phase Separation: The liquids separate based on density and immiscibility.
4. Solute Recovery: The solute is extracted from the solvent-rich phase.
5. Multistage Extraction: Multiple stages or countercurrent flows improve efficiency.
The process relies on differences in solubility and chemical affinity.
- In liquid-liquid extraction, a soluble component (the solute) moves from one liquid phase to
another.
- The two liquid phases must be either immiscible or partially miscible. usually isothermal and
isobaric
- Can be done at low temperatures (good for thermally fragile solutes, such as large organic
molecules or biomolecules)
- Extracting solvent is usually recycled, often by distillation.
- Can be single stage (mixer-settler) or multistage (cascade)
77. In liquid-liquid extraction ,what type of equipment can be applied? SLIDE CÔ 7-16
- Laboratory separation funnel
- Mixer-settler for Extraction
- Spray Extraction Tower
- Packed Extraction Tower
- Mechanically agitated extraction tower