Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle

1.Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law

The word efflux means fluid outflow.
Torricelli’s law states that the speed of efflux of fluid through a small hole at a depth h of

an open tank is equal to the speed of a freely falling body i.e, 2𝑔ℎ

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Consider a tank containing a liquid of density ρ with a small

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hole in its side at a height y1 from the bottom.If A1 and A2 are the

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cross section areas of the side hole and the tank respectively and
v1and v2 are the liquid velocity at region 1 and 2
Consider regions 1 and 2

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According to Bernoulli principle
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 2
ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 2
ρ𝑣2 + ρ𝑔ℎ2
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According to equation of continuity 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 .
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As A2 >>A1 , so the liquid may be taken at the top is at rest i.e v2 ≃0.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at point 1 and 2, we get
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1 2
​ 𝑃𝑎 + 2
ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃 + ρ𝑔𝑦2

1 2
ρ𝑣1 = ρ𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1) + 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎
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let 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = ℎ
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1 2
2
ρ𝑣1 = ρ𝑔ℎ + 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎
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2 2 (𝑃− 𝑃𝑎)
𝑣1 = 2ρ𝑔ℎ + ρ
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2 2 (𝑃− 𝑃𝑎)
𝑣1 = 2ρ𝑔ℎ +
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If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then P = 𝑃𝑎

Then 𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ

This equation is known as Torricelli’s law.

This is the speed of a freely falling body.
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 2. Magnus effect(Dynamic lift) : When a spinning ball is thrown, it deviates from its
usual path in flight. This effect is called Magnus effect and plays an important role in tennis,
cricket and soccer, etc. as by applying appropriate spin the moving ball can be made to curve in
any desired direction.

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If a ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a horizontal axis
perpendicular to the direction of motion as shown in fig. then relative to the ball, air will be
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moving from right to left.
The resultant velocity of air above the ball will be (𝑣 + 𝑟ω) while below it is (𝑣 − 𝑟ω).
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So in accordance with Bernoulli's principle pressure above the ball will be less than below it.
Due to this difference of pressure an upward force will act on the ball and hence the ball will
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deviate from its usual path O𝐴0and will hit the ground at 𝐴1 following the path O𝐴1

Similarly if the spin is clockwise i.e., the ball is thrown with top- spin, the force due to
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pressure difference will act in the direction of gravity and so the pitch will curve more sharply
shortening the flight.
Furthermore, if the ball is spinning about a vertical axis, the curving will be sideways as
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shown in producing the so-called out swing or in swing.

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 3. Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing:- Aerofoil is a
solid piece shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift
when it moves horizontally through air.
When the aerofoil moves against the wind, the
orientation of the wing relative to flow direction causes
the streamlines to crowd together above the wing more

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than those below it. The flow speed on top is higher than

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that below it. There is an upward force resulting in a dynamic lift of the wings and this balances
the weight of the plane.

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Stokes’ Law
Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with

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velocity v through a fluid of coefficient of viscosity η is, F = 6πηav
Terminal Velocity
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The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely through a
viscous medium is called the terminal velocity vt.
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Expression for terminal velocity:

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Consider a sphere (rain drop ) of radius a which falls freely through a

highly viscous liquid of coefficient of viscosity η. Let the density of the
material of the sphere be ρ and the density of the fluid be σ.
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The forces acting on the sphere are

(i) gravitational force FG of the sphere acting vertically downwards
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4 3
FG = 3
π𝑎 ρ𝑔
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4 3
(ii) upthrust FB due to buoyancy FB = 3
π𝑎 σ𝑔 and
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(iii) viscous drag force Fv acting upwards Fv = 6πη𝑎𝑣 (viscous force always acts in a
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direction opposite to the motion of the sphere).

Initially, the sphere (rain drop) accelerates initially due to gravity. As the velocity
increases, the retarding force also increases. Finally, when viscous force plus buoyant force
becomes equal to the force due to gravity, the net force becomes zero and so does the
acceleration. The sphere then descends with a constant velocity.
At terminal velocity vt,
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 The net downward force = upward force
FG = FB + FV
4 3 4 3
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π𝑎 ρ𝑔 = 3
π𝑎 σ𝑔 + 6πη𝑎𝑣𝑡
4 3
6πη𝑎𝑣𝑡 = 3
π𝑎 (ρ − σ)𝑔
9 2
vt= 2η
𝑎 (ρ − σ)𝑔

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Note: (i) Terminal velocity depends on the radius of the sphere.

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(ii) Terminal velocity depends inversely on the viscosity of the medium.

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(iii) Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity
(iv) Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.

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(v) If ρ > σ then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will
attain constant velocity in downward direction. KO
(vi) If ρ < σ then terminal velocity will be negative and
hence the spherical body will attain constant velocity in upward
direction. Example : Air bubble in a liquid and clouds in the sky
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are seen moving in the upward direction.

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(vii) The terminal velocity is independent of height

through which a body is dropped.
SurfaceTension
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The free surface of a liquid possesses some additional energy and it behaves like a
stretched elastic membrane. This phenomenon is known as surface tension. Surface tension is
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concerned with only liquid as gases do not have free surfaces.

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A small liquid drop has a spherical shape, as due to surface tension the liquid surface
tries to have minimum surface area and for a given volume, the sphere has minimum surface
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area.
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Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per unit length on either
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid, the direction of this force being
perpendicular to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid.
So if F is the force acting on one side of imaginary line of length L, then S = (F/L)

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 (i) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of surface or
length of line considered.
(ii) It is a scalar quantity.
(iii) Dimension : MT – 2
(vi) Units : N/m (S.I.) and Dyne/cm (C.G.S.)
Surface Energy

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For a molecule well inside a liquid the net force on it is zero. But the molecules on the
surface have a net downward pull.So the molecules on the liquid surface experience net
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downward force. So to bring a molecule from the interior of the liquid to the free surface, some
work is required to be done against the intermolecular force of attraction, which will be stored
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as potential energy of the molecule on the surface.

The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface
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energy. Unit : Joule/m2 (S.I.) erg/cm2 (C.G.S.)

Dimension : MT–2
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Surface Energy and Surface Tension

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Consider a horizontal liquid film ending in a movable bar. Due to surface tension the bar
is pulled inwards . Inorder to keep the bar in its original position some work has to be done
against this inward full.
W=Fxd

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 This work done increases surface energy.
If the surface energy of the film is S per unit area, the extra area is 2dl (film has two
sides), The extra surface energy = S x 2dl
The extra surface energy = work done
S x2dl =Fd
S = 𝐅/𝟐d𝒍

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S = F/ A

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So surface energy is numerically equal to surface tension.
Applications of Surface Tension.

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(1) The oil and grease spots on clothes cannot be removed by pure water. On the other hand,
when detergents (like soap) are added in water, the surface tension of water decreases. As a

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result of this, wetting power of soap solution increases. Also the force of adhesion between
soap solution and oil or grease on the clothes increases. Thus, oil, grease and dirt particles get
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mixed with soap solution easily. Hence clothes are washed easily.
(2) The antiseptics have a very low value of surface tension. The low value of surface tension
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prevents the formation of drops that may otherwise block the entrance to skin or a wound. Due
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to low surface tension, the antiseptics spread properly over wound.

(3) Surface tension of all lubricating oils and paints is kept low so that they spread over a large
area.
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(4) Oil spreads over the surface of water because the surface tension of oil is less than the
surface tension of cold water.
(5) A rough sea can be calmed by pouring oil on its surface.
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(6) In soldering, addition of ‘flux’ reduces the surface tension of molten tin, hence, it spreads.
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(7) Oil and water do not mix.

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(8) Mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to it.
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(9) Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree.
(10 )Hairs of a paint brush do not cling together when dry and even when dipped in water but
form a fine tip when taken out of it.
Angle of Contact

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The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid surface inside
the liquid is termed as angle of contact(θ)
The value of θ determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid or it will form
droplets on it.
When Angle of contact is Obtuse:
When θ is an obtuse angle(greater than 90) then molecules of liquids are attracted strongly to

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themselves and weakly to those of solid, and liquid then does not wet the solid.

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Eg: Water on a waxy or oily surface, Mercury on any surface.
When Angle of contact is Acute:

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When θ is an acute angle (less than 90), the molecules of
the liquid are strongly attracted to those of the solid and

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liquid then wets the solid.
Eg: Water on glass or on plastic, Kerosene oil on virtually anything .
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Action Soaps and detergents
Soaps, detergents and dying substances are wetting agents. When they are added the angle of
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contact becomes small so that these may penetrate well and become effective.
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Action of Water proofing agents

Water proofing agents are added to create a large angle of contact between the water and fibres.
Drops and Bubbles
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Small drops and bubbles spherical in shape.Due to surface tension ,liquid surface has the
tendency to reduce surface area. For a given volume sphere has minimum surface area. So
small drops and bubbles are spherical.
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For large drops the effect of gravity predominates that of surface tension and they get flattened.
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Excess Pressure
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Due to the property of surface tension a drop or bubble tries to contract and so compresses the
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matter enclosed. This in turn increases the internal pressure which prevents further contraction
and equilibrium is achieved. So in equilibrium the pressure inside a bubble or drop is greater
than outside and the difference of pressure between two sides of the liquid surface is called
excess pressure.
Excess Pressure inside a spherical drop

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 Consider a spherical Liquid Drop of radius R and S be the surface tension of the liquid.
Let the radius of the Drop increase from R to R+ΔR due to excess pressure.

Work done in expansion​ = Force x Displacement

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= Excess pressure x Area x

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Displacement
W = (𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) x 4πR𝟐 x ΔR

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This work done is equal to the increase in surface energy
Increase in Surface energy = Surface tension x Increase in

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surface area
Increase in surface area of drop = 4π (R + ΔR)2- 4πR2
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= 4π (R2 + 2RΔR + ΔR2 − R2)
= 8πRΔR (neglecting higher order terms)
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Increase in surface energy = 𝐒 𝟖𝛑R𝚫R

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The work done = extra surface energy

(𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) x 4πR𝟐 x ΔR = 𝐒 𝟖𝛑R𝚫R
(𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) = 𝟐𝐒/R
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Excess Pressure Inside a Liquid Bubble

A bubble has two free surfaces.Therefore increasing surface area equal to 2 X 8πRΔR
​ ​ So Excess Pressure (𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) = 4𝐒/R
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Capillarity
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If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the
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liquid in the capillary either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This
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phenomenon is called capillarity.

The root cause of capillarity is the difference in pressures on two sides of (concave and
convex) curved surface of liquid.
Examples of capillarity :
(i) Ink rises in the fine pores of blotting paper leaving the paper dry.
(ii) A towel soaks water.
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 (iii) Oil rises in the long narrow spaces between the threads of a wick.
(iv) Wood swells in rainy season due to rise of moisture from air in the pores.
(v) Ploughing of fields is essential for preserving moisture in the soil.
(vi) Sand is drier soil than clay. This is because holes between the sand particles are not
so fine as compared to that of clay, to draw up water by capillary action.
Ascent Formula.

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When one end of a capillary tube of radius r is immersed into a liquid of density ρ which

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wets the sides of the capillary tube (water and capillary tube of glass), the shape of the liquid
meniscus in the tube becomes concave.

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Let R = radius of curvature of liquid meniscus, S = surface tension of liquid .as the
pressure is greater on the concave side of the liquid surface. so excess pressure at a point A just

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above meniscus compared to point B just below the meniscus is
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(𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) = 𝟐𝐒/R

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From figure cosθ = r/R

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​ R = r/cosθ
2𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
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(𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) = 𝑅
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Consider two points A and B in the same horizontal level i.e, the points are at the same
pressure. Pressure at A = Pi
Pressure at B = Po + h ρ g
Pi =Po + h ρ g
Pi - Po = h ρ g
Comparing above equations
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 2𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
hρg= 𝑅

2𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
h= 𝑅ρ𝑔

Note: If the liquid meniscus is convex, as for mercury, angle of contact θ will be obtuse . Then
cos θ is negative and hence the value of h will be negative. it is clear that the liquid will lower

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in the capillary and this is called capillary fall or capillary depression.

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