CHMHSS FLUID updtaed (1)
CHMHSS FLUID updtaed (1)
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piston and is pushed down expanding the brake
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shoes against the brake lining. In this way a
small force on the pedal produces a large retarding force on the wheel. The pressure set up by
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pressing the pedal is transmitted equally to all cylinders attached to the four wheels so that the
braking effort is equal on all wheels.
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Buoyancy
When a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid, it displaces a certain amount of fluid. The
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displaced fluid exerts an upward force on the body. The upward force exerted by a fluid that
opposes the weight of an immersed object in a fluid is called upthrust or buoyant force and the
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Archimedes principle
It states that when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward
thrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it and its upthrust acts through the centre of
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Floatation can be defined as the tendency of an object to rise up to the upper levels of the
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The law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid
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displaced by the immersed part of the body equals the weight of the body.
For example, a wooden object weighs 300 kg (about 3000 N) floats in water displaces
300 kg (about 3000 N) of water.
● Boats, ships, and some wooden objects move on the upper part of the water.
● A person can swim in sea water more easily than in river water.
● Ice floats on water.
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● The ship is made of steel but its interior is made hollow by giving it a concave
shape.
If density of body is greater than that of liquid ρ > σ. Weight will be more than upthrust
so the body will sink.
If density of body is equal to that of liquid ρ = σ.Weight will be equal to upthrust so
the body will float fully submerged anywhere in the liquid.
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If density of body is lesser than that of liquid ρ < σ. Weight will be less than upthrust so
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the body will move upwards and will float partially immersed in the liquid
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Viscosity
When one body slides over the other, a frictional force acts between them. Similarly, whenever
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a fluid flows, two adjacent layers of the fluid exert a tangential force on each other; this force
acts as a drag and opposes the relative motion between them. The property of a fluid by virtue
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of which it opposes the relative motion in its adjacent layers is known as viscosity.
Cause of viscosity
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Consider a liquid flowing over a horizontal surface with two neighboring layers. The
upper layer tends to accelerate the lower layer and in turn, the lower layer tends
to retard the upper layer. As a result, a backward tangential force is set-up. This
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tends to destroy the relative motion. This accounts for the viscous behaviour of fluids.
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Coefficient of viscosity
Consider a liquid flowing steadily over a horizontal fixed layer . The velocities of the
layers increase uniformly as we move away from the fixed layer. Consider any two parallel
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layers A and B. Let v and v + dv be the velocities of the neighboring layers at distances x and x
+ dx respectively from the fixed layer.
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The viscous force F between two layers of the fluid is proportional to
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area (A) of the layer in contact : F α A,
velocity gradient (dv/dx) in a direction perpendicular to the flow of liquid : F α dv/dx
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On combining these,
F α A dv/dx
or F = – η A (dv/dx)
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where η is constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of viscosity. The negative sign
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gases.
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liquid passing through a point travels along the same path and with the same velocity as the
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● A streamline may be defined as the path, straight or curved, the tangent to which at
any point gives the direction of the flow of liquid at that point.
● The two streamlines cannot cross each other and the greater is the crowding of
streamlines at a place, the greater is the velocity of liquid particles at that place.
● Path ABC is streamline as shown in the figure and v1,v2 and v3 are the velocities of
the liquid particles at A, B and C point respectively.
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Laminar flow : If a liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface with a steady flow and
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moves in the form of layers of different velocities which do not mix with each other, then the
flow of liquid is called laminar flow.
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In this flow the velocity of liquid flow is always less than the critical velocity of the
liquid. The laminar flow is used synonymously with streamlined flow.
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Turbulent flow : When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical velocity, the
motion of the particles of liquid becomes disordered or irregular. Such a flow is called a
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turbulent flow.
Turbulence is sometimes desirable. The blades of a kitchen mixer induce turbulent flow
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and provide thick milk shakes as well as beat eggs into a uniform texture.
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In a turbulent flow, the path and the velocity of the particles of the liquid change
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continuously and randomly with time from point to point. In a turbulent flow, most of the
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external energy maintaining the flow is spent in producing eddies in the liquid and only a small
fraction of energy is available for forward flow. For example, eddies are seen by the sides of the
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If the value of Reynold's number
(i) Lies between 0 to 2000, the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar.
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(ii) Lies between 2000 to 3000, the flow of liquid is unstable changing from streamline to
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turbulent flow.
(iii) Above 3000, the flow of liquid is turbulent.
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Equation of Continuity.
The equation of continuity is derived from the principle of conservation of mass.
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respectively. Let the liquid enter with velocity v1 at A and leave with velocity v2 at B. Let ρ1
and ρ2 be the densities of the liquid at point A and B respectively.
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Mass of the liquid entering per second at A = Mass of the liquid leaving per second at B
a1v1ρ1 = a2v2ρ2
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So a1v1= a2v2
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Or av = a constant
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Or a α 𝑣
This expression is called the equation of continuity for the steady flow of an
incompressible and non-viscous liquid.
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1) The velocity of flow is independent of the liquid (assuming the liquid to be
non-viscous)
2) The velocity of flow will increase if cross-section decreases and vice-versa. That is
why :
(a) In hilly region, where the river is narrow and shallow (i.e., small cross-section) the
water current will be faster, while in plains where the river is wide and deep (i.e., large cross-
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section) the current will be slower, and so deep water will appear to be still.
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(b) When water falls from a tap, the velocity of falling water under the action of gravity
will increase with distance from the tap (i.e, v2 > v1). So in accordance with the continuity
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equation the cross section of the water stream will decrease (i.e., A2 < A1),i.e., the falling
stream of water becomes narrower.
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Energy of a Flowing Fluid.
A flowing fluid in motion possesses the following three types of energy
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● Pressure Energy - It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure. It is the
measure of work done in pushing the liquid against pressure without imparting any
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velocity to it. Pressure energy of the liquid PV . Pressure energy per unit mass of the
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𝑃
Liquid is ρ
● Potential energy- It is the energy possessed by liquid by virtue of its height or position
above the surface of earth or any reference level taken as zero level. Potential energy of
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the liquid mgh . Potential energy per unit mass of the liquid gh. Potential energy per unit
volume of he liquid ρgh.
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● Kinetic energy - It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion or Velocity.
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1 2
Kinetic energy of the liquid 2
𝑣 . Kinetic energy per unit volume of the liquid is
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1 2
2
ρ𝑣 .
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Bernoulli's Theorem
The total energy (pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit volume or
mass of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in steady flow through a pipe remains constant
throughout the flow.
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The equation is basically the conservation of energy applied to non viscous fluid motion
in steady state.
Proof
Consider the flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe of varying cross section, from region A to
region B . let P1, a1, v1 and h1 and P2, a2, v2 and h2 be the pressure, area of cross section ,
velocity and height from reference level in region A and B respectively.
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This work done contributes in changing the KE of the liquid and in changing PE of the liquid ∴
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∴ Change in PE ,
PE = ∆𝑈 = ρ𝑔∆𝑉ℎ2 - ρ𝑔∆𝑉ℎ1
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= ρ𝑔∆𝑉(ℎ2 - ℎ1 )
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1 2 2
= 2
ρ∆𝑉(𝑣2 - 𝑣1)
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(P1 - P2) ∆𝑉 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈
1 2 1 2
(P1 - P2) ∆𝑉 = 2
ρ∆𝑉𝑣2 - 2
ρ∆𝑉𝑣1 + ρ𝑔∆𝑉ℎ2 - ρ𝑔∆𝑉ℎ1
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 2
ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 2
ρ𝑣2 + ρ𝑔ℎ2
1 2
𝑃 + 2
ρ𝑣 + ρ𝑔ℎ = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
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1.Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law
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The word efflux means fluid outflow.
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Torricelli’s law states that the speed of efflux of fluid through a small hole at a depth h of
an open tank is equal to the speed of a freely falling body i.e, 2𝑔ℎ
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Consider a tank containing a liquid of density ρ with a small
hole in its side at a height y1 from the bottom.If A1 and A2 are the
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cross section areas of the side hole and the tank respectively and
v1and v2 are the liquid velocity at region 1 and 2
Consider regions 1 and 2
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1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 2
ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 2
ρ𝑣2 + ρ𝑔ℎ2
As A2 >>A1 , so the liquid may be taken at the top is at rest i.e v2 ≃0.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at point 1 and 2, we get
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1 2
𝑃𝑎 + 2
ρ𝑣1 + ρ𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃 + ρ𝑔𝑦2
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1 2
2
ρ𝑣1 = ρ𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1) + 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎
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let 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = ℎ
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1 2
2
ρ𝑣1 = ρ𝑔ℎ + 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎
2 2 (𝑃− 𝑃𝑎)
𝑣1 = 2ρ𝑔ℎ + ρ
2 2 (𝑃− 𝑃𝑎)
𝑣1 = 2ρ𝑔ℎ + ρ
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If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then P = 𝑃𝑎
Then 𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ
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cricket and soccer, etc. as by applying appropriate spin the moving ball can be made to curve in
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any desired direction.
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If a ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a horizontal axis
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perpendicular to the direction of motion as shown in fig. then relative to the ball, air will be
moving from right to left.
The resultant velocity of air above the ball will be (𝑣 + 𝑟ω) while below it is (𝑣 − 𝑟ω).
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So in accordance with Bernoulli's principle pressure above the ball will be less than below it.
Due to this difference of pressure an upward force will act on the ball and hence the ball will
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deviate from its usual path O𝐴0and will hit the ground at 𝐴1 following the path O𝐴1
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Similarly if the spin is clockwise i.e., the ball is thrown with top- spin, the force due to
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pressure difference will act in the direction of gravity and so the pitch will curve more sharply
shortening the flight.
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3. Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing:- Aerofoil is a
solid piece shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift
when it moves horizontally through air.
When the aerofoil moves against the wind, the
orientation of the wing relative to flow direction causes
the streamlines to crowd together above the wing more
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than those below it. The flow speed on top is higher than
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that below it. There is an upward force resulting in a dynamic lift of the wings and this balances
the weight of the plane.
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Stokes’ Law
Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with
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velocity v through a fluid of coefficient of viscosity η is, F = 6πηav
Terminal Velocity
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The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely through a
viscous medium is called the terminal velocity vt.
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FG = 3
π𝑎 ρ𝑔
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4 3
(ii) upthrust FB due to buoyancy FB = 3
π𝑎 σ𝑔 and
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(iii) viscous drag force Fv acting upwards Fv = 6πη𝑎𝑣 (viscous force always acts in a
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Note: (i) Terminal velocity depends on the radius of the sphere.
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(ii) Terminal velocity depends inversely on the viscosity of the medium.
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(iii) Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity
(iv) Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.
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(v) If ρ > σ then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will
attain constant velocity in downward direction. KO
(vi) If ρ < σ then terminal velocity will be negative and
hence the spherical body will attain constant velocity in upward
direction. Example : Air bubble in a liquid and clouds in the sky
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The free surface of a liquid possesses some additional energy and it behaves like a
stretched elastic membrane. This phenomenon is known as surface tension. Surface tension is
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A small liquid drop has a spherical shape, as due to surface tension the liquid surface
tries to have minimum surface area and for a given volume, the sphere has minimum surface
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area.
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Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per unit length on either
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid, the direction of this force being
perpendicular to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid.
So if F is the force acting on one side of imaginary line of length L, then S = (F/L)
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(i) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of surface or
length of line considered.
(ii) It is a scalar quantity.
(iii) Dimension : MT – 2
(vi) Units : N/m (S.I.) and Dyne/cm (C.G.S.)
Surface Energy
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For a molecule well inside a liquid the net force on it is zero. But the molecules on the
surface have a net downward pull.So the molecules on the liquid surface experience net
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downward force. So to bring a molecule from the interior of the liquid to the free surface, some
work is required to be done against the intermolecular force of attraction, which will be stored
as potential energy of the molecule on the surface.
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The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface
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Consider a horizontal liquid film ending in a movable bar. Due to surface tension the bar
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is pulled inwards . Inorder to keep the bar in its original position some work has to be done
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(1) The oil and grease spots on clothes cannot be removed by pure water. On the other hand,
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when detergents (like soap) are added in water, the surface tension of water decreases. As a
result of this, wetting power of soap solution increases. Also the force of adhesion between
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soap solution and oil or grease on the clothes increases. Thus, oil, grease and dirt particles get
mixed with soap solution easily. Hence clothes are washed easily.
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(2) The antiseptics have a very low value of surface tension. The low value of surface tension
prevents the formation of drops that may otherwise block the entrance to skin or a wound. Due
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to low surface tension, the antiseptics spread properly over wound.
(3) Surface tension of all lubricating oils and paints is kept low so that they spread over a large
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area.
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(4) Oil spreads over the surface of water because the surface tension of oil is less than the
surface tension of cold water.
(5) A rough sea can be calmed by pouring oil on its surface.
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(6) In soldering, addition of ‘flux’ reduces the surface tension of molten tin, hence, it spreads.
(7) Oil and water do not mix.
(8) Mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to it.
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(9) Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree.
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(10 )Hairs of a paint brush do not cling together when dry and even when dipped in water but
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Angle of Contact
The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point
of contact and solid surface inside the liquid is termed as
angle of contact(θ)
The value of θ determines whether a liquid will spread on the
surface of a solid or it will form droplets on it.
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When Angle of contact is Obtuse:
When θ is an obtuse angle(greater than 90) then molecules of liquids are attracted strongly to
themselves and weakly to those of solid, and liquid then does not wet the solid.
Eg: Water on a waxy or oily surface, Mercury on any surface.
When Angle of contact is Acute:
When θ is an acute angle (less than 90), the molecules of
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the liquid are strongly attracted to those of the solid and
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liquid then wets the solid.
Eg: Water on glass or on plastic, Kerosene oil on virtually anything .
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Action Soaps and detergents
Soaps, detergents and dying substances are wetting agents. When they are added the angle of
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contact becomes small so that these may penetrate well and become effective.
Action of Water proofing agents
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Water proofing agents are added to create a large angle of contact between the water and fibres.
Drops and Bubbles
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Small drops and bubbles spherical in shape.Due to surface tension ,liquid surface has the
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tendency to reduce surface area. For a given volume sphere has minimum surface area. So
small drops and bubbles are spherical.
For large drops the effect of gravity predominates that of surface tension and they get flattened.
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Excess Pressure
Due to the property of surface tension a drop or bubble tries to contract and so compresses the
matter enclosed. This in turn increases the internal pressure which prevents further contraction
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and equilibrium is achieved. So in equilibrium the pressure inside a bubble or drop is greater
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than outside and the difference of pressure between two sides of the liquid surface is called
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excess pressure.
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surface area
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Increase in surface area of drop = 4π (R + ΔR)2- 4πR2
= 4π (R2 + 2RΔR + ΔR2 − R2)
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= 8πRΔR (neglecting higher order terms)
Increase in surface energy = 𝐒 𝟖𝛑R𝚫R
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The work done = extra surface energy
(𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) x 4πR𝟐 x ΔR = 𝐒 𝟖𝛑R𝚫R
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(𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) = 𝟐𝐒/R
Excess Pressure Inside a Liquid Bubble
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A bubble has two free surfaces.Therefore increasing surface area equal to 2 X 8πRΔR
So Excess Pressure (𝐏𝐢- 𝐏𝐨) = 4𝐒/R
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Capillarity
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the
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liquid in the capillary either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This
phenomenon is called capillarity.
The root cause of capillarity is the difference in pressures on two sides of (concave and
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Examples of capillarity :
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(i) Ink rises in the fine pores of blotting paper leaving the paper dry.
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above meniscus compared to point B just below the meniscus is
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Consider two points A and B in the same horizontal level i.e, the points are at the same
pressure. Pressure at A = Pi
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Pressure at B = Po + h ρ g
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Pi =Po + h ρ g
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Pi - Po = h ρ g
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2𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
h= 𝑅ρ𝑔
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Note: If the liquid meniscus is convex, as for mercury, angle of contact θ will be obtuse . Then
cos θ is negative and hence the value of h will be negative. it is clear that the liquid will lower
in the capillary and this is called capillary fall or capillary depression.
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