SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF AVIATION
STUDIES

INTRODUCTION TO
AVIATION MANAGEMENT
BBA (AVIATION MANAGEMENT)/ BBA (AVIATION, TRAVEL &
TOURISM MANAGEMENT/ BBA (AVIATION & LOGISTICS
MANAGEMENT)

I SEMESTER
 SYLLABUS

UNIT-I Introduction To Aviation​ 08 Hrs

Introduction to Aviation Management- Evolution of aviation- challenges of aviation- History
of Aviation- Development of Air transportation in India-Airport organisation Structure and
Models. Changing Faces of Airport. Environmental impact on Aviation industry.-Types of
Airport – Types of Aircraft.

UNIT-II Airport And Airline Regulatory Bodies​ 08 Hrs

IATA- Functions and Priorities-ICAO -Function-Aims and Objectives-Airport Authority of
India-Airport Council International-International Airport Authority of India-BCAS-DGCA-
Role and Function-Ministry of Civil Aviation In India

UNIT-III Landside Operations And Terminal Side Operations​ ​ 08 Hrs

Functional Layout of an Airport-Land-side-Airport Linking Roads- Multi Model Transport
Connections- Parking Area-Facilities and Requirements- Transportation and Traffic
planning-Enter -Exist Connection and Terminal Approach- Commercial Outlets-Airline
Terminal Management ( Airport Procedure and Customer Service)-Passenger and Cargo
Terminals-Terminal​ Manager-​ Qualifications-​ Roles​ and​ Responsibilities-​
​ Flight Information Counter-Reservation and Ticketing- Checking-
Issue of Boarding pass- Kiosk- Baggage Handling- Baggage Sortation System-Conveyor
Belt-Security Clearance-Security Hold Area and Immigration Formalities- Customs – On
Arrival- Red Channel – Green Channel - Documents- Passport – Visa -Handling of
Passengers with Special Needs and Its Regulatory Requirements.

UNIT-IV Airside Operations​ 08 Hrs

Air side Layout - Runway, Taxiways and Apron - Hangers and Maintenance Facilities -
Ramp Operations - Air Traffic Control and Operating Infrastructure - Navigation and Radar
Systems-Emergencies on Board –Safety equipment - Airport Emergency Services -Roles of
the Rescue and Fire Fighting Service- Airport Fire Stations - Emergency Training and
Activity of Rescue and Fire Fighting Unit

UNIT-V Security And Documentation​ 08 Hrs

The Transportation Security Administration - Role of CISF In Aviation Safety and Security -
Aviation Safety Human Factor-Objective- Safety- Types of Human Factors -
Inspection/Screening of Passengers in India- Use of Closed-Circuit TV - Security at VIP
Movements - Documentation - Bill of Lading-Types-Functions - Airway Bill - Legal
Disposition of Airway Bill - Its Features and Validity
Total hours:40
 UNIT-I
Introduction to Aviation Management

1.1​Introduction to Aviation Management

It is often said that managing an airport is like being mayor of a city. Like a city, an
airport is comprised of a huge variety of facilities, systems, users, workers, rules, and
regulations. Also, just as cities thrive on trade and commerce with other cities, airports are
successful in part by their ability to successfully be the location where passengers and cargo
travel to and from other airports. Furthermore, just as cities find their place as part of its
county’s, states, and country’s economy, airports, too, must operate successfully as part of the
nation’s system of airports. In this chapter, the airport system in the United States will be
described in many ways. First, the national airport system will be described. Next, the various
facilities that make up the airport system will be described. Finally, the various rules and
regulations that govern the airport system will be described.
Aviation industry is the business sector that manufactures, maintains, and operates the
aircrafts and the airports. When it comes to aviation, there is a broad range of responsibilities
within. It comprises activities at the airport as well as in the aircraft. It involves ground duties
that are required to perform before the flight takes off, the activities during the flight and the
activities after it lands.
The aviation industry is the business sector dedicated to manufacturing and operating
all types of aircraft. Air traffic controllers, when they are awake, are concerned with
aviation safety. Anything related to the design, manufacturing, selling, operating,
maintenance, transportation of people and goods by aircraft constitutes aviation industry. All
the people working in manufacturing and service sectors of the aviation industry along with
the customers are considered as its stakeholders.
The aviation industry and its stakeholders always thank Wright brothers for having
invented airplanes. The Wright brothers could not have imagined how airplanes would
change the way people live & do business. The airline industry has witnessed a sea change
from two-wheeler bi planes to the Boeing 787s that is visible in our skies today. The passage
of time has witnessed competition grow from leaps to bounds. Today airplanes are present in
every country around the world. Even the industry has been growing year on year.
Technology has also made a significant contribution to the airline industry; over the years
technological advances have been incorporated into the science of flying airplanes. The
industry has also propelled the growth of ancillary services like airport services, travel agents,
courier services, cargo handling, clearing & forwarding agents etc.

Aviation is the field related to the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, being the
design, development, production, operation and use of aircraft. French writer and former
naval officer Gabriel La Landelle coined the word aviation in 1863, from the verb avier
(synonymous flying), itself derived from the Latin word avis (“bird”) and the suffix–ation.

Aviation managers work at airlines, airports, or other businesses within the aviation or
aerospace industry, such as aircraft manufacturers, airports, airlines or in any airport/air-
travel related services. Aviation managers might oversee the day-to-day operations of an
airport or aviation organization or supervise a department, or provide airport/airline related
services, or any business comprising of manufacturing, marketing, accounting & finance, or
computer and information communication technology-based operations and services in
Aviation industry.
 Aviation industry involves Design & manufacturing of aircrafts, Maintenance of
aircrafts, Operations of aircrafts, Air traffic control, Civil aviation, cargo aviation and military
aviation issues, Air-travel and airlines management, Aviation safety and security, Airport
operations and services management, and business related to quality air-travel services.

There are five major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft in the world. They are:
●​ Airbus, based in Europe
●​ Boeing, based in the United States
●​ Bombardier, based in Canada
●​ Embraer, based in Brazil
●​ United Aircraft Corporation, based in Russia

Boeing and Airbus concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners, while
Bombardier, Embraer and United Aircraft Corporation concentrate on regional airliners.
Large networks of specialized parts suppliers from around the world support these
manufacturers, who sometimes provide only the initial design and final assembly in their own
plants. The Chinese ACAC consortium will also soon enter the civil transport market with its
Comac ARJ21 regional jet.

An airport is a place where airplanes can land or take off. Most airports in the world have
only a long strip of level ground called a runway. Many airports have buildings which are
used to hold airplanes and passengers. A building that holds passengers waiting for their
planes or luggage is called a terminal. The sections between the plane and the terminal are
called "gates". Airports also have buildings called hangars to hold planes when they are not
used. Some airports have buildings to control the airport, like a control tower which tells
planes where to go.

An international airport is a large airport that airplanes can use to fly to and from other
countries. A domestic airport is an airport which is usually smaller and only has airplanes
coming from places in the same country. Most international airports have shops and
restaurants for airplane passengers to use.

An airport used by the military is often called an air force base or airbase. An aircraft
carrier is a floating airbase.

An airline is a company that provides air transport services for travelling passengers
and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or
alliances with other airlines for code share agreements.

What is Aviation?
The term aviation was coined by a French pioneer named Guillaume Joseph Gabriel
de La Landelle in 1863. It originates from the Latin word avis that literally means bird.
Aviation means all the activities related to flying the aircraft.

What is Aviation Management?

Aviation management involves managing the work flow of airline, airport, or other
businesses pertaining to aviation or aerospace industry by carrying out the day-to-day
operations of an airport or an airline.
1.2​Evolution of aviation
There are early legends of human flight such as the story of Icarus in Greek myth and
Jamshid in Persian myth, and later, somewhat more credible claims of short-distance human
flights appear, such as the flying automaton of Archytas of Tarentum (428–347 BC), the
winged flights of Abbas In Firnas (810–887), Eilmer of Malmesbury (11th century), and the
hot-air Passarola of Bartholomeu Lourenco de Gusmao (1685–1724).

The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air
flight on November 21, 1783, of a hot air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers. The
practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was
immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required. Jean-Pierre
Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in
one in 1785.

Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great
distances. The best-known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin
company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin. It flew over one million
miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the
Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had a range of only a few hundred miles,
was diminishing as airplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on
May 6, 1937 when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the
Hindenburg accident was initially blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift
gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed the coating used to protect the
covering material over the frame was highly flammable and allowed static electricity to build
up in the airship. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg
type accidents. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have
seen only niche application since that time.

In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-
wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Early dirigible
developments included machine-powered propulsion (Henri Giffard, 1852), rigid frames
(David Schwarz, 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability (Alberto Santos-Dumont,
1901).
 There are many competing claims for the earliest powered, heavier-than-air flight. The
first recorded powered flight was carried out by Clement Ader on October 9, 1890 when he
reportedly made the first manned, powered, heavier-than-air flight of a significant distance
(50 m (160 ft)) but insignificant altitude from level ground in his bat-winged, fully self-
propelled fixed-wing aircraft, the Ader Eole. Seven years later, on 14 October 1897, Ader's
Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry.
The report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In
November 1906 Ader claimed to have made a successful flight on 14 October 1897,
achieving an "uninterrupted flight" of around 300 metres (980 feet) on. Although widely
believed at the time, these claims were later discredited.

The Wright brothers made the first successful powered, controlled, and sustained
airplane flight on December 17, 1903, a feat made possible by their invention of three- axis
control. Only a decade later, at the start of World War I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had
become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground
positions.

Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger and more reliable.
The Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on
May 14, 1908.

During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made in the field of aviation,
including the first transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown in 1919, Charles Lindbergh's solo
transatlantic flight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford Smith's transpacific flight the following
year. One of the most successful designs of this period was the Douglas DC-3, which became
the first airliner to be profitable carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of
passenger airline service. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built
airports, and there were numerous qualified pilots available. The war brought many
innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fuelled rockets.
 After World War II, especially in North America, there was a boom in generalaviation,
both private and commercial, as thousands of pilots were released from military service and
many inexpensive war-surplus transport and training aircraft became available. Manufacturers
such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide light aircraft for the
new middle-class market.

By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with the de Havilland
Comet, though the first widely used passenger jet was the Boeing 707, because it was much
more economical than other aircraft at that time. At the same time, turboprop propulsion
began to appear for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve small-volume
routes in a much wider range of weather conditions.

Since the 1960s composite material airframes and quieter, more efficient engines have
become available, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for more than two
decades, but the most important lasting innovations have taken place in instrumentation and
control. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Positioning System, satellite
communications, and increasingly small and powerful computers and LED displays, have
dramatically changed the cockpits of airliners and, increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well.
Pilots can navigate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions, and other nearby
aircraft on a map or through synthetic vision, even at night or in low visibility.

On June 21, 2004, Spaceship One became the first privately funded aircraft to make a
spaceflight, opening the possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the Earth's
atmosphere. Meanwhile, flying prototypes of aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as
ethanol, electricity, and even solar energy, is becoming more common.

1.3​History of Aviation
On 17 December 1903, in North Carolina, a frail structure of metal, wood and fabric
struggled into the air and carried a single passenger 260 Meters, thus began the first manned
flight. In less than six years, the first airline-Germany's Deutsehe Luftschiffahrts was
established in November 1909. By the outbreak of war in 1914, it had flown over 33,000
intrepid passengers in 1500 Zeppelin airship flights. Following World War 1, regular air
transportation began in January 1919, using make-shift landing strips and within 12 months
air services were established in several countries.

British operator, Air Transport, and Travel (AT&T) became the first international
scheduled airline. The London-Paris Service using a DH 16, carrying four passengers took off
on 25 August 1919.

By the end of 1919, Five carriers-AT& T, Denmark's Danske Luftartelskab, Norske

Luftartederi (Norway), Deutsche Luftreederei (Germany) and Svenska Luftrafik (Sweden)
formed the International Air Traffic Association (IATA) and a sixth carrier-the only one
which survives today joined from holland- Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij (KLM)
Royal Dutch Airlines. Simultaneously, civil aviation became subject to world politics and in
1919, air transport operations were covered under the International Commission for Air
Navigation (ICAN).
 Early air transport followed colonial lines, and y 1924, the UK Government set up
Imperial airways and its service to India and Australia commenced in 1929. The trans-
Atlantic crossing took place in 1927 by Trans Continental Air Transport, a fore runner of
Trans World Airways (TWA). American Airways was formed in 1930 to fly mail and later
became American Airlines. This led to the birth of four significant US carriers; TWA,
American, United, and Eastern.

Around 1930, civil air transport operations began in South Africa, and the Union
Airways and South-West Africa Airways were acquired by South African Airways. In 1931,
the first UK-Africa services were operated to Khartoum and Nairobi and later to Cape Town.

By the late 1940s, thousands of wars surplus C-47/ Dakota aircraft supported
innumerable airlines around the world. It boosted the civil air transportation growth as they
were cheaper and readily available with minimum maintenance effort.

1.4​Development of Air transportation in India

Aviation came to India almost the same time it took roots in Europe. The first air
display as an event was organised at Tollygunj club in Calcutta on 28 December 1910. First
long-distance air travel service from Cairo to Calcutta took place on 29 Novernber-12
December 1918 as a part of the exploratory phase of the UK-Australia flights. On 24 January
1920, the Indian Postal Department announced a weekly Bombay-Karachi air mail service.

European ambition to serve the Indian sub-continent and beyond materialised on 10-
13 November,1924, when KLM flew their first flight by a Fokker 11 from Amsterdam to
Karachi and then to Calcutta via Ambala and Allahabad with Batavia (now Jakarta in
Indonesia) as the destination.

The Imperial Airways flew their first flight from Cairo to Karachi and then to Delhi
on 26 December 1926.

Aviation training started in India on 9 May 1928, with the establishment of first flying
club in Bombay. The first pilot “A” licence was issued to JRD Tata on 10, February 1929.
Delhi flying club has the distinction of being the first domestic carrier by operating flights
between Karachi and Delhi in 1932.

On 29 July 1946, a new milestone was added to the Indian Aviation with the establishment
of Air India Limited with Headquarters in Bombay. Trans-World Airlines (TWA) was the
first International carrier to operate in India from Bombay on 5 January 1947.Bombay
witnessed the first Air India landing with a constellation aircraft on 16 March 1948.

On 25, May 1949, Bharath Airways based in Calcutta inaugurated its Calcutta –
Bangkok- Saigon- Hong Kong service with a DC-4 Aircraft. In the international sector, Air
India launched an all tourist class flight to Nairobi from 1 December 1952.

On 1August 1953, the Government of India, nationalised all the Aviation services.
International air services were to be provided by Air India International Ltd, and all the
domestic airlines including Air India, Air Services of India, Airways India, Bharath Airways,
Deccan Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Indian National Airways, and Kalinga Airways were
integrated into a single national domestic carrier- Indian Air Lines by way of Air Corporation
Act, 1953.
 With the liberalisation of national economy, Government of India de-regulated
scheduled air operations by the issue of AIC 24/1990, which formulated detailed guidelines
for air taxi operations and made them eligible to operate to all airports in the country
including airports which were hitherto open to scheduled operations. Many operators rushed
in as air taxi operators and in 1997, there were 21 air taxi operators including Jet Airways and
Sahara Airways. Their overall share was nearly 30 percent of the total traffic.

As it happened in the 1970s in the USA, the mushrooming of air taxi operators
witnessed in the early 1990s in India, almost vanished one by one, leaving only very few
private airlines operational. Out of the remaining, Jet Airways and Sahara could consolidate
their strength and sustain.

Following stiff competition, some of them further consolidated their positions by mergers
and acquisitions. Jet acquired Sahara (Jetlite); King Fisher acquired Deccan-low cost model,
and the national carriers- Air India and Indian Airlines merged as ‘Air India’. Changes thus
witnessed during the past few years, once again re-establishes the fact that healthy
competition and management are essential for the balanced growth of air transport, both in
quality and quantity.

1.5​Challenges of Aviation
Some of the immediate challenges for airports are;
1.​ Airport and airspace congestion,
2.​ Implementation of CNS/ATM system for a seamless air traffic flow,
3.​ Introduction of new large aircraft (NLA),
4.​ Growing airline alliances,
5.​ Changes in the airport ownership,
6.​ Increased security concerns,
7.​ Environmental pressures and
8.​ Changing faces of airport Leadership.

Evidently, the primary objective of the Civil Aviation community should be to increase
the availability of capacity rather than to have it to ration the demand. First group of measures
involve physically increasing capacity; the second involves making more efficient use of
existing capacity. For some airports, the environmental and physical constraints prevent
substantial expansion of the existing facilities or they are prohibitively expensive.

The global economic climate is causing increasing pressure to reduce or re-direct

government spending. Airports are therefore, faced with the problem of financing their
continuing capacity growth and ancillary services to accommodate demand. Civil aviation
sector being highly capital intensive, raising capital is rather daunting.

Traditionally, governments were cautious to take part in airport privatisation, but

successful privatisation case studies are now quickening the pace. There is no world model
for private ownership. What encourage the airport privatisation are the growing shopping
centres which act as stimulant for airport earning. Whatever form of privatisation technique is
used, the government role should be to encourage and increase the private sector
participation.

Airport investors are not familiar with various details of airport economics and dynamics
of it. Therefore, a regulatory framework must first be established to enforce and maintain the
close coordination between airport revenues and pricing.
 They should be able to review the airport management to maintain the delicate balance
between the commercial exploitation and the economic regulatory controls. It must also be
ensured that the airport operators comply with the Chicago Convention and other
International Treaties, Agreements, and Obligations.

Airports should be able to respond quickly to demands, sell its services, and promote
assets in an efficient and effective manner. In this process, the airport management will have
to ever lobbying for support and provide all users and stakeholders with a high level of
service. It will have to be responsive and pro-active and need to focus on research and
development to achieve the best results by following the best -suited methods and procedures.
The need of the hour is to maximise the return by improvised managerial techniques while
remaining safe and secured. Airport managers will be forced to shift away from operations
oriented management toward profit-oriented management techniques, yet maintain or increase
levels of safety and security. Airport managers will have to find new ways of manning their
airports to increase capacity while still making a profit for shareholders. They will have to
become competitive in developing an airport system that will bring in new carriers and cause
carriers already serving the airport to increase flights. The increase in passenger traffic, in
turn, will feed more money into highly profitable retail concession. When an airport is
privatised, the question is how to generate revenue. Key to this growing concern is to become
more competitive by inculcating greater efficiency, reduce costs, and improve safety and
security with new technology and management techniques.

1.6​ Airport organisation Structure.

The function and responsibilities of an airport will vary according to its size, type of
traffic and areas of responsibility. An analysis of the airport management structure across the
world confirms that majority of the structures are focused on one's appreciation of thrust areas
and there are wide-ranging variations. A typical airport organisation structure is as given
below:

Board/Policy Entity

A Typical Airport Organisation Structure

1.7​ Airport Organization- Models
An analysis of airport organisation structure across the globe indicates that the internal
organisation structure is primarily focused on one’s appreciation of thrust areas and the basic
management approach. Organisation models, therefore, are somewhat different in different
countries. What is however, noticeable is that the internal structure in certain cases is
influenced by airport's Mission, Strategic Objectives, Corporate Setting, and Self- Sufficiency
Objectives.

Self Sufficiency Objectives: Bureaucratic models are structured according to functions with
multi-layered structures with centralised authority (some models in the UK/USA). They are
mostly process oriented and conformity is valid. Whereas, commercial models (some of the
European/Canadian/Asia Pacific) are structured according to Profit Centres with a flatter
pyramid. They are more of result-oriented and individual autonomy is provided which calls
for a greater managerial expertise. In this model, creativity and entrepreneurship are
rewarded. Greater autonomy allows better financial self- sufficiency and an overall improved
self-sufficiency.

Aviation Business Models: (Airport Operation Models):

1. Introduction
Traditionally, many airports around the world are owned and operated by the local or national
government. During 1987, three major airports in London and four other Airports in UK first
time privatized under a private corporation – British Airport Authority Plc. Thereafter,
many countries have introduced private sector involvement with different degrees of private
ownership and management, from 100% private stake and operations of the whole airport to
subcontracting of management of part of the airport.

There are three types of commonly used airport business models in national and international
scenarios. They are (1) Government owned and operated model, (2) Public Private
Partnership model (PPP), and (3) Private airport model. Nevertheless, there is no onesingle
model that fits all situations in all countries. The choice of model depends very much on
thespecific circumstances of the airport.

(1).​ Government Owned and Operated Aviation Business

Model FEATURES:
•​ The airport is entirely owned and operated by the local or national government. Ex:
Asia-Pacific, Africa and Latin America.
•​ A government department directly operates the airport,
•​ The objective is of a public utility with public service obligations.
•​ Here, commercial, and financial management practices are not given top priority.
•​ The other reason for using this model in terms of considering the strategic
importance of the airport in national defense, as it may be appropriate for military
use.
•​ If anybody wants to buy the airports would have to borrow heavily.
•​ The required debt service payments would make it difficult for a private operator to
invest in airport maintenance and improvements.
•​ A private operator may not be able to manage the multitude of legal, community and
intra-governmental issues that arise in airport management.
Advantages &Benefits:
•​ To meet multiple objectives – not only commercial, but also political or social
objectives such as employment creation, safety, and security guarantee.
•​ Receives subsidies to pursue social objectives.
•​ Certain privileges like, exclusive right to provide certain services or even exemptions
from certain laws or regulations.
•​ Inherit the dominant position from their monopoly power in the area.
Constraints &Disadvantages:
•​ The objectives given to the managers are vaguely defined and tend to change as
the political situation and relative strengths of different interest groups change.
•​ The large mismatch between management’s incentives and the interest of the owner
(government) increases inefficiency.
•​ Never ending call for increasing amounts of investment which will produce the heavy
burden on taxpayers.
•​ Poorly customer service oriented.

Government Airports in India:

•​ Airport Authority of India Manages 137 airports.
•​ International Airports = 34
•​ Customs Airports = 10
•​ Domestic Airports = 81
•​ Civil Enclaves at Defense Airfields = 23.

(2).​ PPP (Public Private Partnership) Aviation Business

Model: FEATURES:
•​ A PPP is broadly defined as “a cooperative venture between the public and private
sectors, built on the expertise of each partner that best meets clearly defined public
needs through the appropriate allocation of resources, risks and rewards”.
•​ Unlike privatization that requires the transfer of ownership, a PPP entails the private
party taking substantial risk for financing a project's capital and operating costs, e.g.
designing, and building a facility, and managing its operations to specified standards,
normally over a significant long period of time.
•​ In a PPP, the land typically belongs to the public institution, not to the private party,
and the fixed assets developed in terms of the PPP are thus state property.
•​ Privatization entails the sale/disposal of state property and functions - including all the
assets and liabilities associated with that property and functions.
•​ The PPP subsumes all the objectives of the service being provided earlier by the
government and is not intended to compromise on them.

The key differences between public-private-partnership and ‘privatization’ may be:

•​ Responsibility: Under privatization the responsibility for delivery and funding a
service rests with the private sector. PPP, on the other hand, involves full retention of
responsibility by the government for providing the service.
•​ Ownership: While ownership rights under privatization are sold to the private sector
along with associated benefits and costs, PPP may continue to retain the legal
ownership of assets by the public sector.
•​ Nature of Service: While the nature and scope of services under privatization is
determined by the private provider, under PPP the nature and scope of service is
contractually determined between the two parties
 •​ Risk and Reward: Under privatization all the risks inherent in the business rest with
the private sector. Under PPP, risks and rewards are shared between the governments
(public) and the private sector.

Advantages &Benefits:
•​ Cost-effectiveness- since the developer/ service provider is competitively selected, the
operations are generally more cost effective than before.
•​ Higher Productivity- by linking payments to performance, productivity gains may be
expected within the program/project.
•​ Accelerated Delivery – since the contracts generally have incentive and penalty
clauses vis-a-vis implementation of capital projects/program, this leads to accelerated
delivery of projects.
•​ Clear Customer Focus - the shift in focus from service inputs to outputs create the
scope for
•​ Innovation in service delivery and enhance customer satisfaction.
•​ Recovery of User Charges- Innovative decisions can be taken with greater flexibility
because decentralization. Wherever possibilities of recovering user charges exist,
these can be imposed in harmony with local conditions.

Constraints & Disadvantages:

•​ PPP model prefers the economic aspects of the project to the social, environmental,
or other aspects.
•​ Considerably negative financial impacts in the case the partnership has to
be repudiated.
•​ Possible transfer of risks from the private sector to the public sector, e.g. risk of
bankruptcy.
•​ Insufficient experience of the partners, particularly of the public sector while
contracting out such projects, where we can notice an informational asymmetry
operating in favour of private companies, which naturally use their endeavour and
potential to negotiate better conditions for themselves.
•​ From the macro-economic point of view, because of the long-term character
of PPP projects, the mandatory expenses grow, and the hidden debt arises,
and the debt will exist for many years, and thus it can affect negatively the
fighting power of the future governments and burden significantly the
future generations.

PPP airports in India:

•​ The four major PPP airports in India are
•​ Delhi and Hyderabad (both operated by GMR-led consortia) and
•​ Mumbai and Bengaluru (both operated by GVK-led consortia).

GMR Group (Grandhi Mallikarjun Rao Group):

•​ Airports Presently operated by GMR are Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi.
•​ Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, Hyderabad.
•​ Mactan Cebu International Airport, Phillippines.
•​ GMR Goa International Airport Limited (GGIAL), a subsidiary of GMR
Group(GAL), is developing a Greenfield Airport at Mopa in North Goa. The project is
being developed through the PPP mode and is owned 100% by GMR Group
 •​ GMR Group is an infrastructural company headquartered in Bengaluru. The
company was founded in 1978 by Grandhi Mallikarjuna Rao. Employing the Public
Private Partnership model, the Group has implemented several infrastructure projects
in India.
•​ The Group also has a global presence with infrastructure operating assets and projects
in several countries including Nepal, Turkey, South Africa, Indonesia, Singapore, the
Maldives and the Philippines.

GVK Group (Gunupati Venkata Krishna Reddy Group):

•​ GVK is a leading Indian Company with diversified interests across various sectors
including energy, resources, airports, transportation, hospitality, and life sciences. It
has taken pioneering initiatives across many sectors that it operates in and has
overcome every challenge to provide reliable infrastructure to contribute to the
country’s growth.
•​ Having already invested over Rs. 20,000 crore (USD 4.3 billion) the company has
projects worth over another Rs. 30,000 crores (USD 6.6 billion) in the pipeline, in
India. GVK has pioneered various infrastructure projects viz. setting up India’s first
Independent Power Plant (IPP), first six-lane road project and first Brownfield airport
under the Public Private Partnership model.
•​ GVK has over 2400 MW projects under generation and development.
•​ GVK entered the aviation sector when it bagged the mandate to operate, manage and
develop GVK Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport (GVK CSIA) in Mumbai.
•​ With a vision to transform GVK CSIA into one of the world's best airports, Mumbai
International Airport Limited (MIAL) has developed a new integrated Terminal 2 at
GVK CSIA. The new iconic Terminal 2, equipped with world class technologies and
infrastructure, would now have enhanced capacity to handle passenger traffic of 40
million passengers per annum (mppa), up from the existing 30.03 mppa.
•​ GVK has also been invited by the Indonesian Government to develop two
new airports in Bali and Yogyakarta.
•​ GVK has already completed the feasibility analysis for both the airports and is ready
with the master plan for construction of Yogyakarta airport in the island of Java.

Constraints &Disadvantages:
•​ Privatization also involves risks which are considered as disadvantages and these
mainly arise from air-side services.
•​ Because many citizens in general see the airport as part of a city’s or region’s essential
infrastructure and because airports are often regarded as important catalysts for local
economic growth, the public at large believe that the government should play an
active role in developing and supervising airports.
•​ Moreover, because airside services are natural monopolies, the public often feel more
comfortable and protected by keeping the government involved in airport regulation
and supervision.
•​ In addition, many feels that the governments have to be involved in ensuring safety
and quality of service standards because of the inherent nature of air travel. Not only
the public, but also airlines themselves are generally concerned about privatization.
•​ They expect that without government involvement, privatization would bring higher
landing fees and user charges, which would eventually translate into higher ticket
prices for their customers.

(4) Partial/Full Privatization Model:

The privatization of airports worldwide has become a fundamental feature of the aviation industry
since 1987. However, the concept of privatization is quite complicated in practice.

PAVITHRA KUMARI​ INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION MAN

FEATURES:
•​ A simplistic view of privatization is that it involves only the transfer of ownership
whereas in reality it also involves the transfer of control from the government to the
private and commercial.
•​ Privatization can thus occur through the transfer of not only ownership but also
management control from government to private groups.

Advantages & Benefits:

•​ There were many reasons to privatize airports. These included increased ability for the
airport to raise additional capital and seek new revenue sources from private markets,
to improve efficiency, reduce costs, become more customer service oriented and
increase competition among airlines to provide choice and cost reduction for
passengers.
•​ The government could enjoy revenues from the sale of its assets and could also collect
taxes from the new private entity. The landside services, in particular, are those
normally offered by private firms away from airports and their operations can easily
be moved out from under government control.

Constraints &Disadvantages:
•​ Privatization also involves risks which are considered as disadvantages and these
mainly arise from airside services.
•​ Because many citizens in general see the airport as part of a city’s or region’s essential
infrastructure and because airports are often regarded as important catalysts for local
economic growth, the public at large believe that the government should play an
active role in developing and supervising airports.
•​ Moreover, because airside services are natural monopolies, the public often feel more
comfortable and protected by keeping the government involved in airport regulation
and supervision.
•​ In addition, many feels that the governments have to be involved in ensuring safety
and quality of service standards because of the inherent nature of air travel. Not only
the public, but also airlines themselves are generally concerned about privatization.
•​ They expect that without government involvement, privatization would bring higher
landing fees and user charges, which would eventually translate into higher ticket
prices for their customers.

1.8​ Indian Airports:

(1)​List of busiest airports in India

India's busiest airports are the list of top fifty busiest airports of over hundred commercially
operational airports in the country. Data also includes statistics for total aircraft movements
and total cargo movements. The tables below contain annual data published by the Airports
Authority of India on the busiest airports in India by total passenger traffic, aircraft
movements and cargo handled.
The lists are presented in chronological order starting from the latest ended fiscal year. The
number of total passengers for an airport is measured in persons and includes any passenger
that arrives at, departs from or is on a transit from that airport.
The number of total aircraft movements is measured in airplane-times and includes all the
take offs and landings of all kinds of aircraft in scheduled or charter conditions. The total
cargo handled is expressedin metric tonnes and includes all the freight and mail that arrives at
or departs from the airport.
(2)​Airports in Karnataka:
This is a list of airports in Karnataka state in India.
Sl. Location ICAO IATA Airport Name Type
No.
International Airports
1 Bangalore VOBL BLR Kempegowda​ International
International Airport
2 Mangalore VOML IXE Mangalore​ International
International Airport
Domestic / Regional Airports
1 Byndoor BYN Byndoor Airport Future ( 2018 )
2 Belgaum VABM IXG Belgaum​ Airport / Domestic
Sambra Air Force Station
3 Bellary VOBI BEP Bellary Airport Closed
4 Bellary New Bellary Airport Future
5 Bidar VOBR Bidar​ Airport / Bidar​ Future
Air Force Station
6 Bijapur Bijapur Airport Future
7 Chikkamagaluru Chikkamagaluru Airport Future
8 Gulbarga Gulbarga Airport Future
9 Hassan Hassan Airport, Karnataka Future
10 Hubli-Dharwad VAHB HBX Hubli​ Airport / Hubli​ Domestic
Air Force Base
11 Karwar Karwar Airport Future
Internationa
l
12 Mysore VOMY MYQ Mysore Airport Domestic
13 Shimoga Shimoga Airport Future
14 Toranagallu VOJV VDY Jindal Vijaynagar Airport Domestic
Military airbase / Flying school Airports
15 Bangalore VOBG HAL Airport Air Base
16 Bangalore VOJK Jakkur Airfield Flying school
Small Airports
18 Ammasandra Ammasandra Airport Private
19 Bagalkot Bagalkot Airport Future
20 Chitradurga Chitradurga Airport Future
21 Davangere Davangere Airport Future
22 Gadag Gadag Airport Future
17 Bangalore VOYK Yelahanka Air Force Station Air Base
23 Gokarna Gokarna Airport Future
24 Harihar VO52 Harihar Airport Private
25 Haveri Haveri Airport Future
26 Kollegal Kollegal Airport Future
27 Koppal VOKP Koppal Airport Private
28 Kushalnagar Kushalnagar Airport Future
29 Raichur VORR Raichur Airport Public
30 Sedam Sedam Airport Private
31 Shahabad Shahabad Airport Private
The government of India under the regional connectivity scheme (RCS) of the national civil
aviation policy of 2016 has identified 19 airports in the state. The locations
proposed for the RCS scheme is Chikkamagaluru, Kushalnagar, Karwar, Harihar,
Ammasandra, Koppal, Bengaluru, Ballari, Bidar, Ginigera (Hospet), Hassan, Jakkur, Kolar,
Mysuru (Mandakalli), Raichur, Shahbad, Vidyanagar, Yadgir, and Yelahanka. To develop
these airports, the state government on Wednesday signed a memorandum of understanding
(MoU) with the civil aviation ministry of government of India. As part of its MoU, the state
government will be offering concessions to airlines for flying these sectors including Reduced
Sales Tax (ST) to 1% or less on ATF at RCS Airports and for RCS flights from other airports
located within the State for a period of 10 years.

(3)​Airports in Kerala:
Kerala state is having 3 operational International airports. The state will get another
international airport in the year 2017 to become the only Indian state having 4 international
airports.
In 2016, the Government of Kerala sought sanction for its fifth international airport but not
yet confirmed the exact location. The first airport was started in Quilon during the 1920s but
ceased operation when an accident involving a training aircraft at the boundary of the
aerodrome, resulted in the death of the pilot and the trainee.

City served ICAO IATA Airport name Ownership Status

International
Thiruvananthapuram VOTV TRV Trivandrum AAI Operational
Internationa
l Airport
Kochi VOCI COK Cochin PPP Operational
Internationa
l Airport
City served ICAO IATA Airport name Ownership Status
Kozhikode VOCL CCJ Calicut AAI Operational
Internationa
l Airport
Kannur VOKN CNN Kannur PPP Upcoming
Internationa
l Airport
 Domestic
Kollam -- -- Kollam Airport Travancore Closed
Kingdom
Military Airbases
Kochi -- Kochi Naval Base Indian Navy Operational

1.9​ Changing Faces of Airport

a)​ Privatisation of Airlines: Privatisation of State-owned airline has been one of the
prominent transformations in international air transport, where airlines in all but a handful of
States had been government owned until recent times. The motives for privatisation have
been highly discussed, ranging from few purely economic considerations to improving
operating efficiency and competitiveness, to a more pragmatic desire to reduce the heavy
financial burden for governments for financing capital investment in new equipment. Since
1985, about 140 governments of Karnataka announced privatisation plans or expressed their
intention of privatisation for approximately 180 State- owned airlines.

b)​ Low-Cost Airlines: Another recent development in the airline sector is the
introduction of ‘Low - cost business model’. Low-cost carrier also known as no-frills or
discount carrier is an airline that offers low fares but eliminates most traditional passenger
services. The common features of this business model are, a single type of aircraft reducing
training and servicing costs, point to point network focusing on short haul routes, high
frequencies, simple low -fare structures, high density single class with no seat assignment,
simple in-flight services, staffing flexib ility and minimal overheads, and intense use of
electronic commerce for marketing and distribution. They also use less-congested cheaper
secondary airports to ensure short turn rounds and high on-time performance.

The low-cost formula is likely to spread to other regions and increasingly to international
services where market conditions and regulatory arrangements permit. The low- cost model
as ‘airline -within an airline’ strategy by major airlines tries to combine the ingredients of
low- costcarriers’ approach with the reputation and quality of their own brand. While only
purely 'low-cost' airlines will survive as major players, this model can also compete with
railways by way of inter-model transportation offerings (Rail &Fly) offering affordable prices
for long distance rail tickets. The low-cost model provides immense opportunities for regional
airports and medium sized airports including military bases for growth. The user profile being
that of flexible holiday and private travellers and price- conscious business passengers
preferring low
-cost airlines for short routes, while the big network carriers focusing on inter-continental
inter-regional business passengers, the stage is set for the growth of low-cost airlines and in
turn cheaper secondary airports.

Airline forecast points to almost a 2.7-fold increase in passenger traffic, and of doubling
of aircraft movements by the year 2020. These forecasts are predicted on the assumption that
sufficient system infrastructure and capacity will be available to handle the demand. It is
relatively easier for the airline to meet the growing passenger flows by moving to higher
capacity aircraft whereas airport sector is a different ball game.
 C)​ Capacity Constraints: Capacity constraint is one of the bottlenecks in air
transport growth. At their meeting on 28 January 2000, Ministers of Transport from 38
European States estimated that cumulatively flights experienced over 27 million minutes
delay in Europe alone due to airport and air space congestion. Traffic patterns based on the
underlying demand for air services and air carrier practices influence the use of available
capacity. Airport slot is different from the air traffic control (ATC) slot, which is the take-off
or landing time of an aircraft which is assigned by the relevant air traffic control unit to make
optimum use of available capacity at point’s en-route or at the destination airport. With the
assignment of airport slot, airlines build their schedule considering time to taxi out and the
customary en- route duration, on the assumption that an ATC slot will be available. This
factor therefore underlines the importance of close coordination between the airport slots and
ATC slots. Generally, the airport capacity is never fully utilized throughout the day. It
undergoes peak and lull periods. There are seasonal peaks as well.

When we talk of airport capacity, it is a combination of runway and terminal capacity.

The regulatory authorities determine the runway capacity, usually in terms of the number of
movements (landing or take-off which can safely be performed per hour) considering such
factors as the physical characteristics of the runway and the surrounding area, types of aircraft
involved and air traffic control capabilities. Whereas, terminal capacity is the number of
passengers and cargo which the airport can accommodate in each period sometimes referred
to as passenger or cargo throughput. Type of passengers or passenger mix can influence the
rate of passenger throughput. Aircraft size is another factor that can affect terminal capacity.
Airport capacity can also be adversely affected by external factors such as environmental
restrictions and air traffic control capabilities.

When the air carrier demand at an airport exceeds the availability of slots, the airport can
then be considered capacity constrained. To a great extent capacity constraint are eased out
through International Air Transport Association (IATA), schedule coordination conferences,
in which well over 260 airlines participate and schedules are adjusted through bilateral
discussions. Capacity is essentially controlled through regulatory framework within which
slot allocation mechanisms are employed at global, regional and at national levels.

The ability of an airline to exercise the market access/ traffic rights granted under
relevant air services agreement is closely linked to the availability of slots (designated times
for an aircraft to take off or land) at the specified airports for which the traffic right was
granted. Shortage of airport slots by and large is an important physical constraint on market
access. Some of the airports resort to auctioning of slots or price the slots to control the
demands.

One may ask, why not expand the airport, and build new runways? Here again, there
are considerable constraints to the development of new airports or even the expansion of
existing facilities. Environmental and physical constraints are formidable. Experience in the
UK, Japan and Germany where there was local resistance to the construction of a second
runway or new airport explains the point. Japan was forced to build an offshore airport
(Kansai) in a man made island in Osaka Bay.

Hong Kong and Macau have both built new airports on reclaimed land in them in-
shore waters, and Incheon airport in the Republic of South Korea was built partly on
reclaimed land between two islands. Even in the USA, Denver is the only green field airport
that has been constructed in the recent past.
 Liberal air services agreements with multiple designation and gradual removal of
capacity restriction have enabled increases in the number of air carries and air services,
thereby putting additional pressure on existing airport capacity and it would continue to
challenge the airports.

D)​ Consumer Interests: Growing dissatisfaction with the conduct of airlines' staff
and similar concern on quality of service such as facilitation at the airports are matters of
increasing passenger concern. In USA and Europe, certain measures are in place aimed at
reinforcing the rights of air passengers, proposing new voluntary commitments and
enforcement legislation. As for voluntary commitments, airlines, and airports in the member
States of the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) developed two codes. The Airline
Passenger Services Commitment and the Airport Voluntary Commitment on Air Passenger
Services. These two codes became effective in February 2002. Governments in other regions
have also been considering some legal measures. IATA also adopted a global customer
services framework in June 2000 intended as a guide for member airlines in developing their
own voluntary commitments. The point to remember is that consumer interest issues are
gaining momentum and they need to be carefully examined to make sure that the service
quality has adequately been dealt with by the current commercial practices by airlines and
airports. There will be a need for the States to strike the right balance between voluntary
commitments and airport infrastructure.

E)​ Change of Airport Ownership: Majority of airports world over were constructed
pre- post World War II and in any case prior to mid-1960s. Airport ownership then was
reviewed as strategically important and as such most of them came under government
ownership. A further shift in ownership began in early 1970s when many countries created
airport corporations under public ownership, and it provided access to private/external capital
market. A second shift occurred in the mid-1980s and many countries began to turn the private
sector for direct financing of airport investment and to further improve the managerial
efficiency. Many publicly owned and operated airports are generally not rated well equipped
due to limited government funding. Hong Kong and Singapore airports are exceptions to the
rule. In the 1990s many of the public airports became privatised.

The privatisation model included outright sale of assets through stock market, long-term
leases, joint ventures/ equity floatation etc. Private sector participation in Asia has revolved
primarily around green field projects. In the current economic climate, there is an increasing
pressure to reduce or re-direct government spending and that makes it increasingly difficult
for public involvement in airport infrastructure. Therefore, there is an increasing trend in the
airport ownership by way of leasing and private participation, Airports have been moving
away from the government ownership to commercial and private ownership.

British Airports Authority (BAA) was among the first to privatize in 1987 and it remains
a paradigm for airport management. Aer Rainta and Schiphol are examples of airport
companies which although State owned, operate as commercial enterprises. New airports in
Asia including India is based on a concept of Public-Private Partnership (PPP), instituted
through a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV). All the Greenfield airports in India are based on
this model.

PAVITHRA KUMARI​ INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION MANAGEMENT

 F)​ Change Management- Challenges: The first task for the airport management,
therefore, is to cope with the transformation from being largely state owned/ supported
entities to increasingly commercial and competitive entities with private participation.
Airports are therefore challenged to re-organise themselves and cope with the organisational
stress in the wake of ownership changes. Additionally, airports will have to face the
conflicting demands from airlines for increased capacity due to the changes in their own
business models and high service expectations of customers and stakeholders, at the same
time there is a mounting pressure from environmentalists seeking to ensure that progress will
not be made at the expense of environment.

Regional and local planning authorities expect increased social and economic activity in
the form of employment and new business opportunities. From the technological point of
view, airports are beginning to face the waves of advanced Information Communication
Technology (ICT) and it certainly calls for a comprehensive airport management system.

There is yet another area that is likely to involve airport operations and that is the on-
going efforts to form air traffic alliances. Euro Control is talking about such an alliance the re-
organisation of air space focused on efficiency and cost effectiveness from Iceland to Turkey.
As the ICAO initiated CNS/ATM gets its way, several such advanced measures including
reorganisation of airspace would have to be introduced despite the likely political
uncertainties. Nevertheless, airports must be on board in all such new ventures. To achieve
the financial viability, airports have also been diversifying their business- direct operation in
ground handling, management Involvement and other airports (BAA, Schiphol, Frankfurt
etc.), providing training or consulting services (Montreal, Airports deParis, Singapore Etc.),
airline partnerships and diversification into non-aviation activities (real estate, production of
aviation related items such as firefighting equipment etc.) Faced with the emerging changes,
airports in most parts of the world have been forced to re-examine their operational capability
and managerial style. A new buzz word " World Class" has emerged and quite a few
airports/Departments of Civil Aviation’s/Civil Aviation Authorities have also duly filed their
flight plan to destination ‘World Class’ and are now obsessed with 'VISION', 'MISSION',
'VALUES' and 'STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES' to reach their destination.

Interestingly, most of the VISION /MISSION statement reads “to be a world class
airport”, “to be a world leader “, “to be a world class airport in the region”, and so on. They
all want to be world class players. Apparently, both the management and staff are being
sensitised to go through the strategic management path, a clear shift towards commercial
management philosophy.

A scrutiny of many such ‘airports’ and ‘authorities’ however shows that they are still in
the parking bay waiting to taxi out. Some of them have managed to taxi out but are at the
holding point for a long time not able to take off and those who have managed to take off
have not been able to gain height, apparently, due to lack of power to climb to higher heights.

1.10​ Aviation as Service Industry

Aviation services directly support economic development and the Territory as a leading
tourism destination, while underpinning our social connectivity and cohesion.

Service industry is witnessing a major boom in India. Services like banking, car
financing, consumer durable credit, cellular, paging, express, hospitality, travel and tourism,
airlines, and, educational services on are today realizing the importance of marketing.
 Along with these big service businesses, many small businesses ranging from beauty salons,
pubs, gyms, play schools and so on are realizing the importance of marketing.

Unique characteristics of services

What is a service? And why should services receive special treatment from marketers?
A popular definition​ ​ describes​ services​ as "Any act or performance
that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the
ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to physical product." Although,
the distinction between goods and services is somewhat artificial, since the success of goods
manufacturers is vitally dependent on the service they provide, there are four commonly cited
characteristics​ of​ ​ services​ ​ that​ ​ make​ them
different to market from goods: Intangibility, Inseparability, Variability and Perish-ability.

➢​ Intangibility:
Pure services such as baby-sitting cannot be seen or touched. They are ephemeral
performances that can be experienced only as they are delivered. As the above definition of
service suggests, intangibility may represent the most critical difference between services and
goods,​ and​ its​ implications​ for​ marketing​ are​ great.
Intangible services are difficult to sell because they cannot be produced and displayed ahead
of time. They are therefore harder to communicate to prospective customers. A passenger
cannot feel the service that he would encounter in the airplane, however person may talk to
other travellers who have experienced the same service, but their experience does not
necessarily be the same.

These tangible cues range from the firm's physical facilities to the appearance and
demeanor of its staff to the letterhead on its stationery to its logo. Life insurance companies
are particularly savvy about this problem. Their service is, after all, the most intangible
service: by definition, the buyer will never know the ultimate result of what he or she has
bought! To compensate for this intangibility the major companies over the world have
developed strong visual symbols for their firms.
•​Prudential – The rock of Gibraltar
•​All state -Protective hands
•​Traveller -A red umbrella
•​Nationwide -A blanket
•​Wausau -A train station
➢​ Inseparability:
Different service marketing marketers interpret this characteristic-differently, but all
interpretations point out those special operations problems exist for the firm's managers.
One interpretation of this term is the inseparability of customers from the service delivery
process. Many services require the participation of the customer in the production
process. A child getting a haircut must sit still; otherwise, the family photo may have to
be delayed for a month. The person who comes to a Chartered Accountant (C. A.) at the
last minute with boxes of disorganized records may cause the C. A. to overlook some
possible deductions.

Depending upon the skill, attitude, and cooperation and so on that customers bring to the
service encounter, the results can be good or bad, but in any event, are hard to standardize.
A second interpretation of inseparability refers to the fact that in some service industries
the service delivered is inextricably tied to individual service providers.
 Customers may have ground for complaint if their service is not provided by, for
example, the surgeon or lawyer they thought they were paying for.

➢​ Variability:
The fact that service quality is difficult to control compounds the marketer's​
task. Intangibility alone would not be such a problem in customers could be sure that the
services they were to receive would be just like the successful experiences their
neighbour were so pleased with.

But in fact, customers know that services can vary greatly different front-line personnel
have different abilities. Even the same service provider has good days and bad days or
may be less focused at different times of day. Services are performances, often involving
the cooperation and skill of several individuals, and are therefore unlikely to be same
every time. This potential variability of service quality raises the risk faced by the
consumer.

➢​ Perish-ability:
The fourth characteristic distinguishing services from goods is their time dependence.
Services cannot be inventoried, since they are performed in real time. And time periods
during which​ service​ delivery capacity sits idle represent
revenue-earning potential that is lost forever. Periods of peak demand cannot be prepared
for in advance by producing and storing services, nor can they be made up for after the
fact. A service opportunity occurs at a point in time, and when it is gone, it is gone
forever. This can present great difficulty in facilities planning.

A survey of service firms​ found that the greatest operational

challenges facing them were posed by the Perish-ability of their​ products.
Matching service capacity to demand patterns can involve managing one or both
elements. Perish-ability often puts greater burden on service marketers to manage
demand than it does on goods-marketers, who can build up inventories to meet peak
demand or can reduce prices later to move the unsold inventory. The cited survey found
that the firm's principal method for controlling demand was to increase personnel selling
duringpotentially slow periods.

Surprisingly,few firms claimed to use the standard economic solution of price-changes to

increase/decrease demand, although some service-industries, such as resort hotels with
seasonal demand, do this routinely.

Few service providers had opinion that they developed alternative,counter-seasonal

service products to use slack capacity, although that has long been a common practice by
goods marketers. Many service providers also control demand by requiring appointments.
The alternative to controlling demand is to make service capacity flexible. Some service
firms keep on call front line personnel who can arrive on short notice to meet the
surges in demand, or cross train support personnel to assist with customer service during
busy periods.

What are the different services provided by Aviation Industry?

The Aviation Industry plays a vital role in constantly empowering the global economy.
This is the only industry that has had an unbelievable impact on economic and social welfare
globally and it keeps thriving. It constitutes 3.4% of the global GDP.
 It is also the only industry that always has a high cash flow year-round especially
during the holiday seasons. With a steadfast growth in passenger traffic, it employs over
25,332 commercial flights around the world. With the increasing number of flights, the cost
of tickets has come down to 60% over the recent years. It is estimated by the ICAO that by
2030 about 50 million flights will be engaged globally to support the increasing passenger
traffic. Global statistics indicate Asia-Pacific to rank the top in terms of passenger traffic,
followed by North America and Europe in the second and third places respectively. Latin
America and the Caribbean ranks in the fourth place, followed by the Middle East and Africa
in the fifth and sixth places in terms of increasing passenger traffic. The services offered by
Aviation Industry can be mainly classified as Civil Aviation, General Aviation and Military
Aviation.

Civil Aviation: It includes all scheduled flights, both private and commercial except military.
The flight timings and itineraries are scheduled in advance and followed accordingly.

General Aviation: It includes all non-scheduled flights, both private and commercial. The
flight itineraries are scheduled as required and are subject to change. The tickets are also
comparatively cheap. Charter flights, pilot training, air patrolling, parachuting, gliding and air
ambulance, all come under this category.

Military Aviation: All aircraft's used for military purposes come under this category. They
are mainly used in military warfare to carry arms and ammunition promptly. They are also
used as surveillance aircraft. Bombers are involved to strike fixed targets. They are used to
carry missiles. Patrol aircraft, drones and unmanned airplanes are used for surveillance
purpose.
They are used for transportation of military supplies to different bases as well. Air
ambulances are also used when injured soldiers are transported to medical facilities. Certain
aircraft are also involved in carrying medical supplies to war bases. They are also operated
for rescue operations and to distribute necessities for livelihood in refugee camps and places
hit by war, famine, and flood.

The Airlines around the world are classified into 4 types based on their service
coverage as Intercontinental, Intra-continental, Domestic and Regional Flights.
1.​Intercontinental Flights: They fly between two different continents.
2.​ Intra-continental Flights: They fly between different countries located in the
same continent.
3.​Domestic Flights: They fly between various destinations within a same country.
4.​Regional Flights: They fly between two locations within a state of a country.
Airline Industry has innovative and tempting services for passengers who wouldn’t
compromise comfort and luxury for anything. It offers a delightful flying experience to the
higher end passengers for tickets that almost worth a fortune.
Some of the luxury services include personal chauffeur driven limo to the airport,
drive-through check-in, personal security channel, club house, hair salon treatments, gourmet
meals, Wi-Fi, Priority boarding, complimentary welcome drinks, complimentary amenities
like earplugs, toothbrush, tissues, cold towels, eye mask, socks, and pens, fine dine and wine,
on-board bar, afternoon tea, movies and entertainment, sleep suit, fully flatbed to relax and
doze off. Apart from these services, air transport industry supports direct, indirect and
induced employment. It supports an astounding 58.1 million jobs worldwide.

PAVITHRA KUMARI​ INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION MANAGEMENT

Direct Employment: The Aviation Industry supports about 8.7 million direct jobs. Several
sectors such as the airport operators including pilots and cabin crew, airport retail stores,
ground control authorities, aviation weather services, customer service, maintenance
personnel and aircraft engineers are benefited by the direct jobs offered by the airlines. The
airline ancillary revenue has also perked up considerably up to $49.9 billion worldwide.

Indirect Employment: About 9.8 million indirect jobs are supported by the air transport
industry. Several departments connected with the airlines like construction contractors, fuel
suppliers, aircraft hardware and spare parts suppliers, call centre and grocery suppliers for
catering needs are benefited with employment opportunities.

Induced Employment: Several sectors enjoy huge profits in their business when employees
of airline industry invest their earnings in them. Whenever they make a purchase, these firms
are reaping benefits in turn.

Influence on Tourism: It is one of the most benefited industries by aviation. Nearly 35

million jobs in the tourism industry are supported by aviation. Currently around 52% of the
tourists around the world use air travel. Tourism drives the overall global economy. Most
countries of the world rely upon tourism for their economic growth, which in turn is
influenced by the Aviation Sector. Tourism supports over 14.6 million jobs directly that
includes hotels, restaurants, sightseeing companies, and car rentals. Over 13.4 million jobs
supplying miscellaneous materials are indirectly employed by tourism, the rest being induced
employment. These benefits are possible for the tourism sector, which is driven mainly by the
air transport division.

Freight Transport: Aviation Industry supports the freight transport of the world.
Approximately 49.8 million tonnes of freight are handled by air transport, which constitutes
around 35% of the world trade worth around $6.4 trillion. Apart from all types of materials,
live animals are also transported in cargo and commercial flights as well, provided a complete
set of strict rules and regulations are adhered to ensure the welfare and safety of each animal.
They are booked in as guest baggage, excess or accompanied baggage.

Fuel Industry: Fuel Industry is also benefited where approximately $211 billion is paid by
airlines around the world for fuel. With the introduction of biofuels, most flights operate
partially on those fuels to facilitate reduction of carbon-dioxide emission.

Business Aviation: Major part of business aviation is under governments for transporting
government officials and political leaders. It offers efficient and cost-effective travel with
comfort and security. With a wide range of services and growth opportunities, Aviation
Industry strengthens the bonds between nations by contributing to the increase of
employment, trade, and tourism beyond comparison with any other sectors. International trade
and globalization of markets has a promising future with the air travel industry by the side to
support. With vast connectivity, it has influenced businesses to take new heights, covering
almost all the areas of the world. Expansion of trade has led to the overall hike in the economy
of countries globally, there by strengthening business ties among nations.

Industry soon: Information is wealth: Based on several surveys, it is found that passengers
expect to be well informed about their boarding flights in the form of SMS. To facilitate this,
a new feature of SMS boarding pass and a reader is introduced. This allows the passenger
phone to have automated entry by scanning a unique text code sent through SMS. Any other
information regarding flight timings can also be updated to the passenger’s mobile by
incorporating this technology.

PAVITHRA KUMARI​ INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION MANAGEMENT

The passenger’s mobile phone is scanned, and the NFC signal is read to allow entry at security
counters and boarding gates. Motion sensors also recognize when one or more passenger
moves through the gate in a single booking. Self-help is the best help: Airline Industry
concentrates to provide a completely self-serviced flying experience to its passengers. Right
from car rentals to boarding the plane, everything can be accessed by the passengers
themselves. Self-use kiosks are used for checking in.

Biometric Immigration systems will allow passengers at departure terminals by scanning their
e-passports. Biometric boarding gate for boarding and boarding kiosks providing information
to passengers and pathfinder tools to guide passengers will be used soon. Another 3D path
finding tool has evolved, which enables to view all the airport terminals right from the
passenger’s home computer or in the mobile. They can view and select their starting point,
their favourite cafe and car rental by using this innovative application. Another navigation
app lets travellers take pictures on their iPhone, of their favourite spots like hotels and other
retail outlets. This app will give directions and lead them to those spots.

End-to-End Passenger service: IATA has proposed an end-to-end service in airports,

providing a one-stop travel, where the luggage passes scanning at the security check at a
single point and thereafter the boarding is gate less with an SMS to keep passengers informed
about the boarding time. Instant is easy: Airports are subjected to install an instant feedback
system that enables passengers to give their valuable feedback regarding the airline services.
This is a touch screen where the rating is done by choosing from a set of ‘Smilies’ that
represent excellent, good, fair, poor and very poor ratings. Passengers can instantly touch
anyone, thereby registering their view.

The airport authority will be able to track down the inconvenience and rectify it at the earliest.
RFID bag tag and scanner: This is an innovative design established for easy baggage check-in
and identification. An RFID tag is attached to the luggage of the passenger and a self-bag
drop will store the size, colour and weight of the bag along with a photo. If a passenger has
not arrived or if the luggage is missing, it can be easily tracked and handed over to the
passenger. All Inclusive mobile apps: A smart mobile app enables passengers to have all their
needs covered. It allows them to check flight timings and make reservations, guiding through
the airport processing, including check in, luggage tracking, currency exchange and car
rentals, booking rooms and also details about the destination.

Scope: The Aviation Industry scopes to serve about 6.63 billion passengers and offer about
103.1 million jobs, including direct, indirect, and induced employment opportunities in the
next two decades.
The industry also strives to provide sustainable flying by using bio fuels to reduce CO2
emissions. Efficient air transport is also set to increase about 1.5% each year up to 2020.
The fuel economy is also expected to improve by improved air traffic control and
optimization of flights to fly for extended times at slower speeds.

PAVITHRA KUMARI​ INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION MANAGEMENT

1.11​ Environmental Impact of Aviation Industry
a)​ Environment and its Management:
Even the most delicate forms of flight by a butterfly make an impact on the environment.
Environmental issue generally in civil aviation is to ensure maximum compatibility between
safe and orderly development of civil aviation and the prevention and enhancement of a
wholesome human environment. The main environmental problems associated with civil
aviation are aircraft noise and aircraft engine emission as well as various problems of local
nature that may arise at airports.

Global warming may be the biggest threat to the environment and some scientists
believe it could result in average temperature rising by one-degree Celsius by 2025, a rate of
change exceeding anything seen in the past ten thousand years. Culprit emissions include
carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. “Green House Gas” and “Green House Effect” are
commonly used terms while discussing the environment. “Green House Effect” is a process
by which significant changes in the chemistry of earth's atmosphere that enhance the natural
process that worms up our planet and elevates temperature. The increased temperature can
threaten with extinction some of the plants and animal species. ‘Green House Gases’ are
transparent to certain wave lengths of the Sun's radiant energy, allowing them to penetrate
deep into the atmosphere or all the way into the Earth's surface. Alteration of the natural
barrier of atmospheric gases can rise or lower the mean global temperature of the Earth.
Greenhouse gases include Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrogen Oxide, ChlorFluoro Carbons
(CFC) and Water Vapour, and Nitrogen Oxide is produced because of burning petroleum at
high temperature

This aviation pollutant is next to largest by weight to Carbon dioxide (Co2). It may
contribute to ground level smog and acid rain (acid form when certain atmospheric gases
primarily Co2, Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) come in contact with water in
atmosphere or on the ground and are chemically converted to acidic substances). NOx is
produced because of burning petroleum at high temperature NOx emissions from aircraft may
have increased ozone concentrations at cruise altitudes by 6 percent and that is projected to
grow to about 13 percent by 2050.1 Aviation industries' track record on environmental
improvement is actually better than many others who contribute much larger portions of
atmospheric pollution. ICAO has focused its attention on environmental issues much earlier
than 1997 Kyoto Protocol on Environment. It has been very proactive on ground level
emissions and noise. ICAO first became involved in environmental issue in the late 1960s
when aircraft noise around airports became a major issue. A noise committee was formed,
later joined by an emissions committee, which then fused to become the Committee on
Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP).

ICAO has a separate Annex (Annex 16) on this very aspect of environmental protection.
Noise reduction levels of 10 decibels to 15 decibels (db) make modern aircraft much quieter
than earlier models. ICAO Annex 16 volume I set forth noise certification standards to
produce new as well as existing types of subsonic aeroplane and helicopters, and certification
standards (guidelines) for supersonic planes. The initial standards for Jets (designed before
1977) were included in Chapter 2 of Annex 16. Subsequently, stricter standards are contained
in Chapter 3 and now in Chapter 4 of the Annex. There are three main themes to CAEP work
in the noise field, namely reduction at source, use of noise abatement operating measures, and
land - use planning.
In considering proposals by some States to restrict operations of aeroplanes that exceed
chapter 3 noise levels, the ICAO Assembly in1999 succeeded in developing a compromise
solution. States with noise - sensitive airport could impose restrictions on operations of
noisier aircraft if they so wished, but only under certain conditions. The restrictions could
only be introduced gradually, and problems faced by operators from developing countries had
to be considered. The resolution also included a provision urging States not to impose any
restrictions on chapter 3 aircraft. The adoption of the resolution, by consensus was the
culmination of four years of analysis and efforts by the ICAO. The outcome was a substantial
achievement considering the wide differences around the world in environmental pressures
and in the economic circumstances of air carriers. An important recent development is that
European Union (EU) is seeking to prevent an increase in operations of aircraft which have
been re certificated to chapter 3 standards through 'hush-kitting'. USA has filed an objection
note in ICAO against the European move. While the European restriction may pertain to
European airports, it nevertheless could impact on carriers based elsewhere.

Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) gave a special report focusing on

aviation and the global atmosphere. It was prepared in response to a request by ICAO. The
special report titled “Aviation and the Global Atmosphere” (believed to be the most
comprehensive assessment to date on the effects of aviation on the global atmosphere). The
report assesses the effects of the past, present and potential future fleets of subsonic and
supersonic aircraft on climate and atmospheric ozone; consistent with the IPCC practice, the
report does not make policy recommendations or suggest policy preferences. Chairman of the
Committee, Robert Watson stated, “special report provides accurate and unbiased information
for use by the aviation industry, research community and policy makers”. The report noted
that the global passenger air travel is projected to grow about 5 percent per year between 1990
and 2015, whereas the total aviation fuel use is projected to increase by about 3 percent per
year; the difference being due largely to improved aircraft efficiency. The range of
assumptions for economic and traffic growth as well as fuel burn were dependent upon rates
of change in technology and air traffic management. As regards, aircraft emissions, the report
noted that the climate impacts of the gases and particles emitted and formed as a result of
aviation can be compared by using the concept of radiative forcing. This is expressed as
change to the' energy balance of the earth - atmosphere system in watts per square metre
(Wm2). Positive values of radiative forcing imply a net warming, while negative value
implies cooling. The cirrus clouds (above 20,000 feet) formed because of condensation trails
are projected to be contributing positive value and is estimated to be significant though the
current scientific understanding precludes a quantitative assessment of its contribution. The
best estimate of the radiative forcing by aircraft is 0.05 Wm2 in 1992 or about 3.5 percent of
the total radiative forcing by all human activities. In other words, more than 95% of man's
influence on climate change has very little to do with aviation.

In February 1999, ICAO agreed on NOx standards as of 2004 for new engine designed
that are at least 16 per cent below limits set in 1993. There is a range of options to reduce
aviation emission including change in aircraft and engine technology, fuel, operational
practices, and regulatory and other measures. The IPCC concluded by saying "although
improvement in aircraft and engine technology and in the efficiency of the air, traffic system
including introduction of CNS/ATM will bring environmental benefits, these will not fully
offset the effects of the increased emissions resulting from the projected growth in aviation."
While the international bodies are concerned about the environmental protection and aircraft
engine designers and manufactures are taking all possible actions to contain it within the
permissible limit. It does pose a Challenge to all countries in the whole world big and small.
How do you police an aircraft registered in one country, which refuels in another, producing
greenhouse gases over several countries along the flight path? Even now there are some trade
wars between regions over noise restrictions. The last thing that effective environmental
management needs is a trade war on its name. ICAO's ongoing task to address emissions to
control the greenhouse gas is a tough task - to formulate regulatory and collaborative efforts
to protect the environment in terms of Article 2.2 of the Kyoto Protocol.

The environmental challenges facing air transport are being addressed at the local and
global levels. In the immediate vicinity of airports, concerns focus on the potential health and
environmental effects of noise and air pollution from emissions.

b)​ Noise Control at Airports:

The chapter 3 stage 3 aircraft noise standard was established in 1977. In 1999, ICAO set
01 April 2002 as deadline to phase out stage 2 aircraft. CAEP has developed a comprehensive
series of recommendations to reduce the environmental impact of aircraft noise and engine
exhaust emissions.' CAEP has endorsed a balanced approach to noise mitigation consisting of
four complimentary elements: reduction of noise at source, improved land - use planning and
control, a wider use of noise abatement operational procedures and operating instructions.

Airport operators will have to face the greatest challenges to remain part of the
'sustainable aviation industry'. It is grounded in the belief that humanity must protect its
natural capital 'for the next generations. Just like managing a business, one cannot deplete the
natural capital. Therefore, if economic and ecological developments converge and there is
social acceptability, one is on its way to achieving "sustainable development". 'In the case of
airports, which are unlike any other industrial centre, there is a growing challenge for the
airport operator to keep the airport eco-friendly and at the same time adhere to the
international standards on environmental pollution, by involving the national government and
public.

Airports would need to play an effective role particularly in the areas of noise pollution,
emission, and land use control. Often, solutions imposed on airports are of a regulatory
measure and do not always take various operational needs into proper consideration and often
the authorities fail to take the residents and other stakeholders into confidence before
formulating the regulatory measures. In several other sectors, it has been observed that
regulations are not the only answer to managing problems. Voluntary agreements and
community participation are very effective in the pollution control mechanism. Periodical
consultations between environmental regulators, transportation authorities, airport operators,
air carriers and local manufacturers/ industrial units have an equally significant impact on
pollution control. A similar agreement between airport operators and residents helps reduce
noise pollution and even introduction of new air traffic procedures. Voluntary efforts are more
productive, more rapid and with less resistance than when a regulation has been implemented.
Strenuous opposition to aircraft noise comes from the residents who live near airports. This
opposition also constitutes a major constraint upon the development of the aviation system.

The ICAO Assembly Resolution A 28-3 adopted in October 1990, calls for the total
phase out of aircraft not complying the noise standards with volume I, chapter 3 of Annex 16,
by 1 April 2002. Airports council international (ACI) recognizes the need for some airports to
decide unilaterally on noise restrictions; because aircraft noise does not affect all airports to
the same extent, the airport managements of noise -sensitive airports must have the
prerogative to impose equitable local measures to alleviate the noise problem
 An integrated environmentally compatible approach is essential to ensure airport
capacity development. This approach should consist of further noise reduction at source, State
legislation andenforcement of strict noise compatible land - use planning and control around
airports, aircraft/airport operational measures as well as efficient ground access including
intermodal transportation .In the near term, if significant improvements cannot be anticipated,
yet communities still wish to be served by air transport, much more has to be done to stop
residents and other noise-sensitive developments from being established too close to the
airport. Experience shows that despite relentless efforts by airport management and even local
governments unauthorised and authorised encroachments continue unabated. It is often
noticed that there is a conflict between airport use and the pressure for economic
development.
Airports are lucrative locations for business both in direct and indirect terms.
Government authorities have not always been effective to noise compatible land use control
around airports due to severe administrative difficulties of national governments in imposing
restrictions on local governments or local authorities. States should legislate and apply land
use planning around airports to avoid the construction of noise sensitive buildings in critical
noise areas. Such areas should be designated as permanent noise zones within which the
construction of new buildings should not be permitted except the airport master plan
activities. Airports in developing countries have not experienced noise problem to the same
extent as those in industrialized countries, but the increase on air traffic is rapidly changing
this situation. It is inevitable that sensitivity to noise will grow and now is the time to put in
place appropriate land use controls to anticipate and forestall this. Continued research and
improved control are necessary in order to avoid pollution from all potential sources. An
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.

c)​ Noise Abatement:

The levels of noise exposure results from three factors, weather conditions, traffic
density and the types of aircraft operating at the airport. Some of the airports such as Charles-
de-Gaulle (CDG) and Orly airport in France conduct regular observations to monitor engine
tests and to measure noise in the environs of the airport. It helps to make the 'noise
inconvenience Maps'. Wind direction influences noise conditions as it determines the take-
off/landing direction. Noise levels are also "capped" at several airports. Night curfew is
another measure (aircraft generating higher noise levels are not allowed to operate between
certain hours of night). Noise level should be scientifically monitored by- recorded
observations and should periodically produce the 'noise inconvenience maps' of the local
areas surrounding major airports. An environmental quality charter for such airports may be
drawn up involving all relevant stakeholders, local resident representatives, airlines, aviation
oil/fuel supplies, ground handling agents, major concessionaires, and local government body.
It should include a 'code of good behaviour' to which all the key players such as local
government, airport, airline- pilots air traffic controllers, professional groupings will be a
party to the code. The code will seek to ensure better operational day- to day handling of
noise problems. A special committee may also be set up to monitor the above commitments.
It's members again' may be drawn from the ranks of local government, environmental
protection groups (NGOs), airport users and the main professions concerned, notably airline
pilots and air traffic controllers. Regular exchange of information concerning the airport
activities aimed at local residents by the airport operators will pay rich dividends in
establishing the vital support and involvement of local population in the achievement of
overall airport environmental objectives.
 d)​ Water Management:
It should be the endeavour of airports to collect waste- water and channel it to treatment
plants in the most efficient way possible, and to ensure that rainwater flowing back into rivers
or water table is fully up to acceptable standards. In the case of airports, which are not like
other industrial units, there is the production of significant waste discharges that must be
managed. Duri ng maintenance schedules, several chemicals used by the aircraft maintenance
units may drain on to the apron surface and subsequently enter the drainage system or
percolate into sub-surface soils. The discharge of untreated storm water containing some of
the aircraft fluid may drain into nearby creeks or lakes that can create pollution problem and a
potential hazard to birds, insects and even to aquatic life. Airport operators who are
responsible for the infrastructure associated with storm water run-off must ensure through
ongoing monitoring programmes, that storm water run-off from airports follow the relevant
environmental regulations. Airport operators are legally responsible for ensuring compliance
with environmental regulations and standards at its facilities and therefore have the
responsibility to ensure that appropriate control mechanism is in place to mitigate the
environmental effects of airport refuse/waste discharges.
Airport is a major consumer of energy for its every day running, be it for heating,
lighting, air-conditioning or electrical and mechanical systems, public areas, terminal
buildings, runways, air navigation services etc. Energy in question comes from electricity,
coal, gas, heavy fuel oil etc. There must be specific provisions to take measures which will
not only allow savings in the consumption of oil products, but also measures to combat
pollution emitted by energy generation units.
In its everyday activity, an airport generates what is known as "general industrial waste"
which includes non-inert and non -dangerous substances generated by trading, service, and
craft units in general. Typically, they include soiled and unsoiled packaging material,
products and equipment that have reached the end of their useful life, building and project
cast-offs (plastic or organic materials), catering, office waste, and cleaning and maintenance
residues. Airport waste should be incinerated or recycled. Recycling can also be, yet another
economic source directly linked to airport facility

e)​ Wildlife Management:

Birds and other forms of wildlife pose a safety threat to aviation on and near airports.
The most serious wildlife threat to aviation is likely to arise from birds. Critical safety zones
for aircraft operations, as defined in ICAO Annex 14, extend well beyond an airport's
property boundary. Sites outside these critical safety zones can give rise to wildlife activity on
the airport itself. Land uses such as solid waste dumps, lakes, marshes, wetlands, reservoirs,
recreational facilities, conservation areas etc which may attract wildlife should be
discouraged. If unavoidable, it should be rigorously managed. Local authorities must be
legally bound to consult airport operators prior to planning any changes in land use.
Environmentally, an airport has the responsibility to maintain the flora and fauna and the
natural balance.

Notwithstanding, the birds can pause safety threat to aeroplanes and their occupants,
particularly, on the take-off/landing path and around the runways. Preventive measures
consist mainly of trying to keep birds away from critical zones. Each airport has special
instructions and bird watching and methods to drive away the birds. Many airports are
vulnerable to bird strikes, as the airport surroundings have the butcheries and other market
areas which attract birds. Regulatory measure alone does not help, unless the local
government and residents are fully aware of the hazards and danger associated with bird
strikes.
 Farmers in the airport vicinity are to be educated and involved to avoid crops like wheat,
barley, and certain leguminous spices which attract birds and to prefer potatoes, corn etc.
Similarly, turf cover around the runway is carefully selected for its non-attractiveness to birds.
Certain turf like clover are to be avoided. The height of the grass cover is maintained at
between 20 and 30 cm as bird’s dislike this and they feel insecure. ICAO bird strike
information system started collecting the bird strike data since 1980. It has collected data on
about 85,000 bird strikes since then.' Nearly 80 per cent occur on airports, with half the
reminder happening in the immediate vicinity of an airport, and 6 per cent result in aborted
take-off or precautionary landings. Unscheduled landings and abortive take - offs can cost
more than US$ 100 000 while bird strike damage to engines can run into millions of dollars."
New research is focused on vegetation that can be grown in and around the airport, and new
technologies such as chemical repellents, lasers, pulsed microwaves, and ultraviolet stimuli.
The bird strike is best controlled in any case by land - use management.

f)​ Landscaping:
Landscaping in and around the airport particularly on the landside is an essential activity
at the airports. Developing and refurbishing the airports' vegetation, making its layout
visually obvious to passengers and airport users and maintaining the quality of airport's visual
environment is what makes users feel 'welcome' to an airport. Access roads to passenger
terminals and round- about are special areas which can be attractively filled with shrubs and
small trees spiced with perennial flower beds accentuating the impression of a colourful back
drop. Professional landscaping needs to be carefully gone through with an ethnical
background. Airport operators are seldom able to manage such large areas and upkeep the
quality of such landscapes. Many of the airports lack the kind of landscaping and therefore
lack the visual projection. Changi, Singapore, Schiphol, Amsterdam, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia are excellent examples of well laid out landscapes. It would be a good idea to
involve the local private industrial/business houses to maintain them on a lease basis. It gives
them advertising sites while airport surroundings remain pleasing and it also generates
additional income for airports.

The way forward to Excellence therefore is through an ACE model. customise your
airport, commercialise your airport and make your airport eco-friendly. The next question is
who can achieve this? What kind of airport leaders can manage an ACE model to achieve the
mark of excellence?

Building Airport Leadership:

Change of ownership including privatisation may not be of concern to some planners, as
they seem to feel that regardless of the ownership, airport business imperatives and issues
remain unchanged. While it may be so, the key issue is transformational management that we
discussed earlier, and airport leaders must successfully manage it before moving on to other
priority areas.

When you say, customise your airport, the key component here is customers. Most of the
internal customers on-site at airports are employed by airlines and other service providers and
not by airport operators. While most airport-based providers can focus their attention on one
primary customer group, such as airlines and their passengers, airport leaders face a multitude
of constituents, many of whom are in direct or indirect conflict over resources-passengers,
airline tenants, special interest groups, even regulators and other airports.
 Airport Leaders who can simultaneously manage the demands of these diverse consistent
groups will be highly valued. Airport Managers are rightly called as 'Airport Leaders' he
should be a team leader, personal credibility to gain trust and respect with airport employees
and stakeholders alike. An airport leader should be a good negotiator to convince new carriers
to serve the airport or existing ones to add routes, to optimise the use of facilities, given the
capacity and service constraints.
He should be a community player - to create for the airport a positive image in the community,
to foster community support for expansion plans and dealing with sensitive issues such as
noise and incompatible land use and environmental issues. With the increased emphasis on
non-aeronautical revenue, it is only logical to see commercial development as a key area and
the need for strong planners and strategists capable of accurately forecasting demand and
putting in place a multi constituent planning process. Team Leadership is therefore by far the
single most skill, followed by commercial development and change management skills.
This means Airport Leaders must, above all, be good leaders of people who are adept at
charting and communicating a clear organizational direction and ability to adapt to rapid
changes. Wedged between these leadership imperatives is commercial development making it
clear that airport leaders must be commercially oriented towards identifying, pursuing, and
consummating attractive commercial development deals for their airport business. Pricing and
negotiation of major concession agreements may also point to a need for strong financial
expertise. Expertise in the ICT field will be an added advantage to keep up with other
industries in their strategic use of technology. What is then required for success are, the right
mindset and the capacity and commitment to lead. A committed leader is one what the
industry would need and he will be the one who can deliver the goods. Airports Leaders have
to maintain the initiative, lead rather than follow, anticipate rather than react.

This means that executives who are capable of planning and over-seeing large projects
and who can envisage solutions to future issues or problems, successfully communicate these
to a multitude of constituent groups, and then doggedly pursue their goals are best suited to
airport environment.

g)​ Team Building:

''The most valuable players are not necessarily the highest scorers; they are often players
who help create a situation in which their team scores"
An effective teamwork gives you the benefits of; increased productivity, better use of
resources, cost reduction, innovation and creativity, improved quality, better customer service
and higher quality decisions.

A person who commands the group's respect stands the best chance of getting everyone
to commit to the team process and of overcoming resistance. Managing and Leading are
different, in that some feels that the Managers do things right, whereas, Leaders do the right
things.

What kind of training is needed to get the best out of airport leaders?

h)​ Civil Aviation Training:

Civil Aviation needs the most dynamic self-starter managers and how do we get such
managers? Training is the only answer. "Civil Aviation in the 21st century will be vastly more
complex and demanding than in the second half of the 20thcentury" so said, Jonathan Howe.'
 Training the men and women who work in civil Aviation is key to meeting the
unprecedented challenges. Focus of training is generally placed on the executives. While, it
can continue, a lot more training will need to be given to the grass root level staff.

Airport management would need to take the initiative to train and retrain all airport
staff and executives. Managers whether in airlines, airports, air navigation services, air traffic
controllers or fire and rescue services or any other field of civil aviation will need to expand
their knowledge level and expertise if they are to achieve a dynamic balance between
profitability and safety goals.

A complex situation, perhaps somewhat unique is the safety standards in civil aviation
which is one of the best in the world. At the same time, airport executives must produce
necessary profit for the industry. Airport business is unique, and it will continue to enjoy the
monopoly despite change of management structure. The airport operators will continue to
wear the double cap of a regulator and a service provider while retaining commercial
principles.

i)​ Human Factors in Civil Aviation:

With a growing social intolerance of accidents of all kinds, the millennium will see
greater emphasis on understanding the role of human factors in the safe operation of aircraft,
airport, focusing just not on flying and maintenance functions, but on all support roles. The
reality is that human error is documented as the primary contributor to several accidents/
incidents.' It means that human factors are taking a higher profile - it involves a deeper
understanding of people's skills and a whole range of characteristics as applied to machines,
specific job, or whole systems, to ensure operations are safe and effective. This then get
applied to everything from design and manufacture of equipment to the management of
operations and development of policies, training, and procedures. ICAO continuously
emphasises on this aspect of 'human factor' and has updated a range of Annexes and
procedural guidelines covering a range of areas with the creation of a package of Standards
and Recommended Practices (SARPs) relating to the role of human factors in the operational
environment.

The objective of aviation Human Factors is to address human error in operational

environments. The Human Factors principles apply to aeronautical designs, certification,
training, operations, and maintenance and which seek safe interface between the human and
other system components by proper consideration to human performance. The contribution of
technology to aviation safety and efficiency is undeniable. However, despite its positive
effects, both from a safety and economic point of view, incidents and accidents continue to
show that new and sometimes surprising problems still exist. Two reasons explain these
problems. Firstly, the absence of an approach to the implementation technology which
includes Human factors considerations as an integral part. Technological and Human Factors
solutions have frequently been implemented autonomously, with little dialogue between
system designers and Human Factors practitioners. Therefore, technology has not fully
delivered its potential because of deficiencies in its interface with human operators. This
technology centered automation is being gradually phased-out in favour of ICAO supported
'human centred' automation.' In this, human capabilities and limitations are fully taken into
account and integrated with technology during system and procedures design. Secondly, if
Human Factors knowledge is not proactively integrated during system design, it will most
likely be applied in a reactive mode, after investigations of accidents and incidents document
flaws in human performance, which may be either due to inherent human limitations fostered
by deficient human - technology interfaces, or more likely, by a combination of both.
Reactive approaches tend to focus on immediate rather than on root causes of problems
because of the emotional context within which they take place.
Automation of tasks through the introduction of technology is an attempt to increase
the production of a system by replacing human functioning by machine functioning, while
maintaining or enhancing existing levels of safety. Aviation is not alone in its objective for
increased production through automation, and similar endeavours have been attempted in
other industries. Nonetheless, aviation as well as other industries have watched how huge
investments in automation, which during its design stage appeared sound and appropriate to
meet these objectives, did not deliver as expected when interfaced with daily operations.
Automaton design without consideration to human factor issues carries serious implications.
The implication is clear - automation design should be context - conscious and human -
centred from its inception. Further-more, the role of automation in fostering human error has
often been overlooked. Involving human factors expertise during technology design might
cause additional expenses, but the costs are paid once in the system's lifetime. On the opposite
side, coping with flawed human technology interfaces through training means incurring
additional expenses throughout the entire operational life of the system. Historically, human
factors issue in aviation have been dealt with in a reactive manner, now, the pro-active
management of Human factors issues should be a normal component of the process followed
by designers, providers, and users of those systems. The time to address human Factors issues
is during technology design, before technology is deployed into operational contexts. This
will help to anticipate negative consequences of human error rather than regret its
consequences. Technology and human performance (human capabilities and limitations which
have an impact on the safety and efficiency of aeronautical operations) must be considered as
a joint human - machine system. Designing technology without consideration of human
factors/Human errors will yield compromises rather than optimum benefits. So, select the
right training schedule and give the right training to your employees and make them
competent to take the right decision at the right time. Your airport is then rightly placed to
move ahead.

Each of you may by now have different views on airport management and what
matters is your view on airport management as airport managers.

Let your view be that the airport management is all about mastering the Airport
Access, Customer Access and Commercialisation to maximise revenues while remaining
safe, customer and eco -friendly and hold that conviction till you achieve Excellence.

Performance + Productivity are the outcome and ACE approach is the shortest access to
Excellence. Excellence is related to pursuit of total quality backed by the employee's capacity
for innovation and delivery and setting standards and reviewing them through control
measures ensures success. Have you got it right?
Now, you are well prepared to file your flight plan to world class and beyond.

j)​ Climate change:

Like all human activities involving combustion, most forms of aviation release carbondioxide
(CO2) and other greenhouse gases into the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to the acceleration
of global warming and (in the case of CO2) ocean acidification. These concerns are
highlighted by the present volume of commercial aviation and its rate of growth. Globally,
about 8.3 million people fly daily (3 billion occupied seats per year), twice the total in 1999.
U.S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the twelve months
between October 2013 and September 2014.
 In addition to the CO2 released by most aircraft in flight through the burning of fuels
such as Jet-A (turbine aircraft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry also
contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground airport vehicles and those used by
passengers and staff to access airports, as well as through emissions generated by the
production of energy used in airport buildings, the manufacture of aircraft and the
construction of airport infrastructure.

While the principal greenhouse gas emission from powered aircraft in flight is CO2,
other emissions may include nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (together termed oxides of
nitrogen or NOx), water vapour and particulates (soot and sulphate particles), sulfur oxides,
carbon monoxide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO2 immediately upon release),
incompletely burned hydrocarbons, tetraethyl lead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as
hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use. Emissions weighting factor (EWFs) i.e., the
factor by which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to get the CO2- equivalent
emissions for annual fleet average conditions is in the range 1.3–2.9.

k)​ Effects of climate change on Aviation

a)​ Increased Turbulence: A report published in the science journal Nature Climate
Change forecasts that increasing CO2 levels will result in a significant increase in in-
flightturbulence experienced by transatlantic airline flights by the middle of the 21st
century. The lead author of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the National
Center for Atmospheric Science, at the University of Reading stated, "air turbulence
does more than just interrupt the service of in-flight drinks. It injures hundreds of
passengers and aircrew every year – sometimes fatally. It also causes delays and
damage to planes."

b)​ Noise: advocacy groups see Aircraft noise as being very hard to get attention and
action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport
expansion at smaller and regional airports.

c)​ Water Pollution: Airports can generate significant water pollution due to t heir
extensive use and handling of jet fuel, lubricants, and other chemicals. Airports install
spill control structures and related equipment (e.g., vacuum trucks, portable berms,
absorbents) to prevent chemical spills, and mitigate the impacts of spills that do occur.

In cold climates, the use of deicing fluids can also cause water pollution, as most
of the fluids applied to aircraft subsequently fall to the ground and can be carried via
storm water runoff to nearby streams, rivers or coastal waters. Airlines use deicing fluids
based on ethylene glycol or propylene glycol as the active ingredient.
Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are known to exert high levels of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) during degradation in surface waters. This process can adversely
affect aquatic life by consuming oxygen needed by aquatic organisms for survival. Large
quantities of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column are consumed when microbial
populations decompose propylene glycol.

Sufficient dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters are critical for the survival of fish,
macroinvertebrates, and other aquatic organisms. If oxygen concentrations drop below a
minimum level, organisms emigrate, if able and possible, to areas with higher oxygen
levels or eventually die.
 This effect can drastically reduce the amount of usable aquatic habitat. Reductions in
DO levels can reduce or eliminate bottom feeder populations, create conditions that
favour a change in a community’s species profile, or alter critical food- webinteractions.

d)​ Air quality: Lead emissions:Many aircraft engines release lead (Pb) into the air due
to leaded aviation fuel. From 1970 to 2007, general aviation aircraft emitted about
34,000 tons of lead into the atmosphere according to the Environmental Protection
Agency. Lead is recognized as a serious environmental threat by the Federal Aviation
Administration if inhaled or ingested leading to adverse effects on the nervous system,
red blood cells and cardiovascular and immune systems with infants and young
children especially sensitive to even low levels of lead, which may contribute to
behavioural and learning problems, lower IQ and autism.

e)​ Radiation exposure: Flying 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) high, passengers and crews of
jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at sea
level receive. Several times a decade, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar particle
event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft flying polar routes near the
geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.

m)​Mechanisms and cumulative effects of aviation on climate

In 1999 the contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO2 emissions was estimated
to be around 2%. However, in the case of high-altitude airliners which frequently fly near or
in the stratosphere, non-CO2 altitude-sensitive effects may increase the total impact on
anthropogenic (human-made) climate change significantly. A 2007 report from
Environmental Change Institute / Oxford University posits a range closer to 4 percent
cumulative effect. Subsonic aircraft-in-flight contribute to climate change in four ways:

a)​ Carbon dioxide (CO2): CO2 emissions from aircraft-in-flight are the most significant
and best understood element of aviation's total contribution to climate change. The
level and effects of CO2 emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same
regardless of altitude (i.e. they have the same atmospheric effects as ground based
emissions). In 1992, emissions of CO2 from aircraft were estimated at around 2% of
all such anthropogenic emissions, and that year the atmospheric concentration of CO2
attributable to aviation was around 1% of the total anthropogenic increase since the
industrial revolution, having accumulated primarily over just the last 50 years.

b)​ Oxides of nitrogen (NOx): At the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the
tropopause, emissions of NOx are particularly effective in forming ozone (O3) in the
upper troposphere. High altitude (8–13 km) NOx emissions result in greater
concentrations of O3 than surface NOx emissions, and these in turn have a greater
global warming effect. The effect of O3 concentrations are regional and local (as
opposed to CO2 emissions, which are). NOx emissions also reduce ambient levels of
methane, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect. But this effect
does not offset the O3 forming effect of NOx emissions. It is now believed that aircraft
sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O3, partially offsetting
the NOx-induced O3 increases. These effects have not been quantified. This
 problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, such as light
aircraft or many commuter aircraft.

c)​ Water vapor (H2O), and contrails:

One of the products of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen is water vapour, a greenhouse

gas. Water vapour produced by aircraft engines at high altitude, under certain atmospheric
conditions, condenses into droplets to form Condensation trails, or contrails. Contrails are
visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a global
warming effect (though one less significant than either CO2emissions or NOx induced
effects). Contrails are uncommon (though by no means rare) from lower-altitude aircraft,
or from propeller-driven aircraft or rotorcraft.
Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails
and have been found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail
formation alone. There is a degree of scientific uncertainty about the contribution of
contrail and cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts to estimate aviation's
overall climate change contribution do not tend to include its effects on cirrus cloud
enhancement. However, a 2015 study found that artificial cloudiness caused by contrail
"outbreaks" reduce the difference between daytime and night-time temperatures. The
former is decreased, and the latter are increased, in comparison to temperatures the day
before and the day after such outbreaks. On days with outbreaks the day/night
temperature difference was diminished by about 6F° in the U.S. South and 5F° in the
Midwest.

d)​ Particulates
Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has
a warming effect; sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect. In
addition, they can influence the formation and properties of clouds. All aircraft powered
by combustion will release some amount of soot.
Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre:
e)​ Averaged emissions
Emissions of passenger aircraft per passenger kilometre vary extensively because of
differing factors such as the size and type aircraft, the altitude and the percentage of
passenger or freight capacity of a flight, and the distance of the journey and number of
stops end route. Also, the effect of a given amount of emissions on climate (radiative
forcing) is greater at higher altitudes: see below. Some representative figures for CO2
emissions are provided by LIPASTO's survey of average direct emissions (not accounting
for high-altitude radiative effects) of airliners expressed as CO2 and CO2 equivalent per
passenger kilometre:
•​ Domestic, short distance, less than 463 km (288 mi): 257 g/km CO2 or 259
g/km (14.7oz/mile) CO2e
•​ Domestic, long distance, greater than 463 km (288 mi): 177 g/km CO2 or 178
g/km (10.1oz/mile) CO2e
•​Long distance flights: 113 g/km CO2 or 114 g/km (6.5 oz/mile) CO2e
These emissions are like a four-seat car with one person on board; however, flying trips
often cover longer distances than would be undertaken by car, so the total emissions are
much higher. For perspective, per passenger a typical economy-class New York to Los
Angeles round trip produces about 715 kg (1574 lb) of CO2 (but is equivalent to 1,917 kg
(4,230 lb) of CO2 when the high altitude "climatic forcing" effect is considered). Within
the categories of flights above, emissions from scheduled jet flights are substantially
higher than turboprop or chartered jet flights. About 60% of aviation emissions arise from
international flights, and these flights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and its
emissions reduction targets. Figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide
emissions of 100g per passenger kilometre for large jet airliners (a figure which does not
account to produce other pollutants or condensation trails).

Emissions by passenger class, and effects of seating configuration:

In 2013 the World Bank published a study of the effect on CO2 emissions of its staff's
travel in business class or first class, versus using economy class. Among the factors
 considered was that these premium classes displace proportionately more economy seats
for the same total aircraft space capacity, and the associated differing load factors and
weight factors. This was not accounted for in prior standard carbon accounting methods.
The study concluded that when considering respective average load factors (percent of
occupied seats) in each of the seating classes, the carbon footprints of business class and
first class are three- times and nine-times higher than economy class. The A380 is
marketed as a "green giant" and one of the most environmentally advanced aircraft out
there. But that spin is based on a maximum-capacity aircraft configuration, or about 850
economy passengers. A typical A380 aircraft has 525 seats. Its fuel performance is
comparable to that of a B747-400 ER and even about 15% worse than a B777-300ER on
a passenger-mile basis (calculated using Piano-5 ona flight from AUH to LHR, assuming
an 80% passenger load factor, and in-service fleet average seat counts).

n)​ Total climate effects:

In attempting to aggregate and quantify the total climate impact of aircraft emissions
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviation's total
climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its direct CO2 emissions alone (excluding the
potential impact of cirrus cloud enhancement). This is measured as radiative forcing.
While there is uncertainty about the exact level of impact of NOx and water vapour,
governments have accepted the broad scientific view that they do have an effect. Globally
in 2005, aviation contributed "possibly as much as 4.9% of radiative forcing." UK
government policy statements have stressed the need for aviation to address its total
climate change impacts and not simply the impact of CO2.

The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for around 3.5% of anthropogenic
climate change, a figure which includes both CO2 and non-CO2 induced effects. The
IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this figure could be in 2050. The central
case estimate is that aviation's contribution could grow to 5% of the total contribution by
2050 if action is not taken to tackle these emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%.
Moreover, if other industries achieve significant cuts in their own greenhouse gas
emissions, aviation's share as a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise.

o)​ Future emission levels:

Even though there have been significant improvements in fuel efficiency through
aircraft technology and operational management as described here, these improvements
are being continually eclipsed by the increase in air traffic volume.
A December 2015 report finds that aircraft could generate 43 Gt of carbon pollution
through to 2050, consuming almost 5% of the remaining global climate budget. Without
regulation, global aviation emissions may triple by mid-century and could emit more than
3 Gt of carbon annually under a high-growth, business-as-usual scenario. Efforts to bring
aviation emissions under an effective global accord have so far largely failed, despite
there being many technological and operational improvements on offer.

p)​ Continual increases in travel and freight:

From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometres increased 5.2% per year, even with the
disruptions of 9/11 and two significant wars. Since the onset of the current recession:
During the first three quarters of 2010, air travel markets expanded at an annualized rate
approaching 10%. This is like the rate seen in the rapid expansion prior to the recession.
November's results mean the annualized rate of growth so far in Q4 drops back to around
6%.But this is still in line with long run rates of traffic growth seen historically. The level
of
 international air travel is now 4% above the pre-recession peak of early 2008 and the
current expansion looks to have further to run.
Air freight reached a new high point in May (2010) but, following the end of inventory
restocking activity, volumes have slipped back to settle at a similar level seen just before
the onset of recession. Even so, that means an expansion of air freight during 2010 of 5-
6% on an annualized basis – close to historical trend. With the stimulus of inventory
restocking activity removed, further growth in air freight demand will be driven by end
consumer demand for goods which utilize the air transport supply chain. The end of the
inventory cycle does not mean the end of volume expansion, but markets are entering a
slower growth phase.
In a 2008 presentation and paper Professor Kevin Anderson of the Tyndall Centre for
Climate Change Research showed how continued aviation growth in the UK threatens the
ability of that nation to meet CO2 emission reduction goals necessary to contain the
century- end temperature increase to even 4 or 6C°. (See also: the 4 Degrees and Beyond
International Climate Conference (2009) and its proceedings.)[40] His charts show the
projected domestic aviation carbon emission increase for the UK as growing from 11 MT
in 2006 to 17 MT in 2012, at the UK's historic annual emission growth rate of 7%.
Beyond 2012 if the growth rate were reduced to 3% yearly, carbon emissions in 2030
would be 28 MT, which is 70% of the UK's entire carbon emissions budget that year for
all sectors of society. This work also suggests the near future which confronts many other
nations that have high dependency on aviation. "Hypermobile Travelers", an academic
study by Stefan Gössling et al. (2009) in the book "Climate Change and Aviation", also
points to the dilemma caused by the increasing hypermobility of air travellers both in
particular nations and globally.
q)​ Scope for improvement:
a)​ Aircraft efficiency:
While it is true that late model jet aircraft are significantly more fuel efficient (and
thus emit less CO2 in particular) than the earliest jet airliners, new airliner models in the
first decade of the 21st Century were barely more efficient on a seat-mile basis than the
latest piston-powered airliners of the late 1950s (e.g. Constellation L-1649-A and DC-
7C). Claims for a high gain in efficiency for airliners over recent decades (while true in
part) has been biased high in most studies, by using the early inefficient models of jet
airliners as a baseline. Those aircraft were optimized for increased revenue, including
increased speed and cruising altitude, and were quite fuel inefficient in comparison to
their piston-powered forerunners.

Today, turboprop aircraft – probably in part because of their lower cruising speeds and
altitudes (like the earlier piston-powered airliners) compared to jet airliners – play an
obvious role in the overall fuel efficiency of major airlines that have regional carrier
subsidiaries. For example, although Alaska Airlines scored at the top of a 2011-2012 fuel
efficiency ranking, if its large regional carrier – turbo-prop equipped Horizon Air – were
dropped from the lumped-in consideration, the airline's ranking would be somewhat
lower, as noted in the ranking study.

Aircraft manufacturers are striving for reductions in both CO2 and NOx emissions
with each new generation of design of aircraft and engine. While the introduction of more
modern aircraft represents an opportunity to reduce emissions per passenger kilometre
flown, aircraft are major investments that endure for many decades, and replacement of
the international fleet is therefore a long-term proposition which will greatly delay
realizing the climate benefits of many kinds of improvements. Engines can be changed at
some point, but nevertheless airframes have a long life. Moreover, rather than being linear
from one year to the next the improvements to efficiency tend to diminish over time, as
reflected in the histories of both piston and jet powered aircraft.

A 2014 life-cycle assessment of the cradle-to-grave reduction in CO2 by a carbon-

fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) airliner such as a Boeing 787 – including its
manufacture, operations and eventual disposal – has shown that by 2050 such aircraft
could reduce the airline industry's CO2 emissions by 14-15%, compared use of
conventional airliners.[48]The benefit of CFRP technology is not higher than that amount
of reduction, despite the lighter weight and substantially lower fuel consumption of such
aircraft, "because of the limited fleet penetration by 2050 and the increased demand for air
travel due to lower operating costs."

b)​ Operations efficiency:

Research projects such as Boeing's eco Demonstrator program have sought to identify
ways of improving the efficiency of commercial aircraft operations. The U.S. government
has encouraged such research through grant programs, including the FAA's Continuous
Lower Energy, Emissions, and Noise (CLEEN) program, and NASA's Environmentally
Responsible Aviation (ERA) Project.
Adding an electric drive to the airplane's nose wheel may improve fuel efficiency during
ground handling. This addition would allow taxiing without the use of the main engines.

Another proposed change is the integrating of an Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch

System to the airstrips of airports. Some companies such as Airbus are currently
researching this possibility. The adding of EMALS would allow the civilian aircraft to use
considerably less fuel (as a lot of fuel is used during take-off, in comparison to cruising,
when calculated per km flown). The idea is to have the aircraft take off at regular aircraft
speed, and only use the catapult for take-off, not for landing.

Other opportunities arise from the optimization of airline timetables, route networks
and flight frequencies to increase load factors (minimize the number of empty seats
flown), together with the optimization of airspace. However, these are each one-time gain,
and as these opportunities are successively fulfilled, diminishing returns can be expected
from the remaining opportunities.

Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact is the limitation of cruise

altitude of aircraft. This would lead to a significant reduction in high-altitude contrails for
a marginal trade-off of increased flight time and an estimated 4% increase in CO2
emissions. Drawbacks of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to do this,
especially in Europe and North America and increased fuel burn because jet aircraft are
less efficient at lower cruise altitudes.

While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic flights, turboprop aircraft
used for commuter flights bring two significant benefits: they often burn considerably less
fuel per passenger mile, and they typically fly at lower altitudes, well inside the
tropopause, where there are no concerns about ozone or contrail production.

c)​ Alternative Fuels:

Some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and Virgin Fuels are researching
biofuel technology for use in jet aircraft. Some aircraft engines, like
the Wilksch WAM120can (being a 2-stroke Diesel engine) run on straight vegetable oil.
Also, a number of Lycoming engines run well on ethanol.

In addition, there are also several tests done combining regular petrofuels with a
biofuel. For example, as part of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways flew a Boeing 747 from
London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport on 24 February 2008, with one
engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil. Greenpeace's chief scientist
Doug Parr said that the flight was "high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic
oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large increase in greenhouse gas
emissions. Also, the majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller
piston aircraft, and with major modifications many can use ethanol as a fuel. Another
consideration is the vast amount of land that would be necessary to provide the biomass
feedstock needed to support the needs of aviation, both civil and military.

In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed the world's first commercial
aviation test flight partially using jatropha-based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel, can
thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops won't grow, or would
produce only slow growth yields. Air New Zealand set several general sustainability
criteria for its Jatropha, saying that such biofuels must not compete with food resources,
that they must be as good as traditional jet fuels, and that they should be cost competitive
with existing fuels.

In January 2009, Continental Airlines used a sustainable biofuel to power a

commercial aircraft for the first time in North America. This marks the first sustainable
biofuel demonstration flight by a commercial carrier using a twin-engined aircraft, a
Boeing 737-800, powered by CFM International CFM56-7B engines. The biofuel blend
included components derived from algae and jatropha plants.

One fuel biofuel alternative to avgas that is under development is Swift Fuel. Swift
fuel was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, allowing the
company to continue their research and to pursue certification testing. Mary Rusek,
president and co-owner of Swift Enterprises predicted at that time that "100SF will be
comparably priced, environmentally friendlier and more fuel-efficient than other general
aviation fuels on the market".

As of June 2011, revised international aviation fuel standards officially allow

commercial airlines to blend conventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels. The
renewable fuels "can be blended with conventional commercial and military jet fuel
through requirements in the newly issued edition of ASTM D7566, Specification for
Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons".

In December 2011, the FAA announced it is awarding $7.7 million to eight companies
to advance the development of drop-in commercial aviation biofuels, with a special focus
on ATJ (alcohol to jet) fuel. As part of its CAAFI (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuel
Initiative) and CLEEN (Continuous Lower Emissions, Energy, and Noise) programs, the
FAA plans to assist in the development of a sustainable fuel (from alcohols, sugars,
biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils) that can be "dropped in" to aircraft
without changing current infrastructure. The grant will also be used to research how the
fuels affect engine durability and quality control standards.
 Finally, liquified natural gas is another fuel that is used in some airplanes. Besides the
lower GHG emissions (depending from where the natural gas was obtained from), another
major benefit to airplane operators is the price, which is far lower than the price for jet
fuel.

d)​ Reducing air travel:

Choices and social pressure:
The German video short The Bill explores how travel and its impacts are commonly
viewed in everyday developed-world life, and the social pressures that are at play. British
writer George Marshall has investigated common rationalizations that act as barriers to
making personal choices to travel less, or to justify recent trips. In an informal research
project, "one you are welcome to join", he says, he deliberately steered conversations with
people who are attuned to climate change problems to questions about recent long-
distance flights and why the travel was justified. Reflecting on actions contrary to their
beliefs, he noted “intriguing as their dissonance may be, what is especially revealing is
that every one of these people has a career that is predicated on the assumption that
information is sufficient to generate change – an assumption that a moment's introspection
would show them was deeply flawed.”

Business and professional choices:

With most international conferences having hundreds if not thousands of participants,
and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane, conference travel is an area where significant
reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions could be made. This does not mean non-
attendance. For example, by 2003 Access Grid technology has already been successfully used
to host several international conferences, and technology has likely progressed substantially
since then. The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research has been systematically
studying means to change common institutional and professional practices that have led to
large carbon footprints of travel by research scientists and issued a report. (Le Quere et al.
2015).

Ending incentives to fly—frequent flyer programs:

Over 130 airlines have "frequent flyer programs" based at least in part on miles,
kilometres, points or segments for flights taken. Globally, such programs included about 163
million people as reported in 2006. These programs benefit airlines by habituating people to
air travel and, through the mechanics of partnerships with credit card companies and other
businesses, in which high profit margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats for a
high price. The only part of United Airlines business that was making money when the
company filed for bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent flyer program.

Concerning business travel, "The ease of international air travel and the fact that, for
most of us, the costs are met by our employers, means that globetrotting conference travel is
often regarded as a perk of the job." However, the perk usually is not only the business trip
itself, but also the frequent flyer points which the individual accrues by taking the trip, and
which can be redeemed later for personal air travel. Thus a conflict of interest is established,
whereby bottom-up pressure may be created within a firm or government agency for travel
that is really not necessary. Even when such conflict is not a motivation, the perk of frequent
flyer miles can be expected to lead in many cases to personal trips that would not be taken if a
ticket had to be paid for with personal funds.
 By just using an airline-sponsored credit card to pay one's household expenses,
personal or business bills, or even expense bills charged to an employer, frequent flyer points
can be racked up quickly. Thus, free travel—for which the individual has to pay nothing
extra—becomes a reality. Across society, this too can be expected to lead to much air
travel—and greenhouse gas emissions—that otherwise would not occur.

Several studies have contemplated the elimination of frequent flyer programmes (FFPs), on
the grounds of anti-competitiveness, ethics, conflict with society's overall well-being, or
climate effects. There is a record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and of industry
players requesting bans. Denmark did not allow the programs until 1992, then changing its
policy because its airlines were disadvantaged. In 2002, Norway banned domestic FFPs to
promote competition among its airlines. In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president of Braniff "said
the government should consider ordering an end to frequent-flyer programs, which he said
allow unfair competition."

A Canadian study said that because of competition no airline could unilaterally end its
FFP, but that a national government could use its regulatory power to end the programs
broadly, which in Canada's case would also require North America-wide cooperation. In
further analysis, a Scandinavian study which recommended an end to frequent flyer plans
said, "the only possible way of prohibiting FFPs successfully now that they have spread from
the US to Europe to the Far East would be to do so on a global basis. The basis exists: it
could be done by the World Trade Organization." A recent study which surveyed frequent
flyers in the U.K. and Norway, looked into behavioural addition to frequent flying and the
"flyer's dilemma" of the conflict between "the social and personal benefits of flying and air
travel's impact on climate change." It concluded that:

Continued growth in both frequent flying practices and concern over air travel's
climate impacts are in a dynamic relationship and the question of whether one or the other
will reach a tipping point cannot yet be determined. Self-regulation, external regulation,
social norms, technology, and physical resources will continue to co-constitute the balance.
An increasing stigmatisation of 'excessive' air travel may (re)frame flying as more open to
collective external mitigation. This means government action.

Potential for governmental constraints on demand:

One means for reducing the environmental impact of aviation is to constrain demand for air
travel, through increased fares in place of expanded airport capacity. Several studies have
explored this:
●​ The UK study Predict and Decide – Aviation, climate change and UK policy, notes that a
10% increase in fares generates a 5% to 15% reduction in demand, and recommends that
the British government should manage demand rather than provide for it. This would be
accomplished via a strategy that presumes "… against the expansion of UK airport
capacity" and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel
less attractively.
●​ A study published by the campaign group Aviation Environment Federation (AEF)
concludes that by levying £9 billion of additional taxes, the annual rate of growth in
demand in the UK for air travel would be reduced to 2%.
●​ The ninth report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee,
published in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport
expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in which future
demand can be managed in line with industry performance in achieving fuel efficiencies,
so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.
r)​ International Regulation of Air Travel GHG Emissions:
(1)​Kyoto Protocol 2005
Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast
to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are excluded from the scope
of the first period (2008-2012) of the Kyoto Protocol, as are the non-CO2 climate effects.
Instead, governments agreed to work through the International Civil Aviation
Organization(ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and to find a solution to the allocation of
emissions from international aviation in time for the second period of the Kyoto Protocol
starting from 2009; however, the Copenhagen climate conference failed to reach an
agreement.[86]
Recent research points to this failure as a substantial obstacle to global policy including a CO2
emissions reduction pathway that would avoid dangerous climate change by keeping the
increase in the average global temperature below a 2 °C rise.

(2)​Approaches toward emissions trading:

As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions
trading system to meet CO2 emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and
implementation of a global scheme are currently being developed and will be presented to the
ICAO Assembly in 2007, although the prospects of a comprehensive inter-governmental
agreement on the adoption of such a scheme are uncertain.

Within the European Union, however, the European Commission has resolved to
incorporate aviation in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). A new
directive was adopted by the European Parliament in July 2008 and approved by the Council
in October 2008. It became effective on 1 January 2012.
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute investigated the possible effects on Small
Island Developing States (SIDS) of the European Union's decision to limit the supply of
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) to its ETS market to Least Developed Countries
(LDCs) from 2013. Most SIDS are highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and rely
heavily on tourism as a basis for their economies, so this decision could place them at some
disadvantage. The researchers therefore highlight the need to ensure that any regulatory
frameworks put in place to tackle climate change take into account the development needs of
the most vulnerable countries affected.

A report published by researchers at the Centre for Aviation, Transport and

Environment at Manchester Metropolitan University found that the only way to have a
significant impact on emissions was to put a price on carbon and to use a market-based
measure (MBM), such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).

(3)​International Civil Aviation Organization Agreement 2016:

In October 2016 the UN agency International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
finalized an agreement among its 191 member nations to address the more than 458 Mt
(2010) of carbon dioxide emitted annually by international passenger and cargo flights. The
agreement will use an offsetting scheme called CORSIA (the Carbon Offsetting and
Reduction Scheme for International Aviation) under which forestry and other carbon-
reducing activities are directly funded, amounting to about 2% of annual revenues for the
sector. Rules against 'double counting' should ensure that existing forest protection efforts are
not recycled. The scheme does not take effect until 2021 and will be voluntary until 2027, but
many countries, including the US and China, have promised to begin at its 2020 inception
date. Under the agreement, the global aviation emissions target is an 80% reduction by 2035
relative to 2020. NGO reaction to the deal was mixed.

The agreement has critics. It is not aligned with the 2015 Paris climate agreement,
which set the objective of restricting global warming to 1.5 to 2°C. A late draft of the
agreement would have required the air transport industry to assess its share of global carbon
budgeting to meet that objective, but the text was removed in the agreed version. CORSIA
will regulate only about 25 percent of aviation's international emissions, since its
grandfather's all emissions below the 2020 level, allowing unregulated growth until then.
Only 65 nations will participate in the initial voluntary period, not including significant
emitters Russia, India and perhaps Brazil. The agreement does not cover domestic emissions,
which are 40% of the global industry's overall emissions. One observer of the ICAO
convention made this summary: Airline claims that flying will now be green are a myth.
Taking a plane is the fastest and cheapest way to fry the planet and this deal won't reduce
demand for jet fuel one drop. Instead offsetting aims to cut emissions in other industries,
although another critic called it "a timid step in the right direction."

1.12​ Types of Airport

Types of Airports According to AAI, the airports are divided into the following types:

1.​ Civil Airport

Operations of Aircrafts are generally discussed under two categories as civil aviation
and military aviation. Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and
scheduled air transport. General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both private
and commercial. General aviation may include business flights, air charter, private aviation,
flight training, ballooning, parachuting, gliding, hang gliding, aerial photography,
foot-launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic
reporting, police air patrols and forest fire fighting.
Each country regulates aviation differently, but general aviation usually falls under
different regulations depending on whether it is private or commercial and on the type of
equipment involved. Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general aviation market,
with a focus on private aviation and flight training. The most important recent developments
for small aircraft (which form the bulk of the GA fleet) have been the introduction of
advanced avionics (including GPS) that were formerly found only in large airliners, and the
introduction of composite materials to make small aircraft lighter and faster. Ultra-light and
homebuilt aircraft have also become increasingly popular for recreational use, since in most
countries that allow private aviation, they are much less expensive and less heavily regulated
than certified aircraft.

2.​ Military Airport

In military aviation, simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the
18th century. Over the years, military aircraft have been built to meet ever increasing
capability requirements. Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for contracts to supply
their government's arsenal. Aircraft are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and
the speed of production.
Military Airbase An airbase, sometimes referred to as a military airport or airfield,
provides basing and support of military aircraft. Some airbases provide facilities like their
civilian counterparts. For example, RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, England has a terminal
which caters to passengers for the Royal Air Force's scheduled Tristar flights to the Falkland
Islands.
Types of military aviation Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other aircraft. (e.g.
Sop with Camel, A6M Zero, F-15, MiG-29, Su-27, and F-22).
●​ Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical earth-bound targets. (e.g. Junkers
Stuka, A-10, Il-2, J-22 Orao, AH-64 and Su-25).
●​ Bombers are generally used against more strategic targets, such as factories and oil
fields. (e.g. Zeppelin, Tu-95, Mirage IV, and B-52).
●​ Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware and personnel. (e.g. C-17 Globe
master III, C-130 Hercules and Mil Mi-26).
●​ Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain information about enemy forces. (e.g.
Rumpler Taube, Mosquito, U-2, OH-58 and MiG-25R).
●​ Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-wing
aircraft, though many also carry payloads. Cargo aircraft are in development. (e.g.
RQ7B Shadow, MQ-8 Fire Scout, and MQ-1C Gray Eagle).
●​ Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives, but also things like leaflets.

3​ Domestic Airport
Regional Hubs: They operate regional airlines using small aircrafts to provide air connection
in the interiors of the country. Regional hubs act as operational bases for regional airlines.
They are capable of handling limited international traffic.
Government is keen to encourage development of regional airlines based on small
aircraft to provide air-linkages in the interior areas of the country. Regional hubs will have to
act as operational bases for regional airlines and have all the facilities currently postulated for
model airports, including the capability to handle limited international traffic. The
identification of Regional Hubs will be made based on origin-destination surveys, traffic
demand and the requirements of the airlines. State Govt. will be closely associated as co-
promoters of regional airlines.

4​ ​ International
Airport International
Hubs
These airports have world class facilities. They include convenient connections for
international and domestic passengers, ancillary facilities such as hotels, shopping areas,
conferencing and entertainment facilities, and aircraft-maintenance bases. At present, there
are International Hubs at Delhi and Mumbai.
This category will be that of ‘International Hubs’ which may cover airports currently
classified at ‘international airports’ and those eminently qualified to be upgraded as such.
These would at present cover Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta and Thiruvananthapuram.
Airports at Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Amritsar and Guwahati can be added to the
list as and when the facilities are upgraded to the desired level. International hubs would be
used for dispersal of international traffic to the hinterland. In these airports, the facilities shall
be of world class standards, including convenient connections to international and domestic
passengers, airport-related infrastructure like hotels, shopping areas, conferencing and
entertainment facilities, aircraft-maintenance bases, etc.
These are declared as international airports and are available for scheduled
international operations by Indian and foreign carriers. Presently, Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai,
Calcutta and Thiruvananthapuram are in this category.

5​ Custom Airports
These have custom and immigration facilities for limited international operations by
national carriers and for foreign tourist and cargo charter flights. These include Bangalore,
Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Calicut, Goa, Varanasi, Patna, Agra, Jaipur, Amritsar and
Tiruchirappali.

6​ Model Airports
These are domestic airports which have minimum runway length of 7500 feet and adequate
terminal capacity to handle Airbus 320 type of aircraft. These can cater to limited
international traffic, if required. These include Lucknow, Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Nagpur,
Vadodara, Coimbatore, Imphal and Indore.

7​ Greenfield Airports
Since there are already a sufficient number of airports, many of which are not viable,
Greenfield airports will normally not be taken up either in the public or private sector without
the prior approval of the Government. In the case of the Other Airport category run by private
operators, the approval of the DGCA would suffice as at present.
A Greenfield airport may be permitted where an existing airport is unable to meet the
projected requirements of traffic or a new focal point of traffic emerges with sufficient
viability. It can be allowed both as a replacement for an existing airport or for simultaneous
operation. This aspect will have to be clearly spelt out in the notice inviting tenders.
No Greenfield airport will normally be allowed within an aerial distance of 150
kilometers of an existing airport. Where it is allowed as a second airport in the same city or
close vicinity, the parameters for distribution of traffic between the two airports will be
clearly spelt out.
 The Government may, while permitting a Greenfield airport, decide whether it will be
in the public or private sectors or be taken up as a joint venture. Where the Government
decides to set up a Greenfield airport throughout the AAI on social considerations even
though the same is not economically viable, suitable grant-in-aid will be provided to AAI to
cover both the initial capital cost as well as the recurring losses.

1.13​ Types of Aircrafts

Types of aircrafts and manufacturers:
1.​ Narrow-Body Aircraft
Narrow-body aircraft have a single aisle and are typically used for short to medium-haul
flights. These aircraft usually seat between 3 to 6 passengers per row, with a capacity of
around 100 to 240 passengers.

2.​ Wide-Body Aircraft

Wide-body aircraft have two aisles and are designed for long-haul flights, typically seating
between 7 to 10 passengers per row. They have larger fuselages and can carry more cargo and
passengers.

3.​ Fixed-Wing Aircraft

Fixed-wing aircraft have wings that do not move, providing lift through forward motion.
They are the most common type of aircraft and can be powered by engines or gliders.

4.​ Rotary-Wing Aircraft (Helicopters)

Rotary-wing aircraft use rotating blades (rotors) to generate lift. They are highly
maneuverable and can take off and land vertically, making them ideal for areas without
runways.

5.​ Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

UAVs, also known as drones, operate without a pilot on board. They can be remotely
controlled or fly autonomously using onboard sensors and GPS.

6.​ Gliders
Gliders are fixed-wing aircraft that do not have engines and rely on air currents to stay aloft.
They are towed into the air by a powered aircraft or winch before being released.

7.​ Seaplanes
Seaplanes are aircraft designed to take off and land on water. They have either floats or a hull
for buoyancy, and they are often used in remote or coastal areas.

8.​ Supersonic Aircraft

Supersonic aircraft can travel faster than the speed of sound (Mach 1), making them ideal for
military operations or high-speed commercial travel.

9.​ Hybrid-Electric Aircraft

These are newer aircraft powered by a combination of fuel and electric energy. They aim to
reduce carbon emissions and fuel consumption.
Airbus, Boeing and Tupoloev mainly manufacturer the wide-body and narrow-body jet
airliners, while Bombardier and Embraer concentrate on regional airlines. To make an aircraft
the manufacturers should source several different and unique parts to be able to construct the
aircraft. There is a large network of specialized parts suppliers throughout the world that
support the requirements of these manufacturers, who sometimes only provide the initial
design and final assembly in their own plants.
There are five major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft these include:
1.​ Airbus
2.​ Boeing
3.​ Bombardier
4.​ Embraer
5.​ Tupoloev

1.​ Airbus: Airbus is one of the world's leading aircraft manufacturers fulfilling about
half or more of the orders for airliners with more than 100 seats. Airbus is based in
Europe with its headquarters in Toulouse, France and has 12 sites in Europe located in
France, Germany, Spain, and UK. Airbus also has three subsidiaries in the USA,
Japan, and China. They employ about 52,000 people from 85 nationalities who speak
among them over 20 different languages. Airbus currently have a product line-up of
14 jet aircraft types which range from 100 to 525 seats. There have been more than
9,200 aircraft ordered throughout the world as the Airbus aircraft family is recognized
for its comfort, economics, and versatility.

2.​ Boeing: Boeing is one of the other main aerospace companies and are the largest
manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft combined. Boeing also
design and manufactures rotor-craft, electronic and defence systems, missiles,
satellites, launch vehicles and advanced information and communication systems.
Boeing is based in USA with its headquarters located in Chicago. They employ more
than 158,000 people across the United States and in 70 countries, making them one of
the most diverse, talented, and innovative work forces anywhere in the world. The
main commercial product that Boeing manufacturers are the 737, 747, 767 and 777
families of airplanes and the Boeing Business Jet, with nearly 12,000 commercial
jetliners in service worldwide (about 75 percent of the world fleet).

3.​ Bombardier: Bombardier is a global transportation company that is present in over

60 countries on 5 continents. They operate two businesses: Aerospace and Rail
Transportation. Bombardier Aerospace is the world's third largest civil aircraft
manufacturer and are leaders in the design and manufacture of innovative aviation
products and services for the business, regional and amphibious aircraft markets.
Their headquarters are in Montréal, Canada and they employ over 32,500 people
worldwide. It's high-performance aircraft and services are seen in a number of
different markets including : Business aircraft - Learjet, Challenger and Global aircraft
families; Commercial aircraft - new CSeries program, CRJ Series and Q- Series
aircraft families; Amphibious aircraft - Bombardier 415 and Bombardier 415 MP
aircraft; Jet travel solutions - Flexjet; Specialized aircraft solutions - Bombardier
aircraft modified for special missions; Aircraft services and training - aircraft parts,
maintenance, comprehensive training, technical support and publications, and online
services.
4.​ Embraer: Embraer has become one of the main aircraft manufacturers in the world
by focusing on specific market segments with high growth potential in commercial,
Défense, and executive aviation. Embraer is based in São José dos Campos, Brazil
and currently employ more than 17,237 people of which 87.7% are based in Brazil.
Embraer continues to lead the industry with its innovative regional and commercial jet
product lines. Since 1996, Embraer has produced and delivered more than 1000 ERJs
to more than 37 airlines in 24 countries. The three markets that Embraer manufacture
aircraft for include: 1 Commercial Aviation - EMB 120; ERJ 135; ERJ 140; ERJ 145;
ERJ 145 XR; EMBRAER 170; EMBRAER 175; EMBRAER 190 and EMBRAER
195. 2 Défense Systems - Super Tucano; EMB 145 AEW&C; EMB MULTI INTEL;
EMB 145 MP and Legacy 600. 3 Executive Aviation - Lineage 1000; Legacy 600;
Legacy 500; Legacy 450; Phenom 300 and Phenom 100.

5.​ Tupolev: Tupolev is a Russian aerospace and defence company, headquartered in

Moscow, Russia and is officially known as Public Stock Company (PSC) Tupolev.
PSC Tupolev develop, manufacture and overhaul both civil and military aerospace
products such as aircraft and weapons systems. They are also actively developing
missile and naval aviation technologies, with more than 18,000 Tupolev aircraft
produced for the USSR and the Eastern Bloc. Many of the designs that PSC Tupolev
have come up with over the years have been dead-ends or experimental aircraft
although they also developed a number of production series aircraft which may have
runs up to 4,500 as in the Tu-2. The designs go back to the early piston-powered
aircraft; experimental airplanes; Bombers and other military types; Interceptors (Tu-
28/Tu-128P "Fiddler"); airliners/transport; unmanned aircraft and planned aircraft
(PAK DA and Tu-2000).
 PART-A
1.14​ Assignment Questions

Each question carry’s one mark

1.​ Who invented the Airplanes?
a)​ Gabriel La Landelle​ c) Wright brothers
b)​ Guillaume Joseph​ d) Montgolfier brothers

2.​ The word Avis means​

a)​ Flying​ c) Flight
b)​ Bird​ d) Aircraft

3.​ Apron in an airport is​

a)​ Aircraft Parking Area​ c) Ticket Counter
b)​ Dress code of Pilot​ d) Security check

4.​ Who coined the word Aviation?

a)​ Gabriel La Landelle​ c) Wright brothers
b)​ Clement Ader​ d) Montgolfier brothers

5.​ In which year the word Aviation used first time?

a)​ 1903​ c)1863
b)​ 1919​ d) 1945

6.​ The word Avis is derived from​

a)​ Latin​ c) Spanish
b)​ French​ d) Greek

7.​ ATC stands for​

a)​ Air Traffic Control​ c) Air- Trans Control
b)​ Aviation Training Centre​ d) Agreement on Trade and Commerce

8.​ Hot air balloon was designed by ​

a)​ Gabriel La Landelle​ c) Ader Eole
b)​ Guillaume Joseph​ d) Montgolfier brothers

9.​ The first recorded powered flight was carried out by ​

a)​ Gabriel La Landelle​ c) Ader Eole
b)​ Guillaume Joseph​ d)Clement Ader

10.​IATA was originally founded in ​

a)​ Hague​ c) USA
b)​ Geneva​ d) Paris

11.​The Imperial Airways flew their first flight from Cairo to Karachi and then to
Delhi on
a)​ 26 December 1926​ c) 26 January 1903
b)​ 29 November 1950​ d)19 December 1903
12.​Air India launched an all tourist class flight to Nairobi from
a)​ 1st December 1942​ c) 1st December 1982
b)​ 1st December 1952​ d) 1st December 1992

13.​When did the Government of India nationalized all the

Aviationservices​
a)​ On 1stJanuary1953​ c) On 1stMarch 1953
b)​ On 1stApril 1953​ d) On 1stAugust 1953

14.​IATA stands for​

a)​International Air Travel Association
b)​International Air Traffic Agreement
c)​International Air Transport Association
d)​International Association Travelling Air

15.​ What Constitutes an “International” Airport?

a)​ Scheduled flights to/from international destination
b)​ Non-scheduled flight to/from
c)​ Customs and Immigration Facility
d)​ None of the above

16.​IATA was originally founded in​

a)​ Hague​ c) Maldieves
b)​ Nairobi​ d) Kenya

17.​20.Airbus, Boeing and Tupoloev mainly manufacturer of the ​

a)​Wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners​ c) Regional airlines
b)​small airlines​ d) war airlines

18.​Tupolev is aerospace and defence company and its headquarters are situated in

a)​Russia​ c) Geneva
b)​France​ d) Japan

19.​In military aviation, simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the

a)​20th century​ c)15th century

b)​21st century​ d)18th century

20.​The first flight made by Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk is in the year ​
a)​1903​ c) 2001
b)​1919​ d) 2012

21.​Military Airbase provides basing and support to ​

a)​Civil Aircraft​ c) War Flights
b)​Military Aircraft​ d) Cargo Aircraft

22.​The Headquarters of Airbus is in

a)​Geneva​ c) India
b)​France​ d) USA
23.​Civil aviation includes all
a)​Non-military flying​ c) Scheduled air transport alone
b)​Military air transport​ d) None of the above

24.​Rajiv Gandhi International Airport is situated in ​

a)​ Delhi​ c) Mumbai
b)​ Hyderabad​ d) Goa

25.​An area where aircraft takes off and lands is called​

a)​ Taxiway​ c) Runway
b)​ Apron​ d) Ramp

PART-B
Each question carry’s eight mark

1.​ “The history of aviation began with the invention of kites and gliders, before
emerging to the multimillionaire-dollar aircraft industry of modern
era”.Analyse.
2.​ Analyse the issues and challenges faced by the Aviation Industry.
3.​ “Airports are a business, airports have competition, and therefore, airports need to
continually develop themselves and to push their boundaries”. Demonstrate this with
reference to changing faces of Airport.
4.​ Discuss the Environmental Impact of Aviation industry?
5.​ “Air transport is an important enabler to achieving economic growth and
development”. To enable this how the development of air transportation in India did
took place?
6.​ Explain the different types of commonly used airport business models in national and
international scenarios.
7.​ How would a typical airport organisation structure be framed? Also explain
the Airport Organization- Models.
8.​ The services provided by the Aviation Industry plays a vital role in constantly
empowering the global economy. Enumerate.
9.​ Write a note on
a)​ Climate change
b)​ Wildlife Management
10.​Explain the different types of aircraft and major manufacturers of
civil transport aircraft.
11.​Airports are classified into different types based upon their operation
and functions. Discuss.
12.​Write a note on
a)​ Civil Airports
b)International
Airports
c)Military Airport
PAVITHRA KUMARI​ INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION MANAGEMENT