Semiconductor Diodes

1
 Diode
Ø is a 2-terminal device. It means two electrodes with
one junnction
Ø is the first electronic device to be introduced
Ø is the simplest of semiconductor devices but plays
vital role in electronic systems
Ø for an IDEAL diode, it acts like a SWITCH that
conducts current in only one direction
symbol
Ø an ideal diode is a short circuit for the region of
conduction and open circuit for the region of non-
conduction

2
 Diodes

Conduction Region Non-Conduction Region

• The voltage across the diode is 0V • All of the voltage is across the diode
• The current is infinite • The current is 0A
• The forward resistance is defined as • The reverse resistance is defined as
RF = VF / IF RR = VR / IR
• The diode acts like a short. • The diode acts like open.

3
 p-n Junction

One end of a silicon or germanium crystal can be doped as a p-type

material and the other end as an n-type material.

When an p-type material and a n-type material are joined together, the
result is a p-n junction.

4
 p-n Junction

At the p-n junction, the negatively

charged atoms of the n-type side
are attracted to the positively
charged atoms of the p-type side.

The electrons in the n-type

material migrate across the
junction to the p-type material
(electron flow).
The result is the formation of a
Or you could say the ‘holes’ in the depletion region around the
p-type material migrate across junction. It is a region of uncovered
the junction to the n-type positive and negative ions due to
material (conventional current the depletion of carriers in this
flow). region or it is the region of no
electrons nor holes.

5
 Diode Operating Conditions

A diode has three operating conditions:

• No applied bias (no voltage applied across)

• Forward bias
• Reverse bias

BIAS
• Refers to the application of an external voltage across
the two terminals of the device to extract a response

6
 Diode Operating Conditions

No Bias

• No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V

• No current is flowing: ID = 0A
• Only a modest depletion layer exists
• The net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is
zero

7
 Diode Operating Conditions

A p–n junction with

no external bias.
(a) An internal
distribution of charge;
(b) a diode symbol,
with the defined
polarity and the
current direction;
(c) demonstration that
the net carrier flow is
zero at the external
terminal of the device
when VD = 0 V.

8
 Diode Operating Conditions

Reverse Bias

External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in

the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.
A voltage is applied with positive at the n-type
material and negative at the p-type material
resulting to a widened depletion region with no
current flow. Only minority current or leakage
current (Is) flows.

• The reverse voltage causes the

depletion layer to widen.
• The electrons in the n-type material
are attracted toward the positive
terminal.
• The holes in the p-type material are
attracted toward the negative
terminal.

9
 Diode Operating Conditions

Forward Bias (“on” condition)

External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in

the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials. A
voltage is applied with positive at p-type material
and negative at the n-type material resulting to the
narrowing the depletion region enabling flow of
majority carriers (holes).

• The forward voltage causes the

depletion layer to narrow.
• The electrons and holes are pushed
toward the p-n junction.
• The electrons and holes have
sufficient energy to cross the p-n
junction.

Recombination à the merging of electron and hole

Lifetime à the amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a free electron
 Computing for Diode Current (ID)

Shockley’s Equation for diode current:

Where:
• IS = reverse saturation current (leakage current) due to minority carrier
• VD = applied forward-bias voltage across the diode (Si = 0.7V , Ge = 0.3V,
GaAs = 1.2 V)
• n = ideality factor (Silcon n=2 and Germanium n=1)
• VT = thermal voltage

Where:
• k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
• T = absolute temperature in Kelvin = oC + 273
• q = magnitude of electronic charge = 1.602 x 10-19 C
 Computing for Diode Current (ID)

Example

1. Determine the thermal voltage and diode current at

25oC for a Silicon Diode with IS = 70 nA and an
applied forward voltage of 0.7 V.

2. Determine the thermal voltage and diode current at

305 K for a Germanium Diode with IS = 100 nA.
 Actual Diode Characteristics

Note the regions for no

bias, reverse bias, and
forward bias conditions.

Carefully note the scale

for each of these
conditions.

13
 Zener Region

The Zener region is in the diode’s

reverse-bias region.
At some point the reverse bias voltage
is so large the diode breaks down and
the reverse current increases
dramatically.

• This maximum voltage is called

avalanche breakdown voltage
• The current is called avalanche current.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) is the

maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the
Zener region.

14
 Forward Bias Voltage

The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition to

forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and holes are
given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction. This energy comes
from the external voltage applied across the diode.

The forward bias voltage required for a:

• silicon diode @ 0.7V

• germanium diode @ 0.3V
• GaAs @ 1.2 V

15
Comparison of Si, Ge and GaAs

The Typical leakage

current:

• silicon diode @ 10pA

• germanium diode @
1µA
• GaAs @ 1pA

16
 Temperature Effects

• As temperature increases it
adds energy to the diode.
• It reduces the required
forward bias voltage for
forward-bias conduction.
• It increases the amount of
reverse current in the
reverse-bias condition.
• It increases maximum
reverse bias avalanche
voltage.
• Germanium diodes are
more sensitive to
temperature variations
than silicon diodes.

17
 Temperature Effects
Effect of Temperature on Reverse Saturation Current

Where:
• IS = reverse saturation current at room temperature
• ISI = reverse saturation current at new temperature
• k = 0.07/oC
• T1 = new temperature
• To = room temperature

Example:

What is the reverse saturation current for a diode at 35oC if the

saturation current at room temperature (300 K) is 80 nA?

18
 Temperature Effects
Effect of Temperature on Threshold Voltage (Forward Voltage)

Where:
• VTH1 = threshold voltage at new temperature
• VTH = threshold voltage at room temperature
• k = -2.5 mV/oC for Silicon and -2.0 mV/oC for Germanium
• T1 = new temperature
• To = room temperature

Example:

What is the new threshold voltage for a Germanium diode at 35oC if

the room temperature (25 oC)?

19
 Resistance Levels

Semiconductors act differently to DC and AC currents.

There are three types of resistances:

• DC, or static resistance

• AC, or dynamic resistance
• Average AC resistance

20
 DC, or Static, Resistance

For a specific applied DC voltage VD,

the diode has a specific current ID,
and a specific resistance RD.

21
 DC, or Static, Resistance

Example:
Determine the dc resistance
levels for the diode at
a. ID = 2 mA
b. ID = 20 mA
c. ID = -1 µA

22
 AC, or Dynamic Resistance

The designation Q-point is derived from

the word quiescent which means “still
or unvarying”. The other term for Q-
point is operating point.

23
 AC, or Dynamic Resistance

In the forward bias region:

26 mV
rd¢ = + rB
ID

• The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the diode.

• The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26mV for 25°C).
• rB ranges from a typical 0.1W for high power devices to 2W for low
power, general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be ignored.

In the reverse bias region:

rd¢ = ¥
The resistance is essentially infinite. The diode acts like an open.

24
 AC, or Dynamic, Resistance

Example:
Determine the ac resistance
for the diode at
a. ID = 2 mA
b. ID = 25 mA

25
 Average AC Resistance

AC resistance can be determined by

selecting two points on the
characteristic curve developed for a
particular circuit.

Example:
Determine the ac resistance
for the diode at
a. ID = 10 mA

26
 Diode Equivalent Circuits

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best

represent the actual terminal characteristics of a device, a system, or such in a
particular operating region.

1. Ideal Diode
Ø is represented by an ideal diode with no threshold voltage and has no
resistance when forward biased. It is an open circuit when reverse biased.
Øis used if Rnetwork >> rav and Enetwork >> VT

27
 Diode Equivalent Circuits

2. The Simplified Diode Model / Second Approximation

Ø the forward when biased has some threshold voltage and still has no
resistance. It is still open circuit when reverse biased.
Øis used if Rnetwork >> rav

28
 Diode Equivalent Circuits

3. The Piecewise Linear Diode Model / Complete Model

Ø the diode when forward biased has some threshold voltage and resistance
but still an open circuit reverse biased

29
 Diode Capacitance

In reverse bias, the depletion layer is very large. The diode’s strong positive and
negative polarities create capacitance, CT. The amount of capacitance depends
on the reverse voltage applied. Reverse-bias capacitance (CR or CT) is the
transition capacitance or depletion-region capacitance of the diode.

In forward bias storage capacitance or diffusion capacitance or storage

capacitance (CD or CF) exists as the diode voltage increases.

30
 Reverse Recovery Time (trr)

Reverse recovery time is the amount of time it takes for the diode to stop
conducting once the diode is switched from forward bias to reverse bias. It
is the time taken by the diode to operate in the reverse condition from
forward conduction.

Where:
• Trr = the time elapsed from
forward to reverse bias that
ranges from a few nanoseconds
(ns) to few hundreds of
picoseconds (ps)
• tt = the transition time
• ts = the storage time

31
 Diode Specification Sheets

Data about a diode is presented uniformly for many different diodes. This
makes cross-matching of diodes for replacement or design easier.

1. VF, forward voltage

Ø This is the required voltage in order to produce forward
current. This is also the voltage drop across the diode
during conduction.
2. IF, forward current
Ø This is the magnitude of current that the diode can handle
without burning when forward biased. This is considered
as the most important of all the parameters.
3. IS, reverse saturation current or IR , reverse current
Ø The magnitude of the current that will leak when the
diode is reverse-biased, oftentimes called the leakage
current

32
 Diode Specification Sheets

4. PIV (Peak Reverse Voltage) or PRV (Peak Reverse Voltage) or

VBR, reverse breakdown voltage
Ø This is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied
before current surges and enters the Zener region
5. PDmax, Maximum Power dissipation
Ø The maximum power the diode can handle without
burning. It is the product of VDmax and IDmax.
PDmax = VDID
6. Linear Power Derating Factor
Ø The factor that tells the reduction of power handling
capability of the diode due to the increase of ambient
temperature from room temperature
7. Maximum Junction Temperature
Ø The maximum temperature the diode can operate before
burning its junction.
33
 Diode Specification Sheets
Electrical Characteristics of a High-Voltage, low-leakage diode:

34
 Diode Specification Sheets

Terminal Characteristics of a High-Voltage Diode

35
 Diode Symbol and Packaging

The anode is abbreviated A

The cathode is abbreviated K

36
 Diode Testing

• Diode checker
• Ohmmeter
• Curve tracer

37
 Diode Checker

Many digital multimeters have a diode checking function.

The diode should be tested out of circuit.

A normal diode will exhibit its forward bias voltage:

• Silicon diode @ 0.7V
• Germanium diode @ 0.3V

38
 Ohmmeter

An ohmmeter set on a low Ohms scale can be used to test a diode.

The diode should be tested out of circuit.

39
 Curve Tracer
A curve tracer is a specialized type of test equipment. It displays the
characteristic curve of the diode in the test circuit. This curve can be
compared to the specifications of the diode from a data sheet.

40