Dr.

Ambedkar Institute of Technology

B.D.A Outer Ring Road
Mallathalli, Bangalore 560 056

Mathematics Lab Manual

Engineering Mathematics-I
(For the AY: 2023-24)

Department of Mathematics1
Dr. A.I.T.

1
www.drait.edu.in
Contents

1 Analysis of 2D curves 1
1.1 Aim: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Cissoid: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.2 Cardioid: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Cycloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Theoretical procedure for tracing a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Important Steps for tracing Cartesian curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Important Steps for tracing Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Important Steps for tracing Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Maxima Code for plotting the curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Maxima code to find angle between the radius vector and the tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 Maxima code to find point of intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Problems for practical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Practical Data Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9 Adjudication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Measures on polar curves 13

2.1 Aim: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Angle between the polar curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Radius of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Expressions for radius of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Maxima code to find the angle between the polar curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Maxima Code for radius of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5.1 For Explicit equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5.2 For Parametric equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Problems for practical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Practical Data Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Adjudication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

iii
1

Analysis of 2D curves

1.1 Aim:
To plot and analyze the standard 2D curves in polar, parametric and Cartesian forms. Also to determine the
point of intersection and nature of tangent.

1.2 Description
There are several standard curves known with their importance in Engineering applications. The equation to
the curves may be in Cartesian form or in parametric form or in Polar form.

1.2.1 Cissoid:
A cubic curve invented by Diocles in about 180 BC in connection with his attempt to duplicate the cube by
geometrical methods. The name “cissoi” first appears in the work of Geminus about 100 years later. Fermat
and Roberval constructed the tangent in 1634. From a given point there are either one or three tangents to the
cissoid.

Figure 1.1: The cissiod 2ay 2 = x(x2 + y 2 ).

Given an origin O and a point P on the curve, let S be the point where the extension of the line OP
intersects the line x = 2a and R be the intersection of the circle of radius a and center (a, 0) with the extension
of OP . Then the cissoid of Diocles is the curve which satisfies OP = RS.
The cissoid of Diocles is the roulette of a parabola vertex of a parabola rolling on an equal parabola. Newton
gave a method of drawing the cissoid of Diocles using two line segments of equal length at right angles. If they
are moved so that one line always passes through a fixed point and the end of the other line segment slides
along a straight line, then the midpoint of the sliding line segment traces out a cissoid of Diocles.
The equation to cissoid of Diocles is given by

1. 2ay 2 = x(x2 + y 2 ) - in Cartesian form.

2. x = 2a sin2 t, y = 2a sin2 t tan t, −π/2 ≤ t ≤ π/2 - in Parametric form.

3. r = 2a sin θ tan θ - in Polar form.

1
2 1. ANALYSIS OF 2D CURVES

Nature of a point: A point on the curve is a double point if there are two tangents to different branches
of the curve at the origin. A double point is a cusp if the slopes of the tangents are real and equal. A double
point is a node if the slopes of the tangents are real and unequal. A double point which is neither a cusp nor a
node is a conjugate point.
Asymptote: An asymptote to the curve is a straight line which is at a finite distance from the origin and
touches the curves at two points each at infinity.
An asymptote that is not parallel to the coordinate axis is called oblique or inclined or rectilinear asymptote.
Note: The cissoid of Diocles has a cusp at the origin, and vertical asymptote at x = 2a.

1.2.2 Cardioid:
The name cardioid derived from the Greek word kardia (means “heart”). In geometry, it is a plane curve traced
by a point on the perimeter of a circle that is rolling around a fixed circle of the same radius. It can also be
defined as an epicycloid having a single cusp. It is also a type of sinusoidal spiral, and an inverse curve of
the parabola with the focus as the center of inversion. A cardioid can also be defined as the set of points of
reflections of a fixed point on a circle through all tangents to the circle.

Figure 1.2: The Cardioid r = 2a(1 − cos θ).

Cardioid generated by a rolling circle on a circle with the same radius.

The name was coined by Giovanni Salvemini in 1741, but the cardioid had been the subject of study decades
beforehand. Although named for its heart-like form, it is shaped more like the outline of the cross-section of a
round apple without the stalk.
The cardioid structure is useful in construction of microphones. A cardioid microphone exhibits an acoustic
pickup pattern that, when graphed in two dimensions, resembles a cardioid (any 2d plane containing the 3d
straight line of the microphone body). In three dimensions, the cardioid is shaped like an apple centred around
the microphone which is the "stalk" of the apple.
The equation to Cardiod is given by

1. (x2 + y 2 − 2ax)2 = 4a2 (x2 + y 2 )-Cartesian Form

2. r = 2a(1 + cos(t))-Polar form.

3. x(t) = a(2 cos(t) − cos(2t)), y(t) = a(2 sin t − sin(2t))-Parametric form.

1.2.3 Cycloid
The cycloid has been called "The Helen of Geometers" as, like Helen of Troy, it caused frequent quarrels among
17th-century mathematicians, while Sarah Hart sees it named as such "because the properties of this curve are
so beautiful".
The cycloid, with the cusps pointing upward, is the curve of fastest descent under uniform gravity (the
brachistochrone curve). It is also the form of a curve for which the period of an object in simple harmonic
motion (rolling up and down repetitively) along the curve does not depend on the object’s starting position (the
tautochrone curve). In physics, when a charged particle at rest is put under a uniform electric and magnetic
field perpendicular to one another, the particle’s trajectory draws out a cycloid.
Christiaan Huygens had deployed the cycloidal pendulum to improve chronometers and had discovered that
a particle would traverse a segment of an inverted cycloidal arch in the same amount of time, regardless of its
starting point.
The cycloid through the origin, generated by a circle of radius r rolling over the x-axis on the positive side
(y ≥ 0), consists of the points (x, y), with x = a(t − sin t); y = a(1 − cos t) a > 0.
 1.3. THEORETICAL PROCEDURE FOR TRACING A CURVE 3

0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2

-4

Figure 1.3: The Cycloid x = a(t − sin t), y = a(1 − cos t) when a = 2.

1.3 Theoretical procedure for tracing a curve

1.3.1 Important Steps for tracing Cartesian curves
Let f (x, y) = 0 be the equation to the curve.
Step 1. Check for symmetry of the curve about the line as follows:
(a) If the equation contains only even powers of y, then the curve is symmetric about the x-axis.
(b) If the equation contains only even powers of x, then the curve is symmetric about the y-axis.
(c) If the equation remains unchanged by interchanging x and y, then the curve is symmetric about the
line y = x.
(d) If the equation contains only even powers of x and even powers of y, then the curve is symmetric
about the origin. That is symmetric in opposite quadrants.
Step 2. Check the passing point
(a) If f (0, 0) = 0, then the curve passes through the origin. That is, the curve passes through the origin
if there is no constant term in the equation of the curve.
(b) Check whether or not the curve touches the coordinate axis, by solving the equations f (x, 0) = 0
and f (0, y) = 0.
(c) If the curve passes through the origin, then find the equation to the tangent to the curve at the
origin by equating lowest degree terms to zero. Also find the nature of the origin for cusp, node or
conjugate point.
Step 3. Check for asymptotes
(a) If the coefficient of highest power of y in the given equation is a constant or the linear factors of the
coefficients of highest power of y yields imaginary roots by equating them to zero, then there will be
no asymptote parallel to y-axis.
(b) If the coefficient of highest power of x in the given equation is a constant or the linear factors of the
coefficients of highest power of x yields imaginary roots by equating them to zero, then there will be
no asymptote parallel to x-axis.
(c) If the above two are not true, then find the asymptote parallel to the axis by equating the linear real
factor of the coefficient of highest power of x (or y) to zero.
(d) To find oblique asymptotes y = mx + c
i. Put y = mx + c in the equation f (x, y) = 0.
ii. Equate to zero the coefficient of highest degree term in x. Obtains the values of m.
iii. Putting each value of m so obtained substitute in the given equation and solve for c the coefficient
of highest degree terms in the resulting equation.
iv. For each pair of m and c, the asymptote is y = mx + c.
Step 4. Check the non-existence region.
(a) Find the region in which no portion of the curve lies. This can be done by finding the intervals/regions
at which the values of y are imaginary.
(b) Obtain clear picture of the existence region.
Step 5. Get the information about the shape/points
(a) Find the points where the curve crosses the axis.
 4 1. ANALYSIS OF 2D CURVES

(b) Find the point where the tangent is parallel to the coordinate axis.
(c) Classify the intervals at which the curve is increasing or decreasing by finding dy/dx. If the slope
dy/dx is negative in any interval then the curve is decreases as x increases, and hence the curve is
decreasing.

Step 6. Trace the curve

(a) To trace the graph with the above information lay down at least some points before the neat sketch.
(b) Trace the curve smoothly indicating the asymptotes and tangents with doted (or distinguishable)
lines.

1.3.2 Important Steps for tracing Parametric Curves

Let x = f (t) and y = g(t) be the parametric equations to the curve.

Step 1. Check for symmetry of the curve about the line as follows:

(a) If the function f (t) is an even function and g(t) is an odd function, then the curve is symmetric
about the x-axis.
(b) If the function f (t) is an odd function and g(t) is an even function, then the curve is symmetric
about the y-axis.
(c) If both the function f (t) and g(t) are even, then the curve is symmetric about the origin.

Step 2. Check the passing point

(a) If there exists a real root for f (t) = 0, then the curve touches the y axis. Similarly, if there exists a
real root for g(t) = 0, then the curve touches the x-axis.
(b) If f (t) = 0 and g(t) = 0 have a common root, then the curve passes through the origin.
(c) Observe the sign of dx/dt and dy/dt in an interval of t and decide the increasing or decreasing nature
of the curve.
(d) Examine for the existence of t for which the tangent is parallel to the coordinate axes.
(e) Check whether the functions f (t) and g(t) are periodic, if so determine their common period.

Step 3. Check for non-existence region

(a) Determine the maximum and minimum limits of the function f (t) and g(t). Hence obtain the strips
parallel to the axis so that these strips bound the curve.
(b) If possible, deriv cartesian equation of the given curve by eliminating the parameter t form the given
equations to get more clear information about the curve whenever there is an ambiguity.

1.3.3 Important Steps for tracing Polar Curves

Consider a polar curve r = f (θ).

Step 1. Check for symmetry of the curve about the line as follows:

(a) If f (θ) = f (−θ), then the curve is symmetric about the initial line.
(b) If f (θ) = −f (−θ), then the curve is symmetric about the pole.
(c) If f (π − θ) = f (θ), then the curve is symmetric about the line perpendicular to the initial line
(θ = π/2) which is passing through the pole.

Step 2. Check the passing point

(a) If f (θ) = 0, for any real θ, then the curve touches the pole.
(b) For other values of θ, corresponding point P (r, θ) on the curve is on the line θ = constant (taken
value) at a distance r from the pole.

Step 3. Check the asymptotes Examine for the asymptote to the curve using the fact that the asymptote to the
polar curve 1/r = g(θ) is the line r sin(θ − α) = 1/f 0 (α), where α is the root of the equation g(θ) = 0.

Step 4. Check the non-existence region.

 1.4. MAXIMA CODE FOR PLOTTING THE CURVE 5

(a) Find the region in which no portion of the curve lies. This can be done by finding the intervals/regions
for θ at which the values of r are imaginary.
(b) Obtain clear picture of the region of existence.
Step 5. Get the information about the shape Using the relation tan φ = r dθ dr , determine the points on the curve
at which the tangent is parallel or perpendicular to the radius vector/initial line.
Step 6. Trace the curve To trace the graph with the above information lay down at least some points on the radius
vectors by finding values of r corresponding to successive values of θ.

1.4 Maxima Code for plotting the curve

Ex 1 wxdraw2d(user_preamble="set zeroaxis linetype 10;set xtics axis;set ytics axis",title=" NAME OF THE
CUVE", color=dark-red, nticks=2000, line_width=3, key="Equation of the curve", form(equation of the
curve,x,x0 , x1 , y, y0 , y1 )$
Ex 2 plot2d([x∧2,2*x+3,x∧3+2*x-1], [x,-5,5], [y,-5,5], [nticks,9])$
Ex 3 plot2d([x∧2,2*x+3,x∧3+2*x-1], [x,-5,5])$
Example 1: / * draws curves in Cartesian form */
a:2;
wxdraw2d(user_preamble="set zeroaxis linetype 10;set xtics axis;set ytics axis",title="CISSOID", color=dark-
red, nticks=2000, line_width=3, key="2ay**2=x(x**2+y**2)", implicit(2*a*y∧2=x*(x∧2+y∧2),x,-1,2*a,y,-
7*a,7*a))$
Example 2: /* draws curves in parametric form */
a:2;
wxdraw2d(grid=true,user_preamble="set zeroaxis linetype 8;set xtics axis;set ytics axis;", nticks=2000, ti-
tle="CYCLOID", color=dark-violet,xrange=[-8*a,8*a],yrange=[-8*a,8*a],key="x=a*(t-sin(t)),y=a*(1-cos(t))",
parametric(a*(t-sin(t)),a*(1-cos(t)),t,-5*%pi,5*%pi))$
Example 3: /* draws curves in polar form */
e1:1-cos(t);
a:2;
r:a*abs(e1);
draw2d(user_preamble="set zeroaxis linetype 8;set xtics axis;set ytics axis;", nticks = 2000, title="CARDIOID",
xrange = [-2.5*a,0.5*a], color = blue, line_width = 3, polar(r,t,0,2*%pi),grid=true)$

1.5 Maxima code to find angle between the radius vector and the
tangent
r:.... (/*Equation of the given curve*/);
r1:diff(r, θ);
φ :atan(r/r1);
ev(φ,θ= ...);
print("the required angle φ is ", φ)$
Example: To find the angle between the tangent to the cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ) and radius vector at θ = π/3.
r:a*(1+cos(θ));
r1:diff(r,θ);
φ :atan(r/r1);
θ:3*%pi/2;
φ1:ev(φ,θ=3*%pi/2);
if (φ1<0) then φ1:%pi+% else φ1:%$
print("At θ =", θ, ", the angle φ = ", φ1)$
6 1. ANALYSIS OF 2D CURVES

1.5.1 Maxima code to find point of intersection

Example: To find the point of intersection of r = a(1 − cos θ) and r = a(1 + cos θ).
kill(all);
/* Step 1: Type equation of first curve */
e1:r=a*abs(1-cos(2*θ));
/* Step 2: Type equation of second curve */
e2:r=a*abs(1+cos(θ));
/* Step 3: Eleminate r form e1 and e2 */
eqn_in_θ: trigexpand(e1-e2);
/* Step 4: Simplify the above trigonometric equation */
sim_eqn: trigsimp(eqn_in_θ);
/* Step 5: Solve the above trigonometric equation for θ */
angle: solve(sim_eqn,θ);
print("The given curves intersect at θ=", angle)$

1.6 Problems for practical

Consider any two curves (sub questions) in each of the main questions during practical. Describe
only about these two curves chosen in record book.

1. Plot the following curves given in Cartesian form.

(a) Cissoid: y 2 (a − x) = x3 .
(b) Asteroid: x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 , a > 0.
(c) Strophoid: y 2 (a − x) = x2 (a + x), a > 0.
(d) Lemniscate of Bernoulli: (x2 + y 2 )2 = a2 (x2 − y 2 ).
(e) Witch of Agnesi: ay 2 = a2 (a − x), a > 0.
(f) Cardioid: (x2 + y 2 − 2ax)2 = 4a2 (x2 + y 2 ).
(g) Catenary: y = a cosh(x/a) or y = a(ex/a + e−x/a )/2
(h) Folium of Descartes: x3 + y 3 − 3axy = 0, a > 0.
2. Plot the following curves given in Parametric form.
(a) Asteroid: x = a cos3 θ; y = a sin3 θ, a > 0 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(b) Cardioid: x = a(2 cos t − cos(2t)); y = a(2 sin t − sin(2t)), a > 0 and 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
3at 3at2
(c) Folium of Descartes: x(t) = 1+t3 ; y(t) = 1+t3 , a > 0.
2
(d) Witch of Agnesi: x(t) = at, y(t) = a/(1 + t ), a > 0.
3. Plot the following curves given in Polar form.
(a) Asteroid: r = a(1 + cos θ), a > 0 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(b) Cissoid: r = 2a sin θ tan θ, a > 0 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(c) r2 = a2 cos(2θ) sec4 θ, a > 0 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(d) Equiangular spriral: r = aeθ cot b , a, b > 0.
(e) Hyperbolic spiral: rθ = a, a > 0.
(f) Sprial of Archimedis: r = aθ, a > 0.
4. Find the angle between tangent and the radius vector for the following curves.
(a) rn = an cos nθ.
1.6. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICAL 7

(b) r2 = a2 sin 2θ.

(c) r = aebθ .
(d) r = a(1 − cos θ).
(e) r(1 + cos θ) = a.
(f) r = a csc2 ( θ2 ).
(g) r = sin θ + cos θ.
(h) rn = an sec(nθ + α).
l
(i) r = 1 + e cos θ.

5. Find the point of intersection of the following pair of curves:

(a) r = a cos θ; 2r = a.
(b) r = a(1 − cos θ); r = 2a cos θ.
(c) rm = am cos mθ; rm = am sin mθ.
(d) r2 = a2 cos 2θ + b2 ; r = b.
a
(e) r = a log θ; r = log θ .
aθ a
(f) r = 1+θ ; r= 1+θ 2 .
(g) r2 sin 2θ = 4; 16 cos 2θ = r2 .
(h) r = a cos 2θ; r = a sin 2θ.
8 1. ANALYSIS OF 2D CURVES

1.7 Practical Data Records

[To be written on the Left side of the practical record book]
Aim: To plot and analyze the standard 2D curves in polar, parametric and Cartesian forms. Also to determine
the point of intersection and nature of tangent.
A. Observations on given Cartesian Curves C1 and C2.

Curve C1 C2
Input: Equation of the
curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: Figure obtained

Symmetry about x-axis

Symmetry about y-axis
Symmetry about the origin
Nature of the origin
Asymptote if any
x-intercepts
y-intercepts
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is paral-
lel to x-axis
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is paral-
lel to y-axis
Region of Existence
Region of Non-existence
Interval of monotonically
increasing
Interval of monotonically
decreasing
Any other major findings
1.7. PRACTICAL DATA RECORDS 9

B. Observations on given Parametric Curves C3 and C4.

Curve C3 C4
Input: Equation of the
curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: Figure obtained

Symmetry about x-axis

Symmetry about y-axis
Symmetry about the origin
Period (if periodic)
Nature of the origin
x-intercepts
y-intercepts
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is paral-
lel to x-axis
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is paral-
lel to y-axis
Region of Existence
Region of Non-existence
Interval of monotonically
increasing
Interval of monotonically
decreasing
Any other major findings
10 1. ANALYSIS OF 2D CURVES

C. Observations on given Polar Curves C5 and C6.

Curve C5 C6
Input: Equation of the
curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: Figure obtained

Symmetry about initial line

Symmetry about θ = π/2
Symmetry about the pole
Nature of the pole
Intercepts on initial line
Intercepts on θ = π/2
Intercepts on θ = π
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is paral-
lel to initial line
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is per-
pendicular to initial line
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is paral-
lel to the radius vector
Point/s on the curve at
which the tangent is per-
pendicular to the radius
vector
Region of Existence
Region of Non-existence
Any other major findings
1.8. INFERENCE 11

D. Angle between the radius vector and a tangent

Tail number 1 2
Input: Equation of the
curve
Input: Value of θ
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: The value of φ

E. Point of intersection of two polar curves

Tail number 1 2
Input: Equation of the first
curve
Input: Equation of the sec-
ond curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted to find the point of in-
tersection

Output: Value of the point

of intersection θ =

1.8 Inference
In all the trails and different forms it is observed, for each of the curves, that the curves obtained almost satisfy
the theoretical facts of the corresponding equation of the curve in its tracing procedure.
12 1. ANALYSIS OF 2D CURVES

1.9 Adjudication

Name of the student

University seat Number

Batch Number

Experiment Number 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10

Date of conduction

Number of Trails shown 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10

Viva questions answered 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10

Marks awarded (out of 10)

Signature of the faculty in-charge

with date
2

Measures on polar curves

2.1 Aim:
To determine angle between to polar curves and also to determine the bending of a curve at a given point on it.

2.2 Description
2.2.1 Angle between the polar curves
Let P (r, θ) be the point of intersection of two polar curves whose equations are r = f (θ) and r = g(θ). Let P T1
and P T2 be the tangents drawn to these curves at the point P , which make angles φ1 and φ2 with the radius
vector OP respectively. Then the angle ξ = |φ1 − φ2 | is the angle between the curves at the point of intersection
P . Further,
tan φ1 − tan φ2
tan ξ = tan |φ1 − φ2 | = | |.
1 + tan φ1 × tan φ2
Hence if the two curves are orthogonal (perpendicular), then tan φ1 × tan φ2 = −1 and are parallel if tan φ1 =
tan φ2 .

2.2.2 Radius of curvature

In mathematics, curvature is any of several strongly related concepts in geometry. Intuitively, the curvature
is the amount by which a curve deviates from being a straight line, or a surface deviates from being a plane.
The curvature at a point of a differentiable curve is the curvature of its osculating circle, that is the circle
that best approximates the curve near this point. The curvature of a straight line is zero. In contrast to the
tangent, which is a vector quantity, the curvature at a point is typically a scalar quantity, that is, it is expressed
by a single real number.
Intuitively, the curvature, denoted by κ, describes for any part of a curve how much the curve direction
changes over a small distance travelled (e.g. angle in rad/m), so it is a measure of the instantaneous rate of
change of direction of a point that moves on the curve: the larger the curvature, the larger this rate of change.
In other words, the curvature measures how fast the unit tangent vector to the curve rotates (fast in terms of
curve position). In fact, it can be proved that this instantaneous rate of change is exactly the curvature.
In differential geometry, the radius of curvature, denoted by ρ, is the reciprocal of the curvature. For a
curve, it equals the radius of the circular arc which best approximates the curve at that point. For surfaces,
the radius of curvature is the radius of a circle that best fits a normal section or combinations thereof.

2.3 Expressions for radius of curvature

In implicit form: For the curve f (x, y), the radius of curvature is given by
((fx )2 + (fy )2 )3/2
ρ=
fxx ∗ (fy )2 + fyy ∗ (fx )2 − 2fxy fx fy

In parametric form: For the curve x = x(t), y = y(t), the radius of curvature is given by
 3/2
dy 2
( dx
dt )2
+ ( dt )
ρ = dx d2 y dy d2 x
dt · dt2 − dt · dt2

13
14 2. MEASURES ON POLAR CURVES

In polar form: For the curve x = x(t), y = y(t), the radius of curvature is given by

dr 2

3/2
r2 + ( dθ )
ρ= dr 2 d r2
r2 + 2( dθ ) − r dθ 2

2.4 Maxima code to find the angle between the polar curves
Example 1: Angle between r = a(1 − cos(2θ)) and r = a(1 + cos θ).
kill(all);
/* A) To find point of the intersection*/
/* Step 1: Type equation of first curve */
e1:r=a*abs(1-cos(2 ? θ));
/* Step 2: Type equation of second curve */
e2:r=a*abs(1+cos(θ));
/* Step 3: Eleminate r form e1 and e2 */
eqn_in_θ:trigexpand(e1-e2);
/*Step: 4 Simplify the above equation to solve*/
sim_eqn:trigsimp(eqn_in_θ);
/* Step 5: Solve the above equation for θ */
values_θ:solve(sim_eqn,θ)$
print("Curves intersect at", values_θ)$

/* B) To find the angle between the tangent and radius vector for the first curve at the point of intersection
*/
/* Step 1: Type first equation r=...... */
fr:a*abs(1-cos(2*θ));
/* Step 2: Find dr/dθ for the first equation */
fr1:diff(fr,θ);
/* Step 3: Find the angle tan φ for the first curve */
tanφ1:(fr/fr1);
/* Step 4: Value of tan φ for the first curve at the point of intersection */
value_tanφ1: ev(tanφ1, θ=%pi/3);

/* B) To find the angle between the tangent and radius vector for the second curve at the point of intersection*/
/* Step 1: Type Second equation r=...... */
sr:a*abs(1+cos(θ));
/* Step 2: Find dr/dt for the second equation */
sr1:diff(sr,θ);
/* Step 3:Find the angle tan φ for the second curve */
tanφ2:(sr/sr1);
/* Step 4: Value of tan φ for the second curve at the point of intersection */
2.5. MAXIMA CODE FOR RADIUS OF CURVATURE 15

value_tanφ2: ev(tanφ2, θ=%pi/3);

/* C) To find tan of the angle ξ between the given curves */

ξ: if(value_tanφ1*value_tanφ2=-1) then %pi/2 else atan((value_tanφ1-value_tanφ2)/(1+value_tanφ1*value_tanφ2));
/* Final output */
print("The angle between the curves", e1 ,"and", e2, "is =", ξ)$

2.5 Maxima Code for radius of curvature

2.5.1 For Implicit equation
/* Step 1:Consider the given curve f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 3axy = 0*/
eqn: x∧3+y∧3-3*a*x*y ;
/* Step 2: Find first and second order partial derivatives */
fx:diff(eqn,x);
fy:diff(eqn,y);
fxx:diff(fx,x);
fxy:diff(fx,y);
fyy:diff(fy,y);
/*Step 3: find numerator and denominator terms */
Nr: (fx)**2+(fy)**2;
Dr: (fxx)*(fy)**2+(fyy)*(fx)**2−2*fxy*fx*fy;
/* Find radius of curvature*/
ρ: ((Nr)**(3/2))/Dr;
/* radius of curvature at a given point (3a/2. 3a/2) is */
ρ1:ev(ρ,x=3*a/2,y=3*a/2);
Print("Radius of curvature at (3a/2. 3a/2) is", ρ1)$

2.5.2 For Parametric equation

x: t∧2+1;
y:2*t+1;
xdot:diff(x,t);
ydot:diff(y,t);
xddot:diff(xdot,t);
yddot:diff(ydot,t);
Nr:(xdot)**2+(ydot)**2;
Dr:xdot*yddot-ydot*xddot;
rho:(Nr)∧(3/2)/Dr;
rho1:ev(rho,t=1);
correct_rho1:if (rho1<0) then abs(%) else %;
Print("The radius of curvature of the curve at t=1 is", correct_rho1)$
16 2. MEASURES ON POLAR CURVES

2.6 Problems for practical

1. Find the angle between the following curves
(a) r = a cos θ; 2r = a.
(b) r = a(1 − cos θ); r = 2a cos θ.
(c) rm = am cos mθ; rm = am sin mθ.
(d) r2 = a2 cos 2θ + b2 ; r = b.
(e) r = a log θ; r = loga θ .
aθ a
(f) r = 1+θ ; r= 1+θ 2 .
(g) r2 sin 2θ = 4; 16 cos 2θ = r2 .
(h) r = a cos 2θ; r = a sin 2θ.
(i) r = aeθ ; reθ = b.
(j) r = a(1 + sin θ); r = a(1 − sin θ).
(k) r = aeθ ; r = be−θ .
(l) b2 = r2 cos 2θ; a2 = r2 sin 2θ.
(m) r = aθ; rθ = a.
2. Find the radius of curvature of the following curves at a suitable point on it.
(a) x2 − y 2 = a2
(b) y = ln sin x
(c) x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
(d) x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 .
(e) y = c ln sec(x/c).
(f) x = a cos3 θ, y = b sin3 θ.
(g) x = at, y = at .
(h) x = 6t2 − 5t4 , y = 8t3 .
(i) x = log t, y = 12 (t + 1t ).
(j) x = a log sec t, y = a(tan t − t).
(k) x = a sin 2t(1 + cos 2t),
y = a cos 2t(1 − cos 2t).
(l) x = 3a cos t − a cos 3t,
y = 3a sin t − a sin 3t.
(m) x = 2a sin t + a sin 2t,
y = 2a cos t + a cos 2t.
(n) xy = log x at x = 1.
(o) x3 + y 3 = 3axy, at ( 3a 3a
2 , 2 ).
(p) xy 2 = a3 − x3 , at (a, 0).
(q) y 2 = x3 + 8 at x = −8.
(r) r = a cos θ,
(s) r2 = a2 cos 2θ.
√
(t) r = a cos θ2 .
(u) a2 = r2 cos 2θ.
(v) r = a sin3 θ2 .

2.7 Practical Data Records

[To be written on the Left side of the practical record book]
|bf Aim: To determine angle between to polar curves and also to determine the bending of a curve at a given
point on it.
A. Observations on Angle between the given curves
2.7. PRACTICAL DATA RECORDS 17

Curve Trail 1 Trail 2

Input: Equation of the first
polar curve
Input: Equation of the sec-
ond polar curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: Point of intersec-

tion
Output: Angle between
the curves at the point of in-
tersection.
18 2. MEASURES ON POLAR CURVES

B. Observations on Radius of curvature of Cartesian curves

Curve Trail 1 Trail 2

Input: Equation of the
curve
Input: Chosen point on the
curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: The radius of cur-

vature at the chosen point

C. Observations on Radius of curvature of Parametric Curves

Curve Trail 1 Trail 2

Input: Equation of the
curve
Input: Chosen point on the
curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: The radius of cur-

vature at the chosen point
2.8. ADJUDICATION 19

D. Observations on Radius of curvature of Polar curves

Curve Trail 1 Trail 2

Input: Equation of the
curve
Input: Chosen point on the
curve
Algorithm: Code exe-
cuted

Output: The radius of cur-

vature at the chosen point

2.8 Adjudication

Name of the student

University seat Number

Batch Number

Experiment Number 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10

Date of conduction

Number of Trails shown 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10

Viva questions answered 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10

Marks awarded (out of 10)

Signature of the faculty in-charge

with date