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Computer Workshop

B tech (Galgotias University)

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//EXPERIMENT 1: To identify the peripherals of a computer,

components in a CPU and its functions.

Peripheral device, also known as peripheral, computer peripheral, input-

output device, or input/output device, is used to enter information and
instructions into a computer for storage or processing and to deliver the
processed data to a human operator or, in some cases, a machine
controlled by the computer. Such devices make up the peripheral
equipment of modern digital computer systems.

There are many different peripheral devices, but they fall into three
general categories:
1. Input devices, such as a mouse and a keyboard.
2. Output devices, such as a monitor and a printer.
3. Storage devices, such as a hard drive or flash drive.

Peripheral devices can be external or internal. For example, a printer is

an external device that you connect using a cable, while an optical disc
drive is typically located inside the computer case. Internal peripheral
devices are also referred to as integrated peripherals.

Input devices include typewriter-like keyboards; handheld devices such

as the mouse, trackball, joystick, trackpad, and special pen with
pressure-sensitive pad; microphones, webcams, and digital cameras.
They also include sensors that provide information about their
environment—temperature, pressure, and so forth—to a computer.
Another direct-entry mechanism is the optical laser scanner (e.g.,
scanners used with point-of-sale terminals in retail stores) that can read
bar-coded data or optical character fonts.

Output equipment includes video display terminals, ink-jet and laser

printers, loudspeakers, headphones, and devices such as flow valves that
control machinery, often in response to computer processing of sensor
input data. Some devices, such as video display terminals and USB hubs,
may provide both input and output. Other examples are devices that
enable the transmission and reception of data between computers—
e.g., modems and network interfaces.

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Most auxiliary storage devices—as, for example, CD-

ROM and DVD drives, flash memory drives, and external disk drives also
double as input/output devices (see computer memory). Even devices
such as smartphones, tablet computers, and wearable devices like
fitness trackers and smartwatches can be considered as
peripherals, albeit ones that can function independently.

Various standards for connecting peripherals to computers exist. For

example, serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) is the most
common interface, or bus, for magnetic disk drives. A bus (also known as
a port) can be either serial or parallel, depending on whether the data
path carries one bit at a time (serial) or many at once (parallel). Serial
connections, which use relatively few wires, are generally simpler than
parallel connections. Universal serial bus (USB) is a common serial bus.

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Components of CPU and Their Functions are as follows:

1. Control Unit (CU):-

The control unit controls the way input and output devices, the
Arithmetic, and Logic Unit, and the computer’s memory respond to the
instruction sent to the CPU. It fetches the input, converts it in a decoded
form, and then sends it for processing to the computer’s processor,
where the desired operation is performed. There are two types of
Control units – the Hardwire CU and the Microprogrammable CU.

Functions of Control Unit:

i. It controls the sequence in which instructions move in and out of the
processor and also the way the instructions are performed.
ii. It is responsible for fetching the input, converting it into signals, and
storing it for further processing.
iii. It controls the functioning of other components of the CPU like ALU
and Registers.

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2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):-

The Arithmetic and Logical Unit is responsible for arithmetical and logical
calculations as well as taking decisions in the system. It is also known as
the mathematical brain of the computer. The ALU makes use of registers
for the calculations. It takes input from input registers, performs
operations on the data, and stores the output in an output register.

Functions of ALU:
i. It is mainly used to make decisions like performing arithmetic and
logical operations.
ii. It acts as a bridge between the computer’s primary memory and the
secondary memory. All information that is exchanged between the
primary and secondary memory passes through the ALU.

3. Registers:-

Registers are a part of a computer’s memory that is used to store the

instructions temporarily to provide the processor with the instructions at
times of need. These registers are also known as Processor registers as
they play an important role in the processing of data. These registers
store data in the form of memory address and after the processing of the
instruction present at that memory address is completed, it stores the
memory address of the next instruction. There are various kinds of
registers that perform different functions.

Functions of Registers:
i. Input registers are used to carry the input.
ii. Output registers are used to carry the output.
iii. Temporary registers store data temporarily.
iv. Address registers store the address of the memory.
v. The program counter stores the address of the instructions.
vi. Data registers hold the memory operand.
vii. Instruction registers hold the instruction codes.

4. Cache:-

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Cache is a type of Random Access Memory which stores small amounts

of data and instructions temporarily which can be reused as and when
required. It reduces the amount of time needed to fetch the instructions
as instead of fetching it from the RAM, it can be directly accessed from
Cache in a small amount of time.

Functions of Cache:
i. They reduce the amount of time needed to fetch and execute
instructions.
ii. They store data temporarily for later use.

5. Buses:-

A bus is a link between the different components of the computer

system and the processor. They are used to send signals and data from
the processor to different devices and vice versa. There are three types
of buses – Address bus which is used to send memory address from
process to other components. The data bus, which is used to send actual
data from the processor to the components, and the Control bus, used
to send control signals from the processor to other devices.

Functions of Bus:
i. It is used to share data between different devices.
ii. It supplies power to different components of the system.

6. Clock:-

As the name suggests, the clock controls the timing and speed of the
functions of different components of the CPU. It sends out electrical
signals which regulate the timing and speed of the functions.

Functions of Clock:
i. It maintains the synchronization of the components of the computer
system.
ii. It keeps track of the current date and time.

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//EXPERIMENT 2: To assemble/disassemble the system

hardware components of a Personal Computer.

1. Setting the Cabinet ready:-

• Check how to open the cabinet and determine where to fix the
components.
• Determine if the case has the appropriate risers installed.

2. Fitting the Mother board:-

• Line up the patch on the motherboard (ps/l, USB, etc ) with the
appropriate holes in the block panel I/O shield of the case.
• Check the points where you and to install
• Install them and make the mother board sit on them and fix
screws if required.

Fig: motherboard and Back panel cover

3. Installing the CPU:-

• Raise the small lever at the side of the socket.
• Notice that there is a pin missing at one corner, determine the
direction to fit in the processor.
• You should not force the CPU. When inserting it. All pins should
slide smoothly into the socket.
• Lock the lever back down.

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Fig: CPU placement

4. Installing CPU fan:-

• Install the heat sink over it (Different type for each processor).
Heat sink
/CPU fan.

Fig: Cooling fans

5. Fitting the RAM:-

• The RAM must be suitable for motherboard.
• There are currently 3 types of RAM available.
a) SD RAM.
b) DDR SD RAM.
c) RD RAM.
• The mother board‘s chipset determines which type of RAM may
be used.

Fig: Install RAM

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6. Installing SMPS:-
 Switch mode power supply, SMPS: The term switch mode power
supply is generally used to indicate an item that can be connected to
the mains, or other external supply and used to generate the source
power. In other words it is a complete power supply.
 Switch mode regulator: This typically refers just to the electronic
circuit that provides the regulation. A switch mode regulator will be
part of the overall switch mode power supply.
 Switch mode regulator controller: Many switch mode regulator
integrated circuits do not contain he series switching element. This
will be true if the current or voltage levels are high, because an
external series switching element would be able to better handle the
higher current and voltage levels, as well as the resultant power
dissipation.

Fig: Install Power supply unit (SMPS)

7. Installing the ATX Power Connector ATX Connectors:-

• PS, Mouse.
• Key board.
• USB.
• Parallel ( Prints )
• Serial COM1.
• Serial COM 2.
• Joystick.
• Sound.

8. Installing the HDD and Floppy disk:-

 Place the floppy and hard disks in their slots.
 Leave some space above HDD to prevent heat building.
 Check the jumper configuration.
 Fix the screws.

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Fig: Install drives

9. CD-ROM Drive:-
• CD-ROM drive is similar to installing a hard disk.
• 1st check that the jumper configuration is correct.
• Fix the screw.

10. Installing LAN Card:-

 Assemble your materials.
 Gather up the network card and the driver disks. While you’re at it,
get your Windows installation CD just in case.
 Shut down Windows, turn off the computer and unplug it.
 Remove the cover from your computer.
 Find an unused expansion slot inside the computer.
 Remove the metal slot protector from the back of the computer’s
chassis.
 Insert the network interface card into the slot.
 Secure the network interface card.
 Put the computer’s case back together.
 Plug in the computer and turn it back on.

Fig: Install Expansion Cards

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11. Connecting the ribbon Cables and Front panel connections:-

• Attach the long end of the cable to the IDEU connector on the
motherboard first. The red stripe on the IDE cable should be facing the
CD Power.

sata-pata bus and connector

Fig: Cable connection

12. Final Check:

• Mother board jumper configurations are the settings for the
processor operator.
• Drive jumper settings, master/ slave are correct.
• The processor, RAM modules and plug in cards are finally seated in
their sockets.
• All the cables are plugged in and fit perfectly.
• All the screws in plug-in cards are frightened and the clips are
fitted.
• The drive secure is secure.
• The power cables are connected to all the drivers.

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//EXPERIMENT 3: To study the different kinds of

network cable and network devices.

There are four types of network cabling:

1. Coaxial Cable:-
The Twisted pair cable is one type of Ethernet cable. These are used for
connection in the local area networks. The Twisted pair cables are
connected to the local router or a modem so that we can provide
internet access to the local devices. One end of the Twisted pair cable
consists of the interface card and the other end plugs are connected to a
router sitch or a modem.

The Below figure represents the Twisted pair cable-

These Ethernet Twisted pairs are dived into two types-

 Unshielded Twisted pairs
 Shielded Twisted pairs

i. Unshielded Twisted pair:-

The Unshielded twisted pairs are the most common type of cables. It
consists of four different color code wires that are twisted into pairs.
Now, why do these colors are getting twisted? To prevent
Electromagnetic interference and crosstalk, the Unshielded twisted pairs
are get twisted in pairs. The Twisted pair cables are mostly used in
homes and for many business purposes.

ii. Shielded Twisted pair:-

It is similar to the shielded twisted pairs, the main difference between
the two is a foil shield is wrapped around the color-coded pairs alike

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from the Unshielded twisted pairs. It has an extra layer of protection to

prevent electromagnetic Interference. It is mostly used in Industries.
For the Twisted pair cables, simply we have to connect the RJ45
connectors at both ends of the Twisted pairs.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:-

It is a special kind of copper telephone wiring used in business
installations. An external shield which functions as a ground is added to
the normal twisted pair telephone wires. Shielded twisted pair may be
the answer if you want to place the cable in an area with potential
interference and risk to the electrical current in the UTP. Shielded cables
can also help in expanding the distance between the cables.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:-

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by many
layers of protective materials. It removes the problem of electrical
obstruction by transmitting light rather than electronic signals. This
makes them perfect for certain atmospheres which contain huge amount
of electrical interference. It has become the standard for connecting
networks between buildings because of its resistance to lighting and
moisture.

4. Unshielded Twisted Pair:-

It is the most admired type of network cable in the world. UTP cable is
used for both conventional telephone and computer networking.
The various wiring schemes for UTP are:
 CAT1 which is used for telephone wire. CAT2 supports speeds up to 4
Mbps and used frequently for token ring networks.
 CAT3 and CAT4 are both used for Token Ring networks for higher
network speeds.
 CAT5 wire is now replaced by the CAT5e designs providing an
enhanced crosstalk specification allowing it to support speeds up to 1
Gbps. It is the most used network cabling specification in the world.
 CAT6 support speeds of 1 Gbps for length up to 100 meters and 10
Gbps up to 55 meters. Organizations using CAT6 cabling should use a
specialized cable analyzer to request a complete test report, to
ensure that the the CAT6 guidelines and standards have been
followed during the installation.
 The CAT7 is a fresh copper cable pattern which can support speeds of
10Gbps and length up to 100 meters.

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//EXPERIMENT 4: To connect computer in LAN.

LAN or local area network is popularly known for connecting computers

and other computer parts with each other. These computer parts include
printers, scanners, etc. LAN helps in building a connection of computers
in a particular building. There are certain devices and cables that help in
building the LAN connection. These computer devices are called hubs,
routers, and switches. There are ethernet cables that one must have to
connect to these communication devices by RJ45 (registered jack 45)
ports.
There are various resources that help in building the connection, where
these resources can be attached to a network and can be shared with a
computer. These resources include DVD drives, modems, and hard
drives. LAN helps to build client and server connections. Computers help
in exchanging data from one server to another.

This is how you can connect LAN to your computer:

1. Method 1 of 3: Setting Up LAN:-

(i) Determine the number of computers you want to connect:- The

number of computers you're connecting will determine the type of
network hardware you'll need.
 If you are connecting four or less computers, you'll just need a single
router, or one switch if you don't need internet.
 If you're connecting more than four computers, you'll want a router
and a switch, or just a switch if you don't need internet.

(ii) Determine your network layout:- If your installing a permanent LAN

solution, you'll want to keep cable length in mind. CAT5 Ethernet cables
should not run longer than 250 feet. If you need to cover larger
distances, you'll need switches at regular intervals, or you'll need to use
CAT6 cables.
 You'll need one Ethernet cable for each computer you want to
connect to the LAN, as well as an Ethernet cable to connect the
router to the switch (if applicable).

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(iii) Obtain the network hardware:- To create a LAN, you'll need a router
and/or a network. These pieces of hardware are the "hub" of your LAN,
and all of your computers will be connected to them.
 The easiest way to create a LAN where every computer has access to
the internet is to use a router, and then add a network switch if the
router doesn't have enough ports. A router will automatically assign
an IP address to every computer that is connected to it.
 Switches are similar to routers but do not automatically assign IP
addresses. Switches typically have many more Ethernet ports than a
router has.

(iv) Connect your modem to the WAN port on the router:- This port may
be labeled "INTERNET" instead. This will provide internet access to every
computer that is connected to your LAN.
 You can skip this if you're setting up a LAN without internet access.
 You don't need a router at all to create a LAN, but it makes things
easier. If you just use a network switch, you'll need to manually
assign IP addresses to each computer after connecting them.

(v) Connect the switch to a LAN port on the router:- If you're using a
network switch to connect more computers, connect it to one of the LAN
ports on the router. You can use any open port on the switch to make the
connection. When connected, the router will provide IP addresses for
every computer that is connected to either device.

2. Method 2 of 3: Connecting Your PC:-

(i) Find the Ethernet port on your PC:- You can usually find this on the
back of your desktop tower, or along the side or back of a laptop.
 Slim laptops may not have an Ethernet port, in which case you'll need
to either use a USB Ethernet adapter or connect wirelessly if your
router allows it.

(ii) Plug one end of an Ethernet cable into your computer:- Make sure
you're using an Ethernet cable (RJ45), not a telephone cable (RJ11).

(iii) Plug the other end of the cable into an open LAN port:- This can be
any open LAN port on either the router or the switch, depending on your
LAN setup.

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(iv) Test out your network (router only):- If you're using a router, your
work is complete. Once all of the computers are connected to a LAN
port, they will be assigned IPs automatically and will appear on the
network. If you set up your LAN for gaming, you should be able to start
your LAN game and have each computer connect.
 If you're using a switch and no router, you'll still need to assign IP
addresses to each computer.

(v) Enable file and printer sharing:- You won't be able to access resources
on a networked computer until file and printer sharing is enabled. You
can select specific files, folders, and drives to share on each computer, as
well as share access to printers.

3. Method 3 of 3: Assigning IP Addresses (No Router):-

(i) Right-click on your network connection. You'll see this in your System
Tray. If you are connecting your computers through a switch with no
router, you'll need to assign each computer on the network its own
individual IP address. This process is handled automatically if you're
using a router.
 Think of an IP address as a mailing address. Each computer on the
network needs a unique IP address so that information sent across
the network reaches the correct destination.

(ii) Click Open Network and Sharing Center.

(iii) Click the Ethernet link at the top of the window. You'll see this next
to "Connections."

(iv) Click Properties.

(v) Click Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4). Make sure you don't
uncheck it, just highlight it.

(vi) Click Properties.

(vii) Click the Use the following IP address radio button.

(viii) Type 192.168.1.50 into the IP address field.

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(ix) Type 255.255.0.0 into the Subnet mask field.

(x) Type 192.168.0.0 into the Default gateway field.

(xi) Click OK. This will save the settings for that computer. This computer
is now configured on your network with a unique IP address.

(xii) Open the Internet Protocol Version 4 properties on the next

computer. Follow the steps above on the second computer to open the
Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties window.

(xiii) Click the Use the following IP address radio button.

(xiv) Type 192.168.1.51 into the IP address field. Notice that the final
group of numbers has incremented by 1.

(xv) Enter the same values for Subnet mask and Default gateway. These
values should be the same as they were on the first computer
(255.255.0.0 and 192.168.0.0 respectively).

(xvi) Give each additional computer a unique IP. Repeat these steps for
each additional computer, incrementing the IP address by 1 each time
(up to 255). The "Subnet mask" and "Default gateway" fields should be
the same on each computer.

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//EXPERIMENT 5: To install operating system like Linux

or MS Windows on the personal computer.

In order to install a new operating system, the following ways are needed
to be followed:

1. Determine your installation order:- If you are installing a Linux

distribution that you want to run alongside Windows, you need to
install Windows first and then Linux. This is because Windows has a
very strict boot loader that needs to be in place before Linux is
installed, otherwise Windows won't load.

2. Boot from your installation disc:- Insert the installation disc into your
optical; drive, and reboot your computer. Normally a computer boots
from the hard drive first, so you will need to adjust some settings in
your BIOS in order to boot from the disc drive. You can enter the
BIOS by hitting the designated Setup key during the boot process.
The key will be displayed on the same screen as your manufacturer's
logo.
 Common Setup keys include F2, F10, F12, and Del/Delete.
 Once you are in the Setup menu, navigate to the Boot section. Set
your DVD/CD drive as the first boot device. If you are installing from
a USB drive, make sure that the drive is inserted and then select it as
the first boot device.
 Once you've selected the correct drive, save your changes and exit
Setup. Your computer will reboot.

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3. Try your Linux distribution before installing:- Most Linux distributions

come with a copy that can be loaded directly from the installation
disc. This will allow you to "test drive" your new operating system
before you commit to the installation process. Once you are ready to
install, click the Installation program on the desktop.
 This is only possible with Linux distributions. Windows does not allow
you to test out the operating system before you install.

4. Wait for the Setup program to load:- No matter which operating

system you choose, the setup program will need to copy some files
to your computer before it can continue. This can take several
minutes, depending on the speed of your computer's hardware.
 You will most likely need to choose some basic options, such as
language and keyboard layout.

5. Enter your product key:- If you are installing Windows 8, you will
need to enter your product key before you can begin the installation.
Older Windows versions will ask for the product key after installation
is complete. Linux users will not need a product key unless it is a
purchased version such as Red Hat.

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6. Choose your installation type:- Windows will give you the option of
Upgrading or performing a Custom installation. Even if you are
upgrading an older version of Windows, it is highly recommended
that you choose Custom and start from scratch. This will minimize
problems that may arise later from combining old settings and new
ones.
 If you are installing Linux, you will be given the option to install
alongside your existing operating system (Windows), or to erase the
disk and install Linux by itself. Choose the option that best meets
your needs. If you choose to install alongside Windows, you will be
given the option to choose how much hard disk space you want to
designate for Linux.

7. Format your partitions:- If you are installing Windows, you will need
to choose which hard drive partition you want to install it on.
Deleting partitions will wipe the data on the partition and return the
space to the Unallocated section. Select the unallocated space and
create a new partition.
 If you are installing Linux, the partition needs to be formatted in the
Ext4 format.

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8. Set your Linux options:- Before installation begins, your Linux

installer will ask you for your timezone, and you will need to create a
username and password. You will use this to log in to your Linux
distribution as well as authorize system changes.
 Windows users will fill out personal information after the installation
is complete.

9. Wait for the installation to complete:- Depending on the speed of

your computer, this can take up to an hour to finish. Most
installations are hands-off at this point. Your computer may reboot
several times during the installation process.

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10. Create your Windows login:- Once your Windows installation is

complete, you will need to create a username. You can also choose
to create a password, though this is not necessary. After creating
your login info, you will be asked for your product key.
 In Windows 8, you will be asked to customize the colors first. After
that, you can choose to either log in with a Microsoft account or use
a more traditional Windows username.

11. Install your drivers and programs:- Once the installation is complete,
you will be taken to your new desktop. From here, you can begin
installing your programs and make sure that your drivers are installed
and up to date. Make sure to install an antivirus program if you are
going to be connecting to the internet.

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//EXPERIMENT 6: To install application software (MS

Office, VLC Media Player, Win rar).

There are several ways to install application software like MS Office, VLC
Media PLayer, Win rar on a personal computer. Some of them are listed
below:

1. Installing from a CD-ROM:-

From the mid-1990s through the late 2000s, the most common way to
get new software was to purchase a CD-ROM. You could then insert the
disc, and the computer would walk you through the installation.
Now, almost all software has moved away from this model. Many new
computers no longer include a CD-ROM for this reason. However, if you
do need to install software from a CD-ROM, simply insert the disc into
your computer, then follow the instructions.

2. Installing software from the Web:-

Today, the most common way to get new software is to download it from
the Internet. Applications like Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop can
now be purchased and downloaded right to your computer. You can also
install free software this way. For example, if you wanted to install the
Google Chrome web browser, you can visit this page and click the
Download button.
The installation file will be saved to your computer in .exe format.
Pronounced dot e-x-e, this is the standard extension for installation files
on Windows computers. You can follow the steps below to install an
application from an .exe file.

Step1: Locate and download an .exe file:-

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Step2: Locate and double-click the .exe file:-

Step 3: A dialog box will appear. Follow the instructions to install the
software:-

Step 4: The software will be installed. You can now open the application
from the Start menu (Windows 7) or the Start Screen (Windows 8):-

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Tips for finding software:-

The easiest way to find new software is to search the Web. For example,
if you were looking for a way to edit some personal photos on your
computer, you could run a Google search for free photo-editing software.
If you're not exactly sure what kind of software you're looking for, try
describing the tasks you want to complete. For example, if you wanted a
way to create to-do lists and organize your appointments, you might
search for something like free calendar organizer software.

3. The Windows Store:-

If you're using Windows 8, you can download and install software from
the Windows Store. The Windows Store is meant to simplify the process
of locating and installing software from third-party developers—when
you find an app in the Windows store, you won't have to do any extra
work to install it.

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//EXPERIMENT 7: To develop homepage using html.

A webpage can be created by the following steps:-

Step 1: Open Notepad from the Start Screen.

Step 2: Write some HTML code in the notepad using the given format-
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
<h1>First Heading</h1>
<p>First Paragraph</p>
</body>
</html>

Step 3: Save the HTML page using .htm or .html file extension.

Step 4: Open and view the HTML page in any browser.

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Sample Code:-

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Output:-

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//EXPERIMENT 8: To study web browsers, search

engines and cyber hygiene.

Web Browser:

What is it?
A web browser takes you anywhere on the internet. It retrieves
information from other parts of the web and displays it on your desktop
or mobile device. The information is transferred using the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol, which defines how text, images and video are
transmitted on the web.

How does it work?

When the web browser fetches data from an internet connected server,
it uses a piece of software called a rendering engine to translate that
data into text and images. This data is written in Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and web browsers read this code to create what we
see, hear and experience on the internet.

Hyperlinks?
Hyperlinks allow users to follow a path to other pages or sites on the
web. Every webpage, image and video has its own unique Uniform
Resource Locator (URL), which is also known as a web address. When a
browser visits a server for data, the web address tells the browser where
to look for each item that is described in the html, which then tells the
browser where it goes on the web page.

Cookies?
Websites save information about you in files called cookies. They are
saved on the computer for the next time you visit that site. For example,
the username and password of a page or the targeted content in for, of
ads.

Privacy?
Nearly all major browsers have a private browsing setting. These exist to
hide the browsing history from other users on the same computer. Many
people think that private browsing or incognito mode will hide both their
identity and browsing history from internet service providers,

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governments and advertisers but these settings just clear the history on
your system, which is helpful if you’re dealing with sensitive personal
information on a shared or public computer.

Example

Search Engine:

A search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web

searches. They search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for
particular information specified in a textual web search query. The
search results are generally presented in a line of results, often referred
to as search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix
of links to web pages, images, videos, infographics, articles, research
papers, and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data
available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories, which
are maintained only by human editors, search engines also maintain real-
time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler. Internet
content that is not capable of being searched by a web search engine is
generally described as the deep web.

Many search engines such as Google and Bing provide customized results
based on the user's activity history. This leads to an effect that has been
called a filter bubble. The term describes a phenomenon in which
websites use algorithms to selectively guess what information a user
would like to see, based on information about the user (such as location,
past click behaviour and search history). As a result, websites tend to
show only information that agrees with the user's past viewpoint. This
puts the user in a state of intellectual isolation without contrary
information.

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Example

Cyber Hygiene:

What is it?
Cyber hygiene, or cybersecurity hygiene, is a set of practices
organizations and individuals perform regularly to maintain the health
and security of users, devices, networks and data. The goal of cyber
hygiene is to keep sensitive data secure and protect it from theft or
attacks. The concept works similarly to personal hygiene.

Why is it important?
An enterprise's security posture refers to the overall strength of its
cybersecurity program, and therefore how well it is positioned to handle
existing and emerging threats. Basic cyber hygiene goes a long way
toward achieving optimal cybersecurity.

Poor cyber hygiene can lead to security incidents, data compromise and
data loss. The consequences of a data breach may include financial loss,
government fines, operational downtime, organizational upheaval,
damage to the organization's reputation and legal liability.

What are the challenges of maintaining cyber hygiene?

Common challenges include the following:
 The breadth and complexity of IT environments:- In today's
enterprise, the sheer volume of users, devices and assets -- often
distributed across hybrid and multi-cloud environments -- makes
maintaining proper cyber hygiene extremely challenging.
 Monotony:- As an objective, cyber hygiene can never be completed
and crossed off a list. Rather, it requires security practitioners and

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end users to routinely engage in a never-ending stream of important

-- but often mundane and easily neglected -- behaviors and tasks.
 User buy-in:- IT security teams can't achieve good cyber hygiene on
their own. They need the support and engagement of end users
throughout their organizations, including those with little expertise
or interest in cybersecurity.

Cyber hygiene best practices for users?

Users need to be aware of the following cyber hygiene best practices:
 Backups:- Regularly back up important files to a separate, secure
location that would remain safe and isolated if the primary network
were compromised.
 Education:- Learn how to avoid getting hooked by phishing scams and
how to prevent common malware attacks. As a rule, for example,
users should avoid clicking on links and attachments they receive via
email. Stay up to date on emerging phishing and malware tactics.
 Encryption:- Use device and file encryption to protect sensitive data.
 Firewalls:- Make sure firewalls and routers are properly set up and
configured to keep bad actors out of private systems.
 Password hygiene:- According to Verizon's 2021 Data Breach
Investigations Report, 61% of all breaches involve user credentials.
Maintain good password hygiene and use technology such as
multifactor authentication (MFA) to make gaining unauthorized
access more difficult.
 Patch management:- Install any available software updates and
security patches on both company-owned devices and any personal
devices used for work.
 Online discretion:- Be careful not to post any personal information a
bad actor could use to guess or reset a password, or otherwise gain
access to private accounts. Be aware of what personal information is
already available online, which cybercriminals could use in social
engineering attacks.
 Security software:- Install security software, such as antimalware and
antivirus, to defend systems against malicious software, including
viruses, ransomware, spyware, worms, rootkits and Trojans. Make
sure the software is properly configured and run regular scans to flag
unusual activity.

Cyber hygiene best practices for organizations?

They may include the following:

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 Allowlisting/blocklisting:- Control which applications, websites and

email addresses users can and cannot use. Allowlisting -- providing a
select list of applications, processes and files users can access -- and
blocklisting -- providing a list users cannot access -- are two methods
to control access. Learn the benefits and challenges of each
approach.
 Authentication and access control:- Authentication, or confirming
that a user or device is who or what they claim, is a critical part of
cyber hygiene. To secure their networks, organizations can choose
from among at least six types of authentication.
 Backup strategy:- Develop a data backup strategy that ensures
mission-critical information is regularly duplicated and stored in a
secure location. Many experts recommend following the 3-2-1 rule of
backup, which requires storing three copies of data on two different
kinds of media such as cloud, disk and tape and keeping one copy off-
site.
 Cloud access security broker (CASB):- Any organization that relies on
IaaS, PaaS or SaaS should consider implementing a CASB as part of its
cyber hygiene strategy. CASB software facilitates secure connections
between end users and the cloud, enforcing enterprise security
policies around authentication, encryption, data loss prevention,
logging, alerting, malware detection and more.
 Cybersecurity asset management:- To protect IT assets, one must first
know they exist. Enter cybersecurity asset management, a subset of
IT asset management (ITAM) that involves discovery, inventory,
management and tracking of an organization's assets with the goal of
protecting them.Encryption. Use encryption to ensure the protection
of sensitive corporate data, both in transit and at rest.
 Endpoint security:- In today's workplace, a plethora of endpoint
devices operate beyond the traditional security perimeter, putting
them and the enterprise network at heightened risk of attack.
Identify, manage and secure devices ranging from PCs to IoT nodes,
while following endpoint security best practices.
 Incident response and management strategy:- If and when an
organization suffers a security event, it needs a preestablished
incident response (IR) and management strategy to mitigate risk to
the business. Since the fallout from a data breach can include
financial losses, operational disruptions, etc.

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 Network segmentation:- Segmenting the network limits how far

cybercriminals can move if they do manage to get inside a network.
This will mitigate the damage and scope of an attack.
 Password policy:- Simplistic or recycled passwords are practically an
open invitation to hackers. Creating a company password policy helps
protect enterprise security by establishing rules, requirements and
expectations around user credentials.
 Patch management:- Patch management is the flossing of cyber
hygiene: Everyone knows they should do it, but not everyone does.
And just as a failure to floss may increase the risk of heart disease,
failing to patch increases the risk of serious security incidents.
 Secure remote access:- :-ecure remote access will continue to be of
critical importance in the vast majority of enterprises. A variety of
technologies -- including CASBs, firewalls, VPNs, Secure Access
Service Edge and zero-trust network access -- can help facilitate
secure connectivity for users irrespective of their physical locations.
 Security awareness training:- Educate employees on the crucial role
they play in mitigating cyber-risk by building an effective
cybersecurity training plan.
 Security log management. A cybersecurity program is only as good as
its ability to recognize inappropriate or suspicious activity in the IT
environment.
 Security monitoring. Regularly or continuously scan the network for
threats and vulnerabilities, such as open ports that hackers could use
in port scan attacks, using tools such as SIEM or vulnerability
scanners. Frequent scanning and monitoring dramatically improves
cyber hygiene by flagging both potential active threats and points of
weakness where attackers could gain access.

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//EXPERIMENT 9: To create project certificate using

Word.

Without using template, certificates can be designed in Word using

features like Formatting Fonts, Drop Cap, Applying Text effects, Using
Character Spacing, Borders and Colors, Inserting Header and Footer,
using Date abstract features like Formatting Styles, Inserting table,
Bullets and Numbering, Changing Text Direction, Cell alignment,
Footnote, Hyperlink, Symbols, Spell Check, Track Changes.

A sample project certificate is given on the next page-

//EXPERIMENT 10: To create a Newsletter

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Features to be covered:- Table of Content, Newspaper columns,

Images from files and clipart, Drawing toolbar and Word Art, Formatting
Images, Textboxes, Paragraphs in word.

A sample newsletter is given on the next page-

//EXPERIMENT 11: To orientate spreadsheet and

calculate GPA.

Features to be covered:- Table of Content, Newspaper columns,

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Images from files and clipart, Drawing toolbar and Word Art, Formatting
Images, Textboxes, Paragraphs in word.

A sample newsletter is given on the next page-

//EXPERIMENT 12: To create a poster using Power

Point.

FStudent should work on basic power point utilities and tools in

Latex and Ms Office/equivalent (FOSS) which help them create basic
poster using power point. Features to be covered:- PPT Orientation, Slide
Layouts, Inserting Text, Formatting Text, Bullets and Numbering, Auto

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Shapes, Lines and Arrows, Hyperlinks, Inserting Images, Tables and

Charts.

A sample poster is given on the next page-

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