3.

Galvanograph: Records skin

Module 1: Concepts of Polygraph resistance (also known as
Examination Electrodermal Activity (EDA),
replacing Galvanic Skin Response
Polygraph examination is used to test an (GSR)).
individual to detect deception or verify the 4. Kymograph: Drives the polygraph
truthfulness of statements. It records identifiable chart, producing the polygram at a
physiological reactions like blood pressure, uniform rate (1 division/5 seconds).
pulse rate, respiration, and skin resistance.
The effectiveness is based on the theory that Accessory Components
deception causes involuntary physiological
changes, as the body reacts to perceived 1. Polygraph Chair: Absorbs concealed
danger. muscular movements.
2. Plethysmograph: Measures changes in
Polygraph blood volume (occlusion or photoelectric
types).
● An instrument that graphically records 3. Polygram: Graphic representation of
physiological responses: respiration, physiological data collected during the
blood pressure, pulse rate, and skin examination. Also called Polygraph
resistance. Chart or Test Data.
● Other names: Deceptograph, ○ Types: Analog Polygrams,
Lie-detector, Computerized Polygrams.
Pneumo-Galvo-Cardio-Sphygmograph.
● The term comes from Greek: "poly" Polygraphist
(many) + "grapos" (writings).
● A person trained and certified to conduct
Polygraphy polygraph examinations.
● Other names: Polygraph Examiner,
● Scientific method of detecting Forensic Psychophysiologist,
deception using polygraph machines. Polygrapher.
● Other names: Deceptography, Lie
Detection.
Subject

Types of Polygraphs ● Person undergoing a polygraph test.

● Other names: Examinee.
1. Analog Polygraph: Directly records
responses on a chart.
Who May Take the Polygraph Test?
2. Computerized Polygraph: Monitors,
records, stores, and analyzes 1. Victim
respiratory, electrodermal, and 2. Witness
cardiovascular activity. 3. Accused
4. Job applicant
Main Components 5. Employee/Personnel

1. Pneumograph: Records respiratory

Stimulus
activity.
2. Cardiograph/Cardiosphygmograph: ● Force or motion that excites the
Records cardiovascular activity. perceptors of the organism.
 ● It refers to the questions posed by the Test Results
polygraphist during the examination.
Purpose of Stimulus 1. Deception Indicated (DI): The analysis
-To pose threat to the security of the shows physiological responses
guilty subject indicating deception.
-To establish the innocence of the truth 2. No Deception Indicated (NDI): The
subject analysis shows no physiological
evidence of deception. No Significant
● Question String - All question that Response (NSR) is equivalent.
appear on the Polygram between test 3. Inconclusive: Insufficient data to
commencement (X) and Test determine deception or truthfulness.
Termination (XX) Nowadays, No Opinion (NO) is used
instead.
● Serial Position - The Position of a 4. No Opinion (NO): No conclusion can be
question within a question string. Also made due to uncooperative behavior or
known as Question corrupted data.

Polygraph Examination Accuracy of Polygraph Test Results

● Involves activities between the examiner ● When properly administered, accuracy

and examinee during: ranges from 85% to 95%.
1. Pretest: Preparation.
2. Data collection: Monitoring Errors in Polygraph Test Results
physiological responses.
3. Test data analysis: Analyzing 1. False Positive: Truthful subject is
polygraph data. wrongly identified as deceptive.
4. Post-test: Reviewing results 2. False Negative: Deceptive subject is
and conclusions. wrongly identified as truthful.

Utility of Polygraph Examination Causes of Errors:

1. Law Enforcement: Used in crime 1. Misinterpretation of data.

investigation. 2. Lack of training and experience.
2. Legal Community: Test results may be 3. Counter-measures by the examinee.
used as evidence (subject to 4. Equipment malfunction.
admissibility rules). Also used in 5. Poor preparation of the examinee.
parole/probation monitoring. 6. Poorly worded questions.
3. Private Sector: Used in 7. Improper assessment of
pre-employment screening and emotional/physical condition.
employee integrity checks. 8. Misuse of techniques.
4. Other Applications: 9. Lack of quality control.
○ Test for Espionage and
Sabotage (TES) by the U.S. Examination Room
Department of Defense.
○ Counter Intelligence-Scope ● Ideal characteristics:
Polygraph Examination (CIS) 1. Spacious for two people.
by the U.S. Department of 2. Well-lit.
Energy. 3. Temperature around 25°C.
4. 90% soundproof.
 5. No decorations. ○Conserves energy and
6. White walls. maintains homeostasis.
7. One-way mirror and ○ Restrains sympathetic
concealed microphone. arousal.
8. Adjacent observation room. 2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):
○ The “action system”.
Deception and Lying ○ Responsible for emergency
responses (fight or flight).
● Deception: Intentionally causing
someone to believe false information. Tripod Foundation Premises
● Lying: Conveying intentionally false
information. 1. Psychological Leg Premise: Emotional
● Lie: Intentionally false statement to a and involuntary responses triggered by
person or group made by another the attempt to conceal deception.
person or group who knows it is not 2. Physiological Leg Premise: Specific
wholly the truth. physiological responses occur following
● Fear: Emotional response to perceived stimulation of certain nervous system
danger. components.
3. Mechanical Leg Premise: Polygraph
Polygraph Terms records indelible, graphic data of
physiological responses.
● Dicrotic Notch: A backward surge of
blood in the polygraph's cardio trace. Psychophysiology of Lying
● Distortion: Artifacts that change
polygraph tracings. ● Central Nervous System (CNS):
● Sphygmomanometer: Device used to Composed of the brain and spinal
measure blood pressure. cord.
● Response: Activity or inhibition in ● Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary
response to stimuli. control over skeletal muscles.
● Reaction: Action or mental attitude ● Autonomic Nervous System:
caused by external influence. Involuntary physiological control, with
● Detection: Discovery of something two branches:
hidden or obscure. ○ Parasympathetic Nervous
System (PNS).
Tripod Foundation of Polygraphy ○ Sympathetic Nervous System
(SNS).
1. Somatic Nervous System: Involved
with voluntary control over skeletal Specific Objectives of Polygraph
muscles. Examination
2. Autonomic Nervous System: Involves
involuntary physiological functions and 1. Ascertain truthfulness: Determine if
has psychological impacts. the person is telling the truth.
2. Verify conflicting statements:
Two Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous Compare and check for inconsistencies
System in statements.
3. Obtain additional facts: Gather
1. Parasympathetic Nervous System information about the offense, location
(PNS): of stolen goods, and whereabouts of
○ The “brake system”. wanted persons.
 4. Identify others involved: Detect other ○ Assesses the honesty of
individuals connected to the case. employees in sensitive
5. Gain information from unwilling positions.
subjects: Extract valuable details from 4. Claim Verification Test
reluctant or uncooperative subjects. (Insurance/Compensation/Benefits):
○ Used by insurance companies
Principal Use of Polygraph Examination to identify fraud or
manipulation in claims.
1. Investigative aid: Helps the investigator 5. Loyalty Test (Intelligence and
to: Honesty Check):
○ Confirm statements of victims. ○ Common in organizations like
○ Ascertain the credibility of PNP, Philippine Air Force,
witnesses. Army, Navy, etc.
○ Assess the truthfulness of ○ Tests the loyalty and honesty
suspects. of personnel.
2. Speeds up the investigation process: 6. Promotion:
Reduces the time spent in ○ Helps determine the most
investigations. qualified candidate for
3. Eliminates innocent subjects: Clears promotion.
individuals who are not involved. ○ Assesses the future intentions
4. Focus on one subject: Allows the of employees towards the
investigator to concentrate on one company (Geronimo, 2007).
subject and determine truth or
deception. Principal Use of Polygraph Examination
(Reiteration)
Uses of Polygraph
1. Aid to the investigator: Polygraph tests
1. Criminal Investigation: assist investigators in gathering
○ Valuable tool for criminal information.
investigation. 2. Speeds up investigations: Saves time
○ Helps eliminate innocent by quickly providing clarity.
suspects quickly. 3. Eliminates innocent suspects: Helps
○ Provides clues about the identity rule out individuals who are not
of criminal suspects. involved.
○ Verifies statements of involved 4. Focus on a single subject: Allows the
parties, saving time and effort in investigator to concentrate on one
the process of investigation person to assess truthfulness or
(Geronimo, 2007). deception.
2. Pre-Employment Test (Screening):
○ Fastest and most accurate Significance of Lie Detection in Criminal
way to verify a job applicant's Investigation
background.
○ Helps verify statements against ● Truth establishment: In criminal
derogatory remarks from a investigations, establishing the truth is
biased former employer. crucial for proper prosecution.
3. Periodic Personnel Check (Integrity): ● Comprehensive effort: Criminal
○ Identifies dishonest investigators must determine lying not
employees responsible for just from suspects, but also from
company losses. witnesses, victims, and all involved
Module 2: Lies, Definition and Impact typically by someone guilty of an
offense.
● Lie: A false or untruthful statement or 8. Altruistic Lies
any act that creates a false ○ Purpose: Told to benefit
impression. Synonymous with deceit, others, reduce suffering, or
deception, or fabrication. support someone’s well-being.
● Lying: Conveying falsehoods with the Used to comfort, protect, or
intention of affecting wrongfully the support the deceived.
actions, opinions, or feelings of another. 9. Pathological Lies
● Lying can be devastating; it harms not ○ Purpose: Lies told
only the person being lied to but also the compulsively without apparent
person telling the lie. gain, often in situations where
Kinds of Lies telling the truth would be better.
1. White Lie / Benign Lie 10. Emergency Lies / Defensive Lies
○ Purpose: Used to avoid harmful ○ Purpose: Used when the truth
truths, causes no discord if might cause harm or danger.
undiscovered, and benefits both Often protective in nature.
the liar and the hearer. 11. Humorous Lies
Lubricates interpersonal ○ Purpose: Lies told for
relationships. amusement or teasing, not
2. Black Lie meant to deceive permanently
○ Purpose: Falsehood attributed but involve some exaggeration.
to a false source, often with the 12. Bluffing
intent to dishonor or discredit ○ Purpose: A deceptive tactic
someone's reputation. used in games or competitive
3. Red Lie settings, generally not seen as
○ Purpose: A political lie common immoral.
in communist countries, used 13. Exaggeration
to destroy ideologies through ○ Purpose: A truth is amplified
propaganda. Involves political but still based on a real fact.
interests. Used to influence emotions
4. Aggressive Lies dramatically.
○ Purpose: Self-serving lies that 14. Minimization
damage others, seen as ○ Purpose: Downplays or
immoral due to the harm they reduces the emotional intensity
cause. of a situation or feeling.
5. Bold-faced Lie 15. Neutralization
○ Purpose: A lie that is obvious ○ Purpose: Masking emotional
to everyone involved. response using a neutral
6. Perjury expression, like a poker face.
○ Purpose: False statements 16. Substitution
under oath in a legal context ○ Purpose: Replacing a negative
(e.g., in court). Considered a emotion with a positive one,
crime for the credibility of the such as smiling when feeling
court. negative emotions.
7. Malicious Lie 17. Promotion Lie
○ Purpose: A dishonest lie ○ Purpose: Lies used in
intended to obstruct justice, advertising or marketing to
 influence consumers to buy 11. White Liars
products. ○ Justify their lies as harmless
and beneficial. Don’t consider
Module 3: Types of Liars themselves true liars.

1. Sociopathic Liars Scientific Observation of Lying Person

○ Continuously lie to get their way, (Psycho-Physiological Signs)
without care or concern for
others. Goal-oriented. 1. Sweating
2. Compulsive Liars ○ Accompanied by a face showing
○ Lie as a habit, feeling anger, embarrassment, or
discomfort in telling the truth extreme nervousness.
because lying feels right. 2. Color Change of Face
3. Occasional Liars ○ A flushed face may indicate
○ Seldom lie and are quick to ask anger, embarrassment, or
forgiveness from the person shame.
they lied to. 3. Dryness of Mouth
4. Panic Liars ○ Caused by nervous tension,
○ Lie to avoid consequences of leading to inhibition of saliva
confession. Fear production.
embarrassment and believe 4. Excess Activity of the Adam's Apple
confession would worsen the ○ Visible movement of the
situation. Adam's apple during speech or
5. Occupational Liars swallowing.
○ Lie when the payoff is greater 5. Fidgeting
than telling the truth. Practical ○ Constant movement like
liars. pulling ears, rubbing face,
6. Tournament Liars shifting in the chair.
○ Lie for the challenge of 6. Peculiar Feeling
avoiding detection. See ○ Lightness or confusion felt by
situations like an interview as a the individual.
contest. 7. Swearing to the Truthfulness of
7. Psychopathic Liars Assertion
○ Have no conscience and no ○ Frequent assertions of
regret for dishonesty. The most truthfulness to convince others.
difficult to detect. 8. Religious Man and/or Spotless
8. Ethnological Liars Record
○ Taught not to be a squealer. ○ Reference to religion or
Cultural influences on their flawless past to assert
behavior. credibility.
9. Pathological Liars 9. Inability to Look at the Investigator
○ Lie because they cannot Straight in the Eye
distinguish right from wrong ○ Avoidance of eye contact.
due to mental illness. 10. "Not that I Remember" Expression
10. Black Liars ○ Common response when trying
○ Pretend to be something they to cover up details.
are not, creating a false
self-image.
Module 4: Early Methods of Detecting 4. Ordeal of the Red Water
Deception ○ Practiced in Eastern Africa.
The accused fasted for twelve
Early humans used various methods to detect hours, then swallowed rice
lies or guilt in the accused, often through before being immersed in
physical trials known as ordeals. An ordeal dark-colored water. If the rice
refers to a severe test of character or was expelled, they were
endurance, often linked to divine or miraculous declared innocent.
judgment, as indicated by the Medieval Latin ○ Key Point: Involves water and
term "Dei Indicum" (Miraculous Decision). rice for the judgment.
5. Trial by Combat
Trial by Ordeal: This method involved exposing ○ A fight between the accuser
the accused to physical danger, assuming and the accused. The loser was
innocence would result in no harm, while guilt considered guilty.
would lead to suffering. ○ Key Point: A test of strength
and endurance, popular in
Types of Early Ordeals: medieval England under King
Henry III.
1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal 6. Trial by Torture
○ Practiced in Rajhmal, North ○ The accused underwent severe
Bengal. The accused would physical tests. If they survived,
press their tongue to a red hot they were considered innocent.
iron up to nine times. If they ○ Key Point: Focused on
were burned, they were deemed enduring pain to prove
guilty and executed. innocence.
○ Key Point: Also involved 7. Drinking Ordeal
carrying the hot iron in their ○ Practiced in Nigeria and India.
hands. The accused drank a decoction
2. Ordeal by the Balance prepared by a priest. If innocent,
○ Practiced in Vishnu, India. The no harm would occur; if guilty,
accused was placed on one the person would die.
side of a balance scale. If they ○ Key Point: A test based on the
were lighter than the result of consuming a specific
counterbalance, they were drink.
acquitted. 8. Trial of the Eucharist
○ Key Point: The scale measured ○ Practiced in European
their "lightness," symbolizing countries for clergy. The
innocence. accused was given food, and if
3. Ordeal by Rice Chewing guilty, Angel Gabriel would
○ Practiced by Indians using prevent them from swallowing it.
“sathee” rice. After eating the ○ Key Point: Religious ceremony
rice, the accused would spit based on divine intervention.
onto an eyeful leaf. If the saliva 9. Ordeal of Heat and Fire
mixed with blood or the corner ○ The accused walked barefoot
of the mouth swelled, they were over burning coals. If
declared a liar. unharmed, they were innocent.
○ Key Point: The trial relied on ○ Key Point: A physical
physical reactions to rice endurance test involving fire.
consumption. 10. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water
● Practiced in Asian countries. The
accused dipped their hands into boiling Module 5: PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING
water or oil. If unhurt, they were
innocent. Central Nervous System (CNS)
● Key Point: A test involving extreme
heat to judge innocence. ● Composed of the brain and the spinal
11. Ordeal of the Red Hot Needle cord.
● A hot needle was pierced into the lower ● All other nerve pathways are within the
lip of the accused. If blood flowed, they Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
were guilty.
● Key Point: Focus on the physical injury Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
to determine guilt.
12. Ordeal of the Tiger ● Somatic Nervous System (SNS):
● In Thailand, both the accuser and the Involved in voluntary control over
accused were placed in the same room skeletal muscles.
as a tiger. If both survived, further ● Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
elimination followed. Involved in involuntary functions like
● Key Point: The tiger represented a heart rate, digestion, and breathing. This
life-threatening judgment. system has considerable psychological
13. Test of the Cross Ordeal impact.
● Practiced in Europe. The accuser and
accused stood with arms crossed on Module 5: TWO DIVISIONS OF THE
their chest. The one who endured the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
longest was deemed truthful, the other a
1. Parasympathetic Nervous System
liar.
(PNS):
● Key Point: Focused on endurance and
○ The "housekeeping" system.
patience.
○ Responsible for conserving
14. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
energy, ensuring necessary
● The accused touched the sacred ass’s
bodily functions, and
tail in a room without anyone watching.
maintaining homeostasis
Afterward, their hands were checked for
(internal balance).
black powder (secretly smeared on the
○ Restrains sympathetic
tail). If dusted, the person was innocent.
arousal.
● Key Point: Based on the belief that
2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):
truthfulness would lead to touching the
○ The "emergency" or action
tail despite being unseen.
system.
○ Prepares the body for fight or
flight by increasing heart rate,
blood pressure, and metabolic
activity, and inhibiting digestion.

Homeostasis

● A complex regulatory system that the

body uses to maintain a state of
internal equilibrium.

Hypothalamus
 ● Is a series of groups of nerve cells of the ○ Originated by James Braid in
brain that control the entire 1841.
endocrine-hormonal system. ○ Involves a special
psychological state
Fight, Flight, Freeze (F3) Response resembling sleep but involves
focused attention and
● Physiological responses to threat: heightened suggestibility.
mobilizes energy and narrows focus to ○ Subjects are awake and
the threat. responsive to suggestions.
● Involves the SNS, which activates the 3. Word Association Test
adrenal glands to release epinephrine ○ Developed by Sir Francis
and norepinephrine. Galton in 1879.
○ Reveals associative
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine connections between stimulus
words and verbal responses. It
● Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Stimulates can uncover emotional
the SNS to raise blood pressure, disturbances or psychological
increase heart rate, constrict issues.
peripheral blood flow, and release 4. Truth Serum Test
glucose for energy. It inhibits ○ Uses psychoactive
digestion. medications like Sodium
● Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): Thiopental or Sodium Amytal.
Works alongside epinephrine to provide ○ Induces a state where subjects
sudden energy in response to stress. may be more likely to provide
truthful responses.
Types of Polygraph Exams 5. Psychological Stress Evaluator
○ Developed in the 1960s.
1. Mixed Issue Exam: Involves multiple ○ Detects guilt-revealing
issues, e.g., screening applicants or laryngeal micro-tremors in the
auditing employees. voice associated with stress and
2. Diagnostic Exam: Focuses on specific lying.
investigations. 6. Computerized Voice Stress Analyzer
(CVSA)
Types of Diagnostic Exams ○ Developed by Olaf Lippold in
1957.
1. Single Issue Exam: Focuses on direct ○ Measures infrasonic
involvement in a specific case. components (microtremors) of
2. Multi-facet Exam: Focuses on different the voice, which may indicate
elements of the same crime. stress.
7. Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)
Scientific Methods of Detecting Deception ○ Developed by Richard Bandler
and John Grinder in the 1970s.
1. Intoxication ○ Claims to detect truth vs. false
○ Induced by alcohol recall by observing eye
consumption. movements, as they suggest if
○ Lowers inhibitions, making a memory is truly remembered
subjects more likely to reveal or constructed.
the truth. 8. Brain-Wave Fingerprinting
2. Hypnosis
 ○ Developed by Lawrence ● Sympathetic Nervous System
Farwell in 2001. activates the "fight or flight" response,
○ Uses brainwave responses to while the Parasympathetic Nervous
specific words, phrases, or System restores balance.
images to detect whether ● The hypothalamus controls the
certain information is stored in a endocrine system and influences
subject’s brain. bodily functions during stress.
○ Reported accuracy: 99%. ● Methods like polygraphy,
9. Microexpression Detection microexpressions, and brain-wave
○ Developed by Haggard and fingerprinting are designed to detect
Isaacs in 1966. deception by analyzing physiological
○ Identifies unconscious facial changes and subconscious cues.
expressions lasting between
1/25 to 1/15 of a second. Module 6: Regular Police Methods of
○ Can reveal true feelings and Detecting Deception
indicate deceit or concealed
emotions. 1) Information Gathering
○ Seven universal emotions:
Anger, Contempt, Disgust, Fear, ● Information: Refers to facts gathered
Happiness, Sadness, Surprise. or acquired from individuals or
10. Polygraphy (Lie Detector Test) documents related to a crime or criminal
○ Developed by John Augustus activity.
Larson in 1921. ○ Sources: Public records, private
○ Measures physiological records, victim statements,
responses (e.g., respiration, Modus Operandi, background
blood pressure, heart rate, checks, and intelligence.
sweating) while the subject ○ Purpose: To collect relevant
answers questions. data for the investigation and
○ Based on the assumption that aid in uncovering the truth.
mental effort associated with
lying causes physiological 2) Investigation
changes that can be recorded
and analyzed. ● Investigation: The act of examining a
crime or issue carefully to discover the
Key Terms to Remember truth.
○ Can involve interviews,
● CNS: Brain + Spinal Cord interrogations, and analyzing
● PNS: Divided into SNS and ANS admissions and confessions.
● SNS: Emergency action system ● Key Methods of Investigation:
(fight/flight) ○ Interview: Non-coercive,
● PNS: Rest and digest system (maintains voluntary, with victims or
homeostasis) witnesses.
● Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Prepares ○ Interrogation: Compulsory,
body for action. often with suspects, aiming for
● Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): specific answers relevant to the
Provides energy during stress. case.
● F3: Fight, Flight, Freeze response.
● Polygraph: Measures physiological Differences Between Interview and
changes in response to questioning. Interrogation
 ○ Includes forensic sciences
Interview Interrogation such as:
■ Forensic Medicine
■ Forensic Chemistry
■ Toxicology
Voluntary process Compulsory process ■ Forensic Ballistics
○ Definition: The art and
science of measurement,
control, and recording in
Witness may or Suspect is required to
criminal investigations.
may not answer answer
The 3I's of Criminal Investigation

Questions are Questions are targeted ● Information: Gathering relevant data.

general and case-specific ● Interview/Interrogation: Engaging
subjects to uncover the truth.
● Instrumentation: Applying scientific
methods to analyze evidence.
Answers may not Answers are crucial,
be critical possibly admissions

Subjects are usually Subjects are always

victims/witnesses suspects

Admissions vs. Confessions

● Admission:
○ Self-incriminatory statement by
the accused.
○ Does not directly acknowledge
guilt or the criminal act.
○ Only acknowledges facts
related to the crime.
● Confession:
○ A declaration acknowledging
guilt for the crime.
○ Directly admits the guilt of
committing the crime.
○ The accused acknowledges
the criminal act itself.

3) Instrumentation

● Instrumentation: The use of scientific

methods and tools in examining real
evidence to detect crime.
Module 7: Phases of Polygraph Examination ● Suitability evaluation: Assess the
subject's readiness and mental state.
Polygraph Examination: The use of ● Psychological preparation: Ensure the
instruments to graphically record physiological subject is emotionally ready for the test.
changes (e.g., respiration, heart rate, sweating)
to verify truth or deception. It involves reading Rights to Inform the Subject:
and interpreting polygraph results.
● Right to remain silent.
1. Preliminary Preparations ● Anything said may be used against or
in favor of the subject.
This stage involves the initial interview with the ● Right to have a lawyer.
investigator and relevant individuals (victims, ● Right to refuse the test.
suspects, witnesses). The goal is to gather facts
and determine the necessary areas of 3. The Examination Proper (In-test Phase)
questioning.
In this phase, the polygraph sensors are
Key Tasks: attached to the subject to record physiological
data. The examiner will ask a series of
● Obtain sworn statements from the questions and monitor physiological responses.
subject.
● Review incident reports, spot reports, Key Tasks:
and background information (B.I.) on
subjects. ● Attachment of sensors:
● Gather crime scene details: sketches, a. Pneumograph: Measures
photos, stolen items, weapon/tools respiratory activity.
used, exact time of the crime. b. Cardiograph: Monitors heart
● Identify peculiarities of the crime or rate and blood pressure.
strange aspects. c. Galvanograph: Measures skin
● Review laboratory test results and response (sweating).
unpublished facts known only to key ● Question Review: The examiner
parties (victim, suspect, investigator). reviews the questions with the subject
before starting the test.
2. The Pre-test Interview (Pre-test Phase) ● Test execution: The examiner records
physiological responses and interprets
This phase prepares the subject for the the data.
polygraph test. The subject is informed of their
constitutional rights, and consent is obtained. Possible Outcomes:

Key Steps: ● NDI (No Deception Indicated): Subject is

truthful.
● Appraisal of rights: Right to remain ● DI (Deception Indicated): Subject is
silent, the right to an attorney, and the deceptive.
right to refuse the test. ● INC (Inconclusive): Results are unclear.
● Obtain consent to undergo the
polygraph test by having the subject 4. The Post-test Interview (Post-test Phase)
sign a statement.
● Personal data collection: Record After the test, the examiner evaluates the results
essential personal details of the subject. and decides if further questioning is needed.
Key Tasks: ● Control Questions: Designed to create
stress for both truthful and deceptive
● If deception is indicated: Conduct a subjects.
short interrogation to clarify findings
and possibly obtain a confession. Purpose of Questions:
● If no deception is indicated: The
subject is released politely and thanked ● To compare responses to relevant vs
for cooperation. control questions.
● Purpose of Post-test Interview: ● The examiner looks for differences in
○ Clarify findings. physiological responses to infer
○ Identify reasons for deception.
physiological responses, other
than knowledge of the crime. Analysis of Physiological Responses
○ Obtain additional information if
the test suggested deception. ● The examiner records and analyzes
physiological data during the test.
Physiological Basis of Polygraph ● Deception may cause an increase in
Examination physiological responses (e.g., heart
rate, blood pressure, sweating) due to
● Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): stress.
Controls involuntary bodily functions
such as heart rate, blood pressure, and Interpretation of Results
sweating.
○ SNS (Sympathetic Nervous ● The examiner compares responses to
System): Activates the relevant and control questions.
fight-or-flight response during ● If there is a significant physiological
stress. response to relevant questions, it may
○ PNS (Parasympathetic suggest deception.
Nervous System): Works to ● However, false positives and false
calm the body after stress. negatives can occur, making
interpretation tricky.
Polygraph Sensors
Criticisms of Polygraph Examination
● Cardiovascular (Heart) Activity:
Measured using a blood pressure cuff or ● Accuracy: Polygraph tests are debated
heart rate monitor. for their accuracy; false positives and
● Respiratory Activity: Measured using a false negatives can occur.
pneumograph (chest and abdominal ● Emotional Responses: The polygraph
movements). may confuse anxiety or fear with
● Galvanic Skin Response (GSR): deception.
Electrodes on fingers/palm measure ● Countermeasures: Individuals may use
skin conductance (sweating). techniques to manipulate their
physiological responses and affect
Questioning Techniques results.
● Individual Differences: Physiological
● Relevant Questions: Directly related to responses can vary, making it difficult to
the case. establish a universal baseline.
● Irrelevant Questions: Neutral
questions that serve as a baseline.
Important Notes
Key Factors Affecting Accuracy:
● Polygraph Results: Not always
admissible in court due to accuracy 1. The Instrument
concerns. ○ The polygraph device itself must
● Interpretation: Should be cautious; be functioning properly.
polygraph results are just one tool in an ○ Calibration and maintenance of
investigation. the sensors (heart rate,
● Technological Advances: Ongoing respiration, skin conductance)
improvements may lead to more reliable are crucial for accurate
deception detection in the future. readings.
2. The Condition of the Subject
Key Terms to Remember: ○ The subject’s physical and
mental state can influence
● NDI: No deception; subject is truthful. physiological responses,
● DI: Deception indicated; subject may be affecting the reliability of results.
lying. 3. The Condition of the Examination
● INC: Inconclusive; physiological data is Room
unclear. ○ The environment, including
● Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): factors like temperature,
Regulates involuntary bodily functions. lighting, and privacy, can
● SNS (Sympathetic Nervous System): affect the subject’s comfort and
Activates stress responses. performance.
● PNS (Parasympathetic Nervous ○ Distractions or stressors in the
System): Calms the body after stress. room can lead to inaccurate
● Polygraph Sensors: Devices used to readings.
measure heart rate, breathing, and 4. The Qualification and Skills of the
sweating. Examiner
● Control Questions: Used to create ○ The examiner’s training and
stress baseline. experience are vital to ensure
proper administration and
Module 8: Factors Affecting the Accuracy of interpretation of the test.
Polygraph Results ○ Inexperienced examiners may
misinterpret results, affecting
Polygraph testing, though generally reliable, is the test's accuracy.
influenced by several factors that can impact its
accuracy. Studies over the past 75 years have Specific Sources of Error in Polygraph
demonstrated that polygraph examiners' Testing (15% Error Rate)
decisions are typically accurate in the range of
85-95% for specific issue investigations, 1. Nervousness or Emotional Tension in
assuming proper procedures and trained Truthful Subjects
examiners. However, accuracy can be affected Even truthful subjects can experience
by instrumental, situational, and individual anxiety that distorts results. Possible
factors. causes include:
○ Apprehension: Nervousness
from being accused or under
suspicion.
○ Test Anxiety: Fear of an
inaccurate polygraph result.
 ○ Desire to Cooperate: ○ Psychopathy: Lack of empathy
Over-anxiety to pass the test or emotional disturbance may
can create tension. result in unusual readings.
○ Physical Discomfort: 4. Unresponsiveness in Lying or Guilty
Apprehension about possible Subjects Some individuals may not
physical pain from the device. show typical physiological signs of
○ Anger or Resentment: lying due to:
Negative emotional reactions to ○ Lack of Fear: A subject may not
being tested. fear detection or consequences.
○ Unrelated Personal Issues: ○ Mental Attitudes: Certain
Anxiety over personal problems mental sets or attitudes can
unrelated to the offense being suppress emotional responses
investigated. during questioning.
○ Prior Interrogations: Previous ○ Sub-Shock State:
interrogations, especially if Stress-induced shock or
accompanied by abuse, may emotional exhaustion at the time
affect a subject’s emotional of the test may dampen
state. physiological responses.
○ Guilt Complex: Fear or guilt ○ Rationalization: The subject
over unrelated past offenses. may have mentally justified the
2. Physiological Abnormalities Certain crime, reducing emotional
medical conditions can lead to false distress when lying.
readings, such as: ○ Prior Interrogation: Extensive
○ Excessive Blood Pressure: questioning before the
High or low blood pressure can polygraph may dull emotional
affect readings. reactions, leading to inaccurate
○ Heart Diseases: Conditions results.
affecting heart function can 5. Efforts to “Beat the Machine”
interfere with cardiovascular Subjects may attempt to manipulate the
measurements. polygraph by:
○ Respiratory Disorders: ○ Controlled Breathing:
Breathing problems can distort Deliberate regulation of breath
respiratory readings, affecting to mask physiological changes.
polygraph accuracy. ○ Muscular Flexing: Tensing
3. Mental Abnormalities Mental health muscles to disrupt the polygraph
conditions can impact the subject’s sensors, especially blood
physiological responses: pressure readings.
○ Feeblemindedness: Individuals 6. Unobserved Application of Muscular
with intellectual disabilities Pressure In some cases, the subject
(idiots, imbeciles, morons) may may apply pressure to their body (e.g.,
have abnormal physiological squeezing a finger or clenching their
responses. muscles) to artificially influence the
○ Psychosis: Conditions like polygraph readings, producing
manic depression, paranoia, misleading results.
schizophrenia, etc., can lead to
erratic physiological behavior.
○ Psychoneurosis: Emotional
instability or peculiar behavior
can distort responses.
 ● Muscular Flexing: A technique that
Summary of Key Points: may be used to manipulate polygraph
readings.
● Accuracy Range: Polygraph tests are ● Rationalization: The mental process of
generally accurate in the 85-95% range justifying one’s actions, potentially
for specific issue investigations. reducing emotional distress when lying.
● Factors Affecting Accuracy:
○ Instrument: Must be
well-maintained and calibrated.
○ Subject's Condition: Anxiety,
medical conditions, and
emotional states can affect
responses.
○ Examination Room:
Environment influences subject
comfort and test integrity.
○ Examiner’s Skill: Proper
training and experience are
crucial for interpreting results.
● Error Sources:
○ Nervousness: Even truthful
subjects can appear deceptive
due to anxiety.
○ Physiological Abnormalities:
Conditions like high/low blood
pressure or respiratory
disorders can distort readings.
○ Mental Abnormalities:
Psychological disorders may
prevent accurate readings.
○ Unresponsiveness: Some
subjects may not show typical
signs of deception.
○ Attempts to Beat the Machine:
Subjects may try to control their
physiological responses.
○ Muscular Pressure: Applying
pressure can distort results.

Important Terms to Remember:

● False Positives/Negatives: Occur

when truthful subjects are marked
deceptive or deceptive subjects are
marked truthful.
● Controlled Breathing: A method used
by subjects to alter their physiological
responses.