Lecture Notes in Euclidean Geometry: Math 226

Dr. Abdullah Al-Azemi

Mathematics Department
Kuwait University

September 6, 2019
Contents

1 Triangles and Quadrilaterals 1

1.1 Lines and Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Congruent and Similar Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3 More on Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.4 Parallelograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.5 Special Parallelograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2 Circles 23

2.1 Notions and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 Arcs, Chords, and Angles of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Locus 33

3.1 The locus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4 Transformations 37

4.1 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.2 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.3 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.4 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5 Homothecy and Similarity 53

5.1 Homothecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.2 Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

i
ii CONTENTS

6 Coordinate Geometry 61

6.1 Coordinates of Points and Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6.2 Transformation in Coordinates Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

 Chapter

1 Triangles and Quadrilaterals

In this chapter, we discuss the following topics in some details: Lines and angles; Parallelism; Congru-
encey and similarity of triangles; Isosceles and equilateral triangles; Right-angled triangles; Parallelogram;
Rhombus; Rectangle; and Square.

1.1 Lines and Angles

←
→
Any two points A and B determine a unique line l, denoted by AB. Two lines l and m intersect in at most
←→ →
one point. If l do not intersect m, then we say that l and m are parallel lines, denoted l k ←
m . On the other
hand, if two (or more) lines intersect in one point, the lines are said to be concurrent. Moreover, points on
one line are called collinear.
Theorem 1.1.1

If l is a line and P is a point not on l, then:

1. There is exactly one line through P that is parallel to l.
2. There is exactly one line through P that is perpendicular to l.

A bisector of a segment is a line intersecting the segment at its midpoint. A perpendicular bisector
of a segment is a line that is perpendicular to the segment at its midpoint. As a reslt, any point lies
on the perpendiclar bisector is equidistant (has equal distant) from the endpoints of the segment.

−
→
A ray AC, denoted AC, consists of the segment AC and all other points P
such that C is between A and P. In this case, A is called the endpoint of C P
A
the ray.

−
→ −
→
An angle  is formed by two rays AB and AC that have the same end
point A. The rays then are called the sides of the angle, and A is called B

the vertex of the angle. In the diagram, the angle can be denoted: Â, 1

ˆ CAB,
ˆ or 1̂. A C
BAC,

1
2 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

There are several types of angles:

1. Acute angle: measures between 0◦ and 90◦ .

2. Right angle: measures exactly 90◦ .
3. Obtuse angle: measures between 90◦ and 180◦ .
4. Straight angle: measures exactly 180◦ .

Two angles  and B̂ with equal measures are called congruent angles, denoted  ∼
= B̂.

Two angles with a common vertex and a common side are called adja-
cent angles. The bisector of an angle is the ray that divides the angle
B
into two congruent adjacent angles. As a reslt, a point lies on the bisec-
tor of an angle if and only if it is equidistant (has equal distant) from the A C

sides of the angle. In the diagram: The distance between C and B equals D
the distance between C and D.

Theorem 1.1.2

C
A point lies on the perpendicular bisector of a segment if and only if
the point is equidistant from the end point of the segment.

A M B

Theorem 1.1.3

A point lies on the angle bisector of an angle if and only if the point
is equidistant from the sides of the angle.
X Y

A M B
1.1. Lines and Angles 3

Complementary angles are two angles whose measures have the sum
90◦ . Each angle is called complement of each other. D
50◦
40◦

A B

D
Supplementary angles are two angles whose measures have the
130◦
sum 180◦ . Each angle is called supplement of each other. 70◦

C A B

D B
Vertical angles (vert.) are two angles such that the sides of one angle
y x
are opposite rays to the sides of the other angle.
A C

Theorem 1.1.4

Vertical angles are congruent.

Proof:

Note that angles 1̂ and 3̂; and angles 2̂ and 3̂ are both supple-
3
mentary angles. That is
1 2

180◦ = 1̂ + 3̂ = 2̂ + 3̂ . Therefore, 1̂ = 2̂ .
4 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

• A transversal is a line cutting off two or more other lines in

different points. Example: l is a transversal.
l
• Alternate interior angles are two nonadjacent interior angles
on opposite sides of a transversal. Example: 3̂ and 6̂; 4̂ and 5̂
1 2
are alternate interior angles. 3 4

• Same-side interior angles are two interior angles on the same

side side of the transversal. Example: 3̂ and 5̂; 4̂ and 6̂ are
5 6
same-side interior angles.
7 8
• Corresponding angles are two angles in corresponding posi-
tion relative to the two intersected lines. Example: 1̂ and 5̂; 2̂
and 6̂; 3̂ and 7̂; 4̂ and 8̂ are corresponding angles.

Theorem 1.1.5

If two lines are cut off by a transversal, then the two lines
are parallel if and only if any of the following hold: 1 2
3 4
1. Corresponding angles are congruent. e.g. 1̂ ∼
= 5̂,
2. Altrnate interior angles are congruent. e.g. 3̂ ∼
= 6̂, or
5 6
3. Same-side interior angles are supplementary. e.g. 7 8

3̂ + 5̂ = 180◦ .

Example 1.1.1

Find the values of x and y in the diagram.

Solution:

←→ m l
Observe that we have two parallel lines: ←
→
m k l . Then,
by Theorem 1.1.5, we have | x̂ | = 70◦ (since they are corre-
sponding angles). Also, Theorem 1.1.4 implies that | ẑ | = z
x y 70◦
50◦ (they are opposite angles). Note that, angles x̂, Â, and ŷ
are supplementary, and hence | ŷ | = 180◦ − | x̂ | − | ẑ | = 60◦ . 50◦
1.1. Lines and Angles 5

A triangle is formed by three segments called sides, and three points each
C
is called a vertex.
• Triangle ABC is denoted M ABC.
• Vertices of M ABC: A, B, and C.
• Sides of M ABC: AB, AC, and BC.
A B
• Angles of M ABC: Â, B̂, and Ĉ.

C C
C

A B
A B A B
Isosceles.
Scalene. At least two sides congruent. Equilateral.
No congruent sides. All sides congruent.

Figure 1.1: Types of triangles with respect to their sides congruence.

C C C
C
hy
p
ote
leg

nu
se

A B
A B A leg B A B

Acute. Obtuse. Equiangular.

Right.
One obtuse angle.
Three acute angles. One right angle. All angles congruent.

Figure 1.2: Types of triangles with respect to their angles.

Theorem 1.1.6

The measure of angles of any triangle sums to 180◦ .

Proof:
←→ ←→
Let M ABC be any triangle. Draw a line BD parallel to AC, see the D B
←
→
diagram. Note that 2̂ + 4̂ + 5̂ = 180◦ (supp. angles). The line AB 4
2 5
←→ ←
→
is a transversal to the parallel lines BD and AC. Hence, 1̂ ∼
= 4̂ (alternate
←
→
interior angles). Also, BC is another transversal and hence 3̂ ∼
= 5̂. Thus, 1 3
A C
2̂ + 1̂ + 3̂ = 2̂ + 4̂ + 5̂ = 180◦ .
6 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

When one side of a triangle is extended, an exterior angle is formed. C

z
Fact: The measure of the exterior angle equal the sum of the other w
x y
two nonadjacent angles of the triangle. That is, | ŵ | = | x̂ | + | ẑ |. A B D

A median CM of a triangle is a segment from a vertex to the middle

point of opposite side (inside the triangle).
A M B

An altitude CO of a triangle is the perpendicular segment from a vertex to the line C

that contains the opposite side (might be inside or outside the triangle).

A O B

An incenter is the point of intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle.

G

A B

Q G R
A circumcenter is the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors
of the sides of a triangle.
A P B
1.2. Congruent and Similar Triangles 7

1.2 Congruent and Similar Triangles

Definition 1.2.1

Two triangles are congruent if and only if their vertices can be matched up so that the corresponding
parts (sides and angles) of the triangles are congruent. In that case, we write the corresponding
= M DEF means that  ∼
vertices in the same order. That is, M ABC ∼ = D̂, B̂ ∼
= Ê, and Ĉ ∼
= F̂; and
AB ∼= DE, AC ∼ = DF, and BC ∼= EF.

Remark 1.2.1: Showing Two Triangles are Congruent

Two triangles are congruent if any condition of the following holds:

1. S.S.S.: The three sides of two triangles are congruent.
2. S.A.S.: Two sides and the included angle of two triangles are congruent.
3. A.S.A.: Two angles and the included side of two triangles are congruent.
4. A.A.S.: Two angles and a non-included side of two triangles are congruent.
5. H.L.: The hypotenuse and a leg of two (right) triangles are congruent.

C F C F C F

A B D E A B D E A B D E

1. S. S. S. 2. S. A. S. 3. A. S. A.
M ABC ∼
= M DEF by SSS. M ABC ∼
= M DEF by SAS. M ABC ∼
= M DEF by ASA.

C F
C F

A B D E
A B D E

4. A. A. S. 5. H. L.
M ABC ∼
= M DEF by AAS. M ABC ∼
= M DEF by HL.
8 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

Example 1.2.1

Let D be the midpoint of AB, and let CD ⊥ AB. Prove: M ADC ∼

= M BDC.

Solution:

1. AD ∼
= BD (because D is a midpoint of AB). C

ˆ ∼
2. ADC ˆ because CD ⊥ AB.
= BDC,
3. CD is common to triangles M ADC and M BDC.
Therefore, M ADC ∼
= M BDC by SAS. A D B

Example 1.2.2

Given: CE ∼
= BE and AC k BD. Prove: M ACE ∼
= M DBE.

Solution:

←
→ ←
→ ←→
Note that BC is a transversal to the parallel lines AC and BD
1. B̂ ∼
= Ĉ (alt. int. angles). C D
E
2. CE ∼
= BE (Given).
ˆ ∼
3. BED ˆ (vertical opposite angles).
= AEC A B

Therefore, by ASA, M ACE ∼

= M DBE.

a c
A proportion is an equation = = k (k is called the scale factor) stating that the two ratios are equal.
b d
Definition 1.2.2

Two triangle are similar if and only if their vertices can be paired so that:
1. corresponding angles are congruent, and
2. corresponding sides are in proportion. (Their lengths have the same ratio).
That is, if M ABC is similar to triangle M DEF, we write M ABC ∼ M DEF which implies that
AB AC BC
 ∼
= D̂, B̂ ∼
= Ê, and Ĉ ∼
= F̂; and = = .
DE DF EF
1.2. Congruent and Similar Triangles 9

C 8
For instance the triangles M ABC and M DEF are similar: 6
4
3

A 2 B D 4 E

Remark 1.2.2: Showing Two Triangles are Similar

Two triangles are similar if any condition of the following holds:

1. S-S.S.S.: The three sides of two triangles are in proportion.
2. S-S.A.S.: Two sides (in proportion) and the included angle (congruent) of two triangles.
3. S-A.A.: Two angles (and hence the third) of two triangles are congruent.

Example 1.2.3

Given: Â ∼
= B̂ (right angles). Prove: M ACE ∼ M BDE. Or Show that AC · DE = BD · CE .

Solution:

1. 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ (vertical opposite angles). C
D
2. Moreover, Â ∼
= B̂ (given). E
AC CE 1 2
Therefore, M ACE ∼ M BDE by S-AA. That is, = and
BD DE A B
hence the results.

Theorem 1.2.1: Triangle Proportionality Theorem

If a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other two

B
Q
sides, then it divides those sides proportionally. In fact it pro- 4
3
duces two similar triangles. That is, C
AP BQ 1
Given: M ABC; PQ k AB. Then: = . That is A
2
PC QC P
M ABC ∼ M PQC.

Proof:

Since PQ k AB, we have (corresponding angles) 1̂ ∼

= 2̂ and 3̂ ∼
= 4̂. Since Ĉ is a common angle in
10 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

AC BC
triangles M ABC and M PQC, we get M ABC ∼ M PQC, by S-AA. That is, = where
PC QC
AC = AP + PC , and BC = BQ + QC . Thus,

AP + PC BQ + QC AP BQ
= ⇒ = .
PC QC PC QC

Theorem 1.2.2: Triangle Angle-Bisector Theorem

The bisector of an angle in a triangle divides the opposite side into segments proportional to the
other sides. That is,
AC AM
Given: M ABC; bisector CM. Then: = .
BC BM

Proof:

Draw AN k MC so that BC intersects AN in point N. Then N

1. 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ (CM is bisector of Ĉ).
3

2. 2̂ ∼
= 4̂ (alternate interior angles since AC is a transversal). C

3. 1̂ ∼
= 3̂ (corresponding angles since BN is a transversal). 2 1

= 4̂ and hence M CNA is isosceles with NC ∼

Therefore, 3̂ ∼ = AC.
4
NC AM
By Theorem 1.2.1, M BCM ∼ M BNA, and = . But
BC BM A M B
AC AM
NC = AC . Therefore, = .
BC BM

Example 1.2.4

Given: M AYC ∼ M BXC. Then: M CXY ∼ M CBA. X Y

A B

Solution:
1.2. Congruent and Similar Triangles 11

We first redraw the needed triangles:

C C C

Y X Y X

A A B B
It is clear that the angle Ĉ is a common angle in the two triangles M CXY and M CBA. Since,
BX CX CB CX CY
M AYC ∼ M BXC, we have = = . That is = . Therefore, by S-SAS,
AY CY CA CB CA
we have M CXY ∼ M CBA.
12 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

1.3 More on Triangles

Theorem 1.3.1

In any triangle M ABC, let M be a midpoint of AB. Then, BC k MN if and only if N is the midpoint
of AC.
Given: M ABC; M is midpoint of AB. Then: BC k MN iff N is midpoint of AC.

Proof:

” ⇒” : Suppose BC k MN. We show that M ABC ∼ M AMN.

1. 1̂ ∼
= B̂ and 2̂ ∼
= Ĉ (corresponding angles).
A

2. Â is common.
1 2
Thus, by S-AA, we have M ABC ∼ M AMN. M N
AN AM
Hence, = = 12 . Therefore, AN = 1
2 AC and therefore,
AC AB
N is the midpoint of AC. B C

” ⇐” : Suppose N is the midpoint of AC.

Clearly, M ABC ∼ M AMN since
1. Â is common angle.
AM AN
2. = = 12 .
AB AC
Thus, by S-SAS, we have M ABC ∼ M AMN.
Therefore, 1̂ ∼
= B̂ (corresponding angles) which implies that MN k BC.

Theorem 1.3.2

In any triangle M ABC, the three angle bisectors concurrent at an equidistant point (called incenter)
from the sides of the triangle.
Given: M ABC; the bisectors of Â, B̂, and Ĉ. Then: The angle bisectors intersect in a point; that
point is equidistant from AB, AC, and BC.

Proof:
1.3. More on Triangles 13

Let I be the intersection of bisectors of angles Â, and B̂. We

C
show that I also lies on bisector of angle Ĉ; and that I is
equidistant from all sides.
Draw segments IR, IS, and IT perpendicular to AB, AC, BC,
respectively. By Theorem 1.1.3, we have
1. IR ∼
= IS (I lies on bisector of angle Â).
S T
2. IR ∼
= IT (I lies on bisector of angle B̂). I

Hence IS ∼
= IT . Again by Theorem 1.1.3, we have I lies on the
bisector of angle Ĉ. Clearly, IR = IS = IT and hence I
A R B
is equidistant from the sides of M ABC.

Theorem 1.3.3

In any triangle M ABC, the three perpendicular bisectors of the sides concurrent at an equidistant
point (called circumcenter) from the vertices of the triangle.
Given: M ABC; the perpendicular bisectors of AB, AC, and BC. Then: The perpendicular bisectors
intersect in a point; that point is equidistant from vertices A, B, and C.

Proof:

Let O be the intersection of perpendicular bisectors of AB, and C

AC. We show that O also lies on perp. bisector of BC; and that
O is equidistant from all vertices.
Draw segments OR, OS, and OT . By Theorem 1.1.2, we have
1. OA ∼
= OB (O lies on perp. bisector of AB). S O T

2. OA ∼
= OC (O lies on perp. bisector of AC).
Hence OB ∼
= OC. Again by Theorem 1.1.2, we have O lies on
the perp. bisector of BC. Clearly, OA = OB = OC and
hence O is equidistant from the vertices of M ABC. A R B
14 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

Theorem 1.3.4: The Isosceles Triangle Theorem

The base angles of an isosceles triangle are congruent.

Proof:

Given M ABC isosceles with AC = BC . Let M be the midpoint

of AB. Hence AM ∼
= BM. Also note that CM is common in the
two triangles M ACM and M BCM. Therefore, M ACM ∼
= M BCM by
SSS. Hence  ∼
= B̂.
A M B

Theorem 1.3.5: The Converse of Isosceles Triangle Theorem

If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite those angles are congruent.

Proof:

Given M ABC with  ∼

= B̂. Draw the angle bisector CM to get C

ˆ ∼
ACM ˆ By AAS, we have M ACM ∼
= BCM. = M BCM since
1. Â ∼
= B̂ (given).
ˆ ∼
2. ACM ˆ (constructed).
= BCM
3. CM is common.
Therefore, AC ∼
= BC. A M B

Theorem 1.3.6: The Altitude Theorem

If the altitude is drawn to the hypotenuse of a right triangle, then C

the two triangles formed are similar to the original one and to each M
other.
Given: M ABC with right angle Â; altitude AM. Then: M BAC ∼
M BMA ∼ M AMC. A B
1.3. More on Triangles 15

Proof:

Simply redraw the three triangles and use the S-AA to show the similarity.
C A C

A B M B M A

Theorem 1.3.7: The Pythagorean Theorem

In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the legs.
Given: Right M ABC; A = 90◦ . Then: a2 = b2 + c2 .

Proof:

By Theorem 1.3.6, we have M BAC ∼ M BMA ∼ M AMC. Hence, we

have C
BA BC c a 2 e
= ⇒ = ⇒ c = ad. a
BM BA d c b
M
d
BC AC a b
Also, = that is = and hence b2 = ae. Therefore,
AC MC b e c
A B

b2 + c2 = ae + ad = a(d + e) = a2 .

Theorem 1.3.8: The Converse of Pythagorean Theorem

If the square of the one side of a triangle equals the sum of the squares of the two other sides, then
the triangle is right.
Given: triangle M ABC; a2 = b2 + c2 . Then: M ABC is right triangle.

Proof:

C
Let M DEF be a right triangle with legs b and c and the length of hy-
b a
potenue is d. Then d 2 = b2 + c2 = a2 . That is a = d. By SSS,
M ABC ∼
= M DEF. That is M ABC is a right triangle.
c
A B
16 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

1.4 Parallelograms

Definition 1.4.1

A parallelogram ( ) is quadrilateral (a polygon with four sides) with both pairs of opposite
sides parallel.

Theorem 1.4.1

Opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent. Given: ABCD. Then: AB ∼

= CD and AD ∼
= BC.

Proof:

Consider M ABC and M CDA:

D C
1. AC is common. 4
3

2. 1̂ ∼
= 4̂ (alternate interior angles).
3. 2̂ ∼
= 3̂ (alternate interior angles). 2
1

= M CDA. Hence AB ∼
By ASA: M ABC ∼ = CD and AD ∼
A B
= BC.

Theorem 1.4.2

Opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.

Theorem 1.4.3

The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Given: ABCD with diagonals AC and BD. Then: AC and BD bisect each other.

Proof:

D C
Consider M AMB and M CMD. By Theorem 1.4.1, we have 3 4
M
AB ∼
= CD. Also, 1̂ ∼
= 4̂ and 2̂ ∼
= 3̂ (alternate interior angles).
By ASA: M AMB ∼
= M CMD. Hence, AM ∼
= CM and BM ∼
= DM. 1 2
A B
1.4. Parallelograms 17

Theorem 1.4.4

In a quadrilateral, if the opposite sides congruent, then it is parallelogram.

Given: AB ∼
= CD and AD ∼
= BC. Then: ABCD is parallelogram.

Proof:

D C
= M CDA. Hence 1̂ ∼
By SSS, M ABC ∼ = 4̂ (and 2̂ ∼
= 3̂). By Theo- 4
3
rem 1.1.5, we have AB k CD and AD k BC. Thus, ABCD is a
2
1
parallelogram.
A B

Theorem 1.4.5

In a quadrilateral, if two opposite sides are congruent and parallel, then it is parallelogram.
Given: AB k CD and AB ∼
= CD. Then: ABCD is parallelogram.

Proof:

Consider M ABC and M CDA:

1. AC is common. D C

2. AB ∼
2
= CD (given).
3. 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ (alternate interior angles). 1
By SAS: M ABC ∼
= M CDA. Hence AD ∼
= BC. Thus, ABCD is a A B

parallelogram.

Theorem 1.4.6

If the diagonals bisect each other in a quadrilateral, then it is parallelogram.

Given: diagonals bisect each other in quadrilateral ABCD. Then: ABCD is parallelogram.

Proof:

Consider M ABM and M CDM:

ˆ ∼
1. AMB ˆ (vertically opposite).
= CMD
D C
2
2. AM ∼
= CM (given). M

3. BM ∼
= DM (given).
1
A B
18 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

By SAS: M ABM ∼
= M CDM. Then AB ∼
= CD and 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ which implies
that AB k CD. That is ABCD is a parallelogram.

Theorem 1.4.7

If the opposite angles are congruent in a quadrilateral, then it is parallelogram.

= Ĉ and B̂ ∼
Given: Â ∼ = D̂ in quadrilateral ABCD. Then: ABCD is parallelogram.

Proof:

 + B̂ + Ĉ + D̂ = 2  +2 B̂ = 360. That is,  + B̂ = 180 D C

(Â and B̂ are supplementary). By Theorem 1.1.5, AD k BC. But then

 and D̂ are also supplementary and again AB k CD. That is ABCD is
A B
a parallelogram.

Example 1.4.1

Let M ABC be a triangle with P, Q, and R are midpoints for AB, AC, and BC, respectively. Show
that APRQ is a parallelogram.

Solution:

By Theorem 1.3.1, we have AP k QR and AC k PR. Hence, AP k QR

Q R
and AQ k PR. That is APRQ is a parallelogram.
A P B
1.5. Special Parallelograms 19

1.5 Special Parallelograms

Definition 1.5.1

A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles.

Definition 1.5.2

A rhombus is a parallelogram with four congruent sides.

Definition 1.5.3

A square is a parallelogram with four congruent sides and four right angles.
Thus, every square is a rectangle and a rhombus.

Theorem 1.5.1

Let ABCD be a parallelogram, then ABCD is a rectangle if and only if its diagonals are congruent.

Proof:

D C D C

A B A B

” ⇒” : Suppose that ABCD is a rectangle. Then it has four right angles. In the two triangles M ABC
and M BAD, we have:
1. AB is common.
ˆ ∼
2. ABC ˆ (both are right).
= BAD
3. AD ∼
= BC (It is parallelogram).
By SAS: M ABC ∼
= M CDA. Hence AC ∼ = BD.
” ⇐” : Suppose that ABCD is a parallelogram with congruent diagonal AC and BD. In the two
triangles M ABC and M BAD, we have:
1. AB is common.
20 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals

2. AD ∼
= BC (It is a parallelogram).
3. AC ∼
= BD (given).
= M BAD. Thus  ∼
By SSS: M ABC ∼ = B̂. But since AD k BC, we have  + B̂ = 180◦ (same-side
interior angles are supplementary). Hence  = B̂ = 90◦ . That is ABCD is a rectangle.

Theorem 1.5.2

A quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are perpendicular bisectors.

Proof:

” ⇒” : Suppose that ABCD is a rhombus. Then it is a parallelogram and

D
hence its diagonals AC and BD bisect each other. We need to show that
AC ⊥ BD. In the two triangles M ADO and M CDO, we have: A C
O
1. OD is common.
B
2. AD ∼
= CD (It is rhombus).
3. AO ∼
= CO (It is parallelogram).
By SSS: M ADO ∼ ˆ ∼
= M CDO. Hence AOD ˆ and both are right angles.
= COD
” ⇐” : Suppose that ABCD is a quadrilateral with its diagonals are perpendicular bisector. Since AC
and BD bisect each other, then ABCD is a parallelogram. In the two triangles M ADO and M CDO,
we have:
1. OD is common.
ˆ ∼
2. AOD ˆ (given).
= COD
3. AO ∼
= CO (given).
By SAS: M ADO ∼
= M CDO. Thus AD ∼
= CD which implies that ABCD is a rhombus.

Example 1.5.1

Show that the point M is equidistant from the vertices of the right tiangle.
C D
Solution:
←→ ←
→ ←→ M
Let D be the point of intersection of the lines CD (parallel to AB), and BD
←
→ A B
(parallel to AC). By this construction, we get the parallelogram ABDC which
has a right angle Â. Thus we get the rectangle ABDC. Since it is a rectangle, its
1.5. Special Parallelograms 21

diagonals AD and BC bisect each other. That is, AM = BM = CM .

22 Chapter 1. Triangles and Quadrilaterals
 Chapter

2 Circles

In this chapter we consider: Basic notions and definitions of circles. Circle theorems. Cyclic quadrilateral.

2.1 Notions and Definitions

Definition 2.1.1

1. A circle is a set of points at a given distance (called radius "r") from a

given point (called center). All radii of a circle are congruents.
2. A chord is a segment whose endpoints on a circle. Drawn as XY . Q T P

3. A secant is a line that contains a chord. Drawn as CD. A

r
4. A diameter is a chord containing the center of a circle. Drawn as AB. O
r C
X
5. A tangent is a line intersecting the circle in exactly one point called the B
Y
point of tangency. Drawn as PQ. The tangency point here is T . D

6. We write c(A, r) to denote a circle with radius r centered at point A. We

also write A to denote a circle centered at point A.
7. Congruent circles c(A, r) ∼
= c(B, r) are circles with congruent radii.

A polygon is inscribed in a circle and the circle is circumscribed about the polygon when each
vertex of the polygon lies on the circle. In that case, the polygon is called cyclic.
If each side of a polygon is tangent to a circle, the polygon is said to be circumscribed about the
circle and the circle is inscribed in the polygon.

B B D
A O Inscribed polygons O
A C
C circumscribed circles
B D
B circumscribed polygons
O
A O Inscribed circles
A C
C

23
24 Chapter 2. Circles

Definition 2.1.2

ˆ of a circle is an angle whose vertex at the center. Examples of central

1. A central angle AOB
ˆ BOC,
angles: AOB, ˆ and COD.
ˆ
>
2. A, B and the inbetween points of the circle form an arc, denoted AB.
3. If A and B were the endpoints of a diameter, then the arc is called semicircle.
> >
4. Adjacent arcs of a circle are arcs with exactly one common point. Arcs AB and BC are
adjacent.
> ˆ .
5. The measure of an arc is defined to be the measure of its central angle. AB = AOB
6. Congruent arcs are arcs having the same measure.
ˆ is an angle whose vertex X is on the circle and whose sides contain
7. An inscribed angle Y XZ
>
ˆ intercept the arc YZ.
chords XY and XZ of the circle. In that case, we say that angle Y XZ

> B
BC >
AB
C A
X

>
CD
O

D
>
Y AD semicircle
Z

Theorem 2.1.1
←
→ ←
→
If AB is a line and O is a circle. Then AB is tangent to O at A if and only if AB ⊥ AO.

Sketch:

C A B
2.1. Notions and Definitions 25

Theorem 2.1.2: The Two Tangent Theorem

Tangents to a circle from a point P are congruent.

Proof:

In the two right triangles PAO and PBO ( Â = B̂ = 90◦ since

A
both points are tangency points), we have:
1. (leg) AO ∼
= BO (radii). O
P
2. (hypotenuse) PO is common.
B
By HL, we have M PAO ∼
= M PBO. Thus, PA ∼
= PB.

Theorem 2.1.3: The Arc Addition Theorem

The measure of the arc formed by two adjacent arcs equals the sum of the measure of these arcs.

Theorem 2.1.4

Two arcs are congruent if and only if their central angles are congruent.

Example 2.1.1

> >
Given AB is a diameter of O, and let CO k BD. Show that AC ∼
= CD.
A
Solution:

If CO k BD, then 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ (corresponding angles). But then 2̂ ∼
= 3̂ as the O
1
C
4
M OBD is isosceles triangle with congruent base angles. Then 3̂ ∼= 4̂ (al-
2 3
> >
= 4̂ which implies AC ∼
ternate interior angles). That is 1̂ ∼ = BD. B D

Example 2.1.2

Let RS be tangent to A and B. Show that M ARC ∼ M BSC.

R
Solution:
B
ˆ ∼
Clearly, ACR ˆ (vertically opposite). Also Ŝ ∼
= BCS = R̂ (both are right A C

angles). By S-AA, M ARC ∼

= M BSC. S
26 Chapter 2. Circles

2.2 Arcs, Chords, and Angles of Circles

Theorem 2.2.1

Two chords are congruent if and only if their intercepted arcs are congruent.
A
Proof:
B

” ⇒” : Suppose that AB ∼
= CD. Then: M AOB and M COD have:
O
1. AB ∼
= CD (given).
D
2. AO ∼
= CO and BO ∼
= DO (all of length radius r).
By SSS, we have M AOB ∼ ˆ ∼
= M COD. Hence AOB ˆ which implies that
= COD C

> >
AB ∼
= CD.
> >
” ⇐” : Suppose that AB ∼ ˆ ∼
= CD. Then AOB ˆ In M AOB and M COD we have:
= COD.
1. AO ∼
= CO and BO ∼
= DO (all of length radius r).
ˆ ∼
2. AOB ˆ (given).
= COD
By SAS, we have M AOB ∼
= M COD. Hence AB ∼
= CD.

Theorem 2.2.2

Let ON be the segment joining the center O to a point N on the circle. Then: ON ⊥ AB if and only
>
if ON bisects AB. In either case, ON bisects AB.
>
Given: O; and ON. Then ON ⊥ AB iff ON bisects AB. Moreover, ON bisects AB.

Proof:

” ⇒” : Suppose that ON ⊥ AB intersecting in point M. In

right triangles M OAM and M OBM:
1. (hypotenuse) OA ∼
= OB (both have length radius-r). O O

3 4
2. (leg) OM is common.
1 2
By HL, we have M OAM ∼
= M OBM. Hence, AM ∼ = BM. A
M
B A
M
B
ˆ =∼ MOB >∼>
ˆ which implies that AN N N
Also, MOA = BN.
” ⇐” : Suppose that ON bisects AB. Then, AM ∼
= BM. In
triangles M OAM and M OBM, we have
1. AO ∼
= BO (both have length radius-r).
2.2. Arcs, Chords, and Angles of Circles 27

2. AM ∼
= BM (given).
3. OM is common.
By SSS, we have M OAM ∼ = M OBM. Hence 1̂ ∼ = 2̂ which implies that both angles are right. That is
> >
ON ⊥ AB. Moreover, 3̂ ∼
= 4̂ which implies that AN ∼= BN.

Theorem 2.2.3

Two chords are congruent if and only if they are equidistant from the center.
A
Proof:
O
> > M
” ⇒” : Suppose that AB ∼
= CD. Then AB ∼
= CD. Let OM ⊥ AB and C
N
ON ⊥ CD. We now need to show that OM ∼
= ON. By Theorem 2.2.2, M
B
and N are midpoints for AB and CD. Then the right triangles M OBM and D

M ODN have:
1. (hypotenuse) OB ∼
= OD (both have length radius-r).
2. (leg) ND = 1/2 CD = 1/2 AB = MB (given: AB = CD ).
By HL, we have M OBM ∼= M ODN. Hence, OM ∼ = ON.
” ∼
” ⇐ : Suppose that OM = ON "AB and CD are equidistant". Then the right triangles M OBM and

M ODN have:
1. OM ∼
= ON (given).
2. OB ∼
= OD (both have length radius-r).
3. M̂ ∼
= N̂ (both right angles).
By HL, we have M OBM ∼ = M ODN. Hence BM ∼ = DN. But since OM and ON are perpendicular to
AB and CD, Theorem 2.2.2 implies that M and N are midpoint of AB and CD. Therefore, AB ∼
= CD.

Example 2.2.1

> >
Let AB ∼
= DB. Show that 1̂ ∼
= 2̂.
A
Solution:
> > > O
Given AB ∼
= BD, we get AB ∼
= BD by Theorem 2.2.1. Therefore, AC = C 1 B
2
> > > >∼>
180◦ − AB = 180◦ − BD = CD . Thus AC = CD which implies that
AC ∼
= CD. By SSS, M ABC ∼
= M DBC and hence 1̂ ∼
= 2̂. D
28 Chapter 2. Circles

Theorem 2.2.4

The measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half of the measure of its intercepted arc.
ˆ Then: ABC
ˆ = 1 >
Given: O and inscribed angle ABC. 2 AC .

Proof:

We have three cases for such inscribed angle whether its chords passing through the center or not:
B B B

A O A O A O

C
C D C D

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

ˆ = ABO
Case 1: Draw line OA. Then M OAB is isosceles with BAO ˆ = x. Then AOC
ˆ is an exterior
>
ˆ = 2x. That is, AC ˆ =x= 1 >
angle to the triangle. That is AOC = 2x. Therefore, ABO 2 AC .
>
ˆ = 1 CD ˆ =
Case 2: Draw diameter BD passing through the center O. By case 1: CBD 2 and DBA
1 > 1 > > >
2
ˆ = ABD
AD . Thus ABC ˆ + DBC
ˆ =
2 AD + 12 CD = 1
2 AC .
ˆ + CBD
Case 3: Draw diameter BD passing through the center O. By case 1: ABC ˆ = ABD
ˆ =
1 > ˆ = 1 >
2 AD and CBD 2 CD . Thus

ˆ = ABD
ABC ˆ = 1 AD
ˆ − CBD > 1 >
− CD =
1 >
AC + CD
>

−
1 > 1 >
CD = AC .
2 2 2 2 2

Corollary 2.2.1: Based on Theorem 2.2.4

1. Any two inscribed angles intercepting the same arc are congruent.
2. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
3. An inscribed quadrilateral in a circle have opposite supplementary angles.

x 90◦ y x
y

O O O
z w

1: x̂ ∼
= ŷ. 2: right angle. 3: x + z = 180◦ = y + w.
2.2. Arcs, Chords, and Angles of Circles 29

Theorem 2.2.5

The measure of an angle formed by a chord and a tangent is half as the measure
ˆ = 1 > B A
of the intercepted arc. That is: in the diagram BAC 2 AC .
1
2
Proof:
O

Draw AD passing through O and join C and D. By Theorem 2.1.1 AB ⊥ AD, and C
ˆ = 90◦ . That is 1̂ + 2̂ = 90◦ .
hence BAD D

By Corollary 2.2.1, we have Ĉ = 90◦ . Also, 2̂ + D̂ = 1

2 180
◦ = 90◦ . Thus,
>
1̂ ∼
= D̂, but D̂ = 12 AC = 1̂ .

Example 2.2.2

If two chords of a circle are parallel, then the two arcs between the chords
are congruent. B
1 A
O
Solution:
2
>
Since AB k CD, we have 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ (alternate interior angles). Thus, AC = D
C

> > >

2 2̂ = 2 1̂ = BD . That is AC ∼
= BD.

Theorem 2.2.6

The measure of an angle formed by intersected chords in a circle equals

to half the sum of the intercepted arcs. That is: in the diagram 1̂ =
A D
1 > >
3 2
2 AC + BD . 1
I
B
Proof: C

Draw AD. Then 1̂ = 2̂ + 3̂ as 1̂ is an exterior angle to M IAD. But

1 > 1 >
2̂ = 2 AC and 3̂ = 2 BD . Hence,

1 > 1 > 1 > >

1̂ = AC + BD = AC + BD .
2 2 2
30 Chapter 2. Circles

Theorem 2.2.7

The measure of an angle formed by (1) two secants, (2) two tangents, or (3) a secant and a tangent
drawn from a point outside a circle equals half the difference of the measure of its intercepted arcs.
That is, in all cases (of the diagram), show that m = 12 ( x − y ).

Proof:

A A
C
A z z
w m
x y m x y m y
P P
z P x
D w w
B B
B

1: two secants. 3: a secant and a tangent.

2: two tangents.

In any case, we have (exterior angle of M ABP) w = m + z. Thus, m = w − z. But z = 21 y and w = 12 x.

That is, m = 12 x − 12 y = 12 ( x − y ).

Theorem 2.2.8

When two chords intersect in a circle, the product of the segments of one chord
A
equals the product of the segments of the other chord. D

Given: AB intersects CD at P. Then: AP · PB = CP · PD .

P
Proof:
B
C
Draw segments AD and BC. In triangles M PAD and M PCB, we have
1. Â ∼
= Ĉ and B̂ ∼
= D̂ (share same intercepted arcs).
ˆ ∼
2. APD ˆ (vertically opposite).
= CPB
AP PD
By S-AA: M PAD ∼ M PCB. That is = or similarily, AP · PB = CP · PD .
CP PB

Theorem 2.2.9

When two secants intersect a circle, the product of the segments of one
A
secant equals the product of the segments of the other secant. D

Given: PA and PC intersects a circle at D and B. Then: PA · PD =

P
PC · PB . B
C
2.2. Arcs, Chords, and Angles of Circles 31

Proof:

Draw segments AB and CD. In triangles M PAB and M PCD, we have

>
1. Â ∼
= Ĉ (share same intercepted arc BD).
2. P̂ is common.
PA PB
By S-AA: M PAB ∼ M PCD. That is = or similarily, PA · PD = PC · PB .
PC PD

Theorem 2.2.10

If PB is a tangent and PA is a secant drawn from a point P outside a circle,

2 A
then PB = PA · PC . C

Proof: P

Draw segments AB and BC. In triangles M PAB and M PBC, we have B

ˆ ∼ ˆ (share same intercepted arc BC). >

1. PAB = PBC
2. P̂ is common.
PA PB 2
By S-AA: M PAB ∼ M PBC. That is = or similarily, PA · PC = PB .
PB PC

Example 2.2.3

> > >

In the diagram, let BC = 120◦ . Also assume that AB ∼
= AC.
120◦
1. Find x, y and z.
C B
2. Show that M ABO ∼
= M ACO. y
O
3. Find the distance between B and C in terms of AB and AC .
z
z
x
Solution:
A
> >
1. Clearly, x = 12 BC = 60◦ , and y = BC = 120◦ . Thus, (completing
the circle 360◦ ), we have 2z = 360◦ − 120◦ = 240◦ and hence z = 120◦ .
2. in the triangles M ABO and M ACO, we have:
(a) BO ∼
= CO (both are radii).
> >
(b) AB ∼
= AC (since AB ∼
= AC).
(c) AO is common.
By SSS, M ABO ∼
= M ACO.
32 Chapter 2. Circles

> >
3. As BC ∼
= AB, we have BC = AB = AC .
 Chapter

3 Locus

3.1 The locus

Definition 3.1.1

A locus (plural: loci) (Latin word for "location") is a set of points that satisfy one or more conditions.

Theorem 3.1.1
←→
Given a line l . The locus of points that at distance d from
←→
l is the points of two parallel lines at distance d. d
←
→ l
The condition: All points at distance d from l . The locus of
d
←→
such points are forming two parallel lines to l .

Theorem 3.1.2

Let A be a fixed point in the plane. The locus of points that at distance r
from A are the points of the circle centered at A with radius r. E
B

Note that any point B lies on the locus must satisfy the condition AB = r.
A D
d
Also, any point B on the circle must satisfy AB = r.
Hence the locus is a circle centered at A with radius r.
C

Theorem 3.1.3

Given two fixed points A and B, the locus of points equidistant from A and B is the
perpendicular bisector of AB. Such a line is sometimes called mediatrix.
P
Let M be the midpoint of AB. Then any point P lies on the perpendicular bisector if
and only if it is equidistant from the endpoints (points A and B). That is, the locus
of points that are equidistant from fixed points A and B are the points forming the A M B

perpendicular bisector of AB. See Theorem 1.1.2.

33
34 Chapter 3. Locus

Theorem 3.1.4

ˆ the locus of points equidistant from the sides of

Given an angel ABC,
ˆ (namely, −
ABC
→ −
→
AB and BC) is the angle bisector.
A

Proof: E
D
Here is a proof of "a point is on the angle bisector iff it is equidistant
α
from its sides". This is a restate of Theorem 1.1.3. α

ˆ In the tri-
Assume first that a point D is on the angle bisector of ABC. B F C

ˆ ∼
angles M EBD and M FDB, we have EBD ˆ (assumption). Also,
= FBD
ˆ ∼
DEB ˆ for both are right angles. Since BD is common in both triangles, then by AAS,
= DFB
M EBD ∼
= M FBD. That is ED ∼
= FD and the point D (which is on the locus) is equidistant from
the sides.
−
→ −
→
Next, assume that the point D is equidistant from AC and BC. Then, in triangles M EBD and M FBD
ˆ ∼
we have DEB ˆ (both are right angles). Also, ED ∼
= DFB = FD (by assumption). By HL, we have
M EBD =∼ M FBD. Therefore, EBD
ˆ =∼ FBDˆ and hence − →
BD is a bisector for the angle B̂.

Theorem 3.1.5

m1

The locus of points equidistant from two intersecting

y y
lines ←
→ and ←
m 1 m→ is the pair of lines bisecting the angles
2
x
x
x
x
y y
formed by ←
→ and ←
m 1
→.
m 2

m2

Example 3.1.1

Given a square ABCD with sides r cm. Construct the locus of points which
D C
are 12 r cm from A and equidistant from AB and AC.

Solution: Y

Note that the points that are equidistant from sides AB and AC are the points
A B
ˆ Moreover, the points that are at distance 1 r
on the angle bisector of BAC. 2
X
from A are the points on a circle centered at A with radius 12 r.
3.1. The locus 35

Therefore, the locus of points that are equidistant from sides AB and AC and
that are at distance 12 r from A are the two points X and Y .

Example 3.1.2

ˆ is a
Let A and B be two fixed points. If P moves in the plane such that APB
Q
constant, find the locus of such points. P
R arc1

Solution:

ˆ = k consists
The locus of points P that keep the same angle measure APB B A

of two arcs (arc 1 and arc 2) of circles of the same radius symmetric through
T
AB (points A and B do not belong to the locus).
arc2
> S
Assume that P lies on a circle with some radius such that the smaller arc AB
> >
has a measure AB = 2k. Hence all points on bigger arc of AB form an
ˆ = 1 2k = k. Note that P can be on either circles the one on top
inscribed angle with measure APB 2
or on the bottom.
ˆ = k. Then the angle is inscribed in a circle with P is a vertex on the circle facing
Assume that APB
> >
arc AB with AB = 2k.

Remark 3.1.1

Note that if the constant angle in Example 3.1.2 was 90◦ (right P
R
angle).
Then AB would be a diameter of a circle (the locus) centered at B A
1 M
the midpoint of AB and with radius 2 AB .
That is the locus of points preserving the right angle lie on the
circle and facing an arc of measure 180◦ . That is a semicircle. Q
36 Chapter 3. Locus

Example 3.1.3

Find the locus of points that are equidistant from three fixed points (non
C
collinear) A, B, and C.

Solution:

Note that the points that are equidistant from A and B lie on the perpen- Q R
O

dicular bisector of AB, namely PO. Also, the points that are equidistant
from A and C are the points on QO. The points that are equidistant
A P B
from B and C are on the perpendicular bisector RO.
Therefore, the equidistant point from all of the three points must lie on
the intersection of the three perpendicular bisectors of AB, AC, and BC.
Then the locus is only one point O satisfying the locus condition AO = BO = CO which is
the circumcenter of M ABC.

Example 3.1.4

Given a circle c(O, r) and a chord AB moving such that AB is a constant. Find the locus of the
midpoints of AB.

Solution:

A A

M
d d
B B
O O

The locus is a circle centered at O of radius d < r, where d = OM .

Reasoning: We will show that OM = d is a constant distance. That is when M moves around
along with its chord, a circle forming the locus is created. Note that OA = r is a constant. Also, M
1
is a midpoint of AB and hence AM = 2 AB is a constant as well. But by Pythagorean Theorem,
2 2 2
we have OM = OA − AM which is also a constant.
Therefore, the locus of midpoints M is a circle c(O, d).
 Chapter

4 Transformations

4.1 Isometries

Definition 4.1.1

A transformation is a bijective (ono-to-one and onto) mapping of E 2 (the plane) onto itself.

That is if T is a transformation, then for every point P in the plane, there is a unique point Q such that
T (P) = Q. Conversely, for every point Q there is a unique point P such that T (P) = Q.

In that case, we say that Q is the image of P, and that P is the preimage of Q.

Definition 4.1.2

If T is a transformation satisfying the property that "if P, Q, R are three collinear points, then
T (P) , T (Q) , T (R) are collinear", then T is called a collineation.

Definition 4.1.3

Let T and S be any two transformations, then

• The identity transformation is the transformation I defined by I(P) = P for every point P.
• The inverse transformation of T, denoted T−1 , is defined by T−1 (Q) = P iff T (P) = Q.
• The composition (or product) of T and S (which is also a transformation) is denoted S ◦ T
(or as a product ST) and is defined by S ◦ T (P) = S (T (P)).
Note that S is the inverse of T iff ST = I = TS.

Definition 4.1.4

An isometry (iso-metry: equal-distance) is a transformation that maps every segment to a congruent

segment. That is, an isometry preserves distance. In notation: T is an isometry iff T AB = A0 B0

with AB ∼
= A0 B0 .

37
38 Chapter 4. Transformations

Theorem 4.1.1

The product (composition) of two isometries is an isometry.

Proof:
 
Let T and S be two isometries. Then for any A and B, T AB = A0 B0 and S A0 B0 = A00 B00 , where

AB ∼
= A0 B0 (T is isometry) and A0 B0 ∼
= A00 B00 (S is isometry).
 
Therefore, ST AB = S T AB = S A0 B0 = A00 B00 , with AB ∼ = A00 B00 .

Theorem 4.1.2

The identity transformation is an isometry.

Theorem 4.1.3

Let T be any isometry. Then

• T−1 is also an isometry.
←
→
• If T fixes A and B, then T fixes AB.
• If T fixes any three noncollinear points, then T = I.

Theorem 4.1.4

Two isometries agree on three noncollinear points are identical.

Proof:

Let T and S be two isometries such that T (A) = S (A) , T (B) = S (B) , T (C) = S (C), for non-
collinear points A, B,C. Then S−1 T (A) = A, S−1 T (B) = B, S−1 T (C) = C. That is S−1 T = I.
Hence, T = S.

Theorem 4.1.5

An isometry is a (?) collineation that preserves (a) betweenness; (b) midpoints; (c) segments;
(d) rays; (e) triangles; (f) angles; (g) angle measure; (h) perpendicularity; (i) parallelism;

Proof:

Let T be any isometry. Suppose that A, B,C are any three points in the plane, and let T (A) =
P, T (B) = Q, T (C) = R. Then:
4.1. Isometries 39

(a) betweenness: If AB + BC = AC , then as T isometry, PQ + QR = PR . Hence, if

B is between A and C, then Q is between P and R. That is, T preserves betweenness.
(b) midpoints: If B is the midpoint of AC, then AB = BC . By part (a), we get PQ = QR
and hence Q is the midpoint of PR. T preserves midpoints.
(c) segments: This is clear by the definition of isometry T, we have T AB = PQ with AB ∼


= PQ.
T preserves segments.
−
→
(d) rays: Note that AB is the union of AB and all points C such that B is between A and C. Thus,
−→  −→ −→
T AB is the union of PQ and all points R such that Q is between P and R. So, T AB = PQ.
−
→ −→
That is, AB ∼
= PQ. Thus, T preserves rays.
←→ −→ −→ ←→ −→ −→
(?) Since AB is the union of AB and BA, we have T AB is the union of PQ and QP, which is
←→
PQ. T preserves lines and hence T is a collineation.
(e) triangles: If A, B,C are noncollinear, then AB + BC > AC and hence PQ + QR >
PR (noncollinear). Moreover, M ABC is the union of the segments AB, BC, AC. By part (c),
T preserves segments and hence M ABC ∼ = M PQR by SSS. That is, T preserves triangles.
ˆ ∼ ˆ since T ABC
ˆ = PQR ˆ . T preserves angles.


(f) angles: part (e) implies that ABC = PQR
ˆ = PQR
(g) angle measure: by part (f), ABC ˆ . T preserves angle measures.
ˆ = 90◦ . Thus, PQR
(h) perpendicularity: by part (g), if AB ⊥ BC, then ABC ˆ = 90◦ and hence

PQ ⊥ QR. T preserves perpendicularity.

(i) parallelism: isometry preserves angles and hence it preserves parallelism.
40 Chapter 4. Transformations

4.2 Reflections

Definition 4.2.1

A reflection in a line m (called mirror), denoted Rm , is the transformation defined by


P, if P ∈ ←
 →
m;
P 7→
Q, otherwise, and ←
 →
m is the perpendicular bisector of PQ.

S0 S

P0 P

Q0 Q

A A0

B B0

C C0

Figure 4.1: Reflection in a line m.

4.2. Reflections 41

Theorem 4.2.1

A reflection is an isometry.

Proof:

Here we must show that PQ = P0 Q0 for all choices of P and Q. Here are some possible cases
we will prove (all reflections are made in the line m. That is, Rm ):

m m m m

P P0 P0 M P
P0 = P
2 1
M
P0 Q0 = Q P
4 3
Q0 M Q
Q0 Q Q0 N Q

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Figure 4.2: Reflection of some points in line m.

Case 1: P 6∈ m and hence line m is perpendicular bisector of PP0 . Since Q ∈ m, Q0 ∈ m. Therefore, Q

is the midpoint of PP0 and hence PQ = P0 Q0 .
Case 2: Q 6∈ m and hence m is the perpendicular bisector of QQ0 . Let M ∈ m be the midpoint of QQ0 .
In right triangles M PQM and M P0 Q0 M, we have
(a) PM is common.
(b) QM ∼
= Q0 M (m is a bisector).
ˆ ∼
(c) QMP ˆ 0 (m is perpendicular on QQ0 ).
= Q0 MP
By SAS, M PQM ∼
= M P0 Q0 M, and hence PQ ∼
= P0 Q0 .
Case 3: Let M be the intersection point of m with PQ. By Case 2, we have PM ∼
= P0 M and QM ∼
= Q0 M.
Therefore, PQ ∼
= P0 Q0 .
Case 4: By Case 2, MQ ∼= MQ0 and hence M MQQ0 is isosceles with 3̂ ∼ = 4̂. Since m is perpendicular
←→0 ←→0 ←→0 ←→0
to both PP and QQ , we obtain that PP k QQ . Therefore, 1̂ ∼
= 3̂ ∼
= 4̂ ∼
= 2̂. So, in M PQM and
M P0 Q0 M, we have:
(a) PM ∼ = P0 M (←
→
m is perpendicular bisector of PP0 ).
(b) QM ∼
= Q0 M (Case 2).
(c) 1̂ ∼
= 2̂ (proved).
By SAS, we have M PQM ∼
= M P0 Q0 M and hence PQ ∼
= P0 Q0 .
42 Chapter 4. Transformations

Definition 4.2.2

Given an isometry T, then T is

• a direct isometry if it preserves the orientation. That is, the order of lettering in the figure
and the image are the same: either both clockwise or both counterclockwise.
• an opposite isometry if it does not preserve the orientation. That is, the order of lettering is
reversed.
• a periodic if Tn = I for some integer n. In that case, we say that T is periodic with period n.

Remark 4.2.1

A product of two reflections in the same line is the identity. That is,
m
R2m = I. If m is any line then R−1
m = Rm . Therefore, the reflection is
A A0
periodic with period 2.
Reflections are opposite isometries not preserving the orientation and
reversing the lettering.
C B B0 C0
Here is a table for the composition of two isometries with respect to
direct or opposite property:

◦ direct opposite
direct direct opposite
opposite opposite direct

We note that, given any isometry T, we can show that T is a reflection if it is opposite isometry
fixing at least a point.

Isometry Direct / Opposite Fixed Points

Translation Direct NO
Rotation Direct YES
Reflection Opposite YES
Glide Reflection Opposite NO
4.2. Reflections 43

Example 4.2.1

Let m and l be two perpendicular lines in the plane. Find the reflection of l
m
in m, that is Rm (l).

Solution: l

Let P and Q be two points on l. Then Rm (P) = P0 ∈ l and Rm (Q) = Q0 ∈ l. P0 Q0 Q P

←−→ ← →
That is Rm (l) = P0 Q0 = l .

Example 4.2.2

Let T be an opposite isometry of period 2. Show that T is a reflection.

P M P0
Solution:

We need to show that T is an opposite isometry and fixing a point. T is of period 2

implies that T2 = I. Take any point P. Then T (P) = P0 and T (T (P)) = P (since T2 = I). That is,
T (P0 ) = P. If M is the midpoint of PP0 , then T (M) = M and hence M is a fixed point. That is T is
a reflection whose mirror is the perpendicular bisector of PP0 passing through M.

Example 4.2.3

Let Ra and Rb be two reflections in two parallel lines a and b, respectively. Let P ∈ a and Q ∈ b be
points with Rb (P) = P0 and Ra (Q) = Q0 . Show that P, P0 , Q, Q0 are either collinear or the vertices
of a parallelogram.

Solution:
b a
b a d
P0 P
M

P0 Q P Q0 d
Q Q0
N

←→
Case 1: Assume that P and Q are on the same line PQ. Then PQ ⊥ a and PQ ⊥ b. Also Rb (P) =
←→ ←→
P0 ∈ PQ and Ra (Q) = Q0 ∈ PQ. Thus, P, P0 , Q, Q0 are collinear.
Case 2: Assume that P and Q are not on the same line. Then PQ 6⊥ a or b. But Rb (P) = P0 .
Then PP0 ⊥ b and PP0 = 2d (where d is the distance between a and b). Also, Ra (Q) = Q0 which
44 Chapter 4. Transformations

implies QQ0 ⊥ a and QQ0 = 2d. Therefore, PP0 k QQ0 with PP0 ∼
= QQ0 . Therefore, PP0 QQ0 is a
parallelogram.
4.3. Rotations 45

4.3 Rotations

Definition 4.3.1

A rotation about point O through angle x◦ , denoted RO,x , is the transformation defined by

P, if P = O;

P 7→
Q, otherwise, and OP = OQ and POQ
 ˆ = x◦ .

If in addition x = 180◦ , then we say that RO,180 is a half-turn and denote it as HO . As a result HO
is periodic with period 2.

Theorem 4.3.1

A rotation is an isometry.
B0
Solution: x◦
A0
Consider a rotation RO,x about some point O through x◦ . Let A and B
x◦
be points in the plane with RO,x (A) = A0 and RO,x (B) = B0 . Then, we B
3
need to show that AB = A0 B0 . In M AOB and M A0 OB0 , we have: 2

1
1. OA = OA0 and OB = OB0 (definition of rotation). O = O0
A

2. 1̂ = x − 2̂ = 3̂ (look at diagram).
By SAS, M AOB ∼
= M A0 OB0 . That is AB = A0 B0 .

Remark 4.3.1

Let RO,x be a rotation about point O through x◦ . Then:

• A rotation is a direct isometry.
• The only invariant point is O. It is called the center of the rotation.
• By the definition of a half-turn we have HO2 = I.
• The composition of two rotations about the same center is a rotation: RO,x ◦ RO,y = RO,x+y .
• The inverse of a rotation is a rotation. That is, R−1
O,x = RO,−x .
• A half-turn about O is a composition of two reflections in perpendicular lines, say l and m,
intersecing in O. That is, HO = Rl ◦ Rm = Rm ◦ Rl . See Example 4.2.1.
46 Chapter 4. Transformations

Theorem 4.3.2

A composition of two reflections in two intersecting lines is sim-

ply a rotation about the intersection point through doubled the A0

angle between the two lines.

b
Proof:
B
r
Let a and b be two lines intersecting in a point O with the angle r
O r
inbetween measures r. Let A be a point in a distinct from O and A

let B be the intersection of line b with the circle O centered at a

O with radius OA . Then, AOB ˆ = r and ← →

OB = b. Let A0 =
B0
RO,2r (A). Then, A0 is on the circle O and b is perpendicular
bisector of AA0 (properties of circles). So, A0 = Rb (A). Now let
B0 = Ra (B). Then a is perpendicular bisector of BB0 (definition of reflections), and the directed
ˆ = 2r. Thus we have:
angle B0 OB
• Rb (Ra (O)) = Rb (O) = O = RO,2r (O).
• Rb (Ra (B0 )) = Rb (B) = B = RO,2r (B0 ).
• Rb (Ra (A)) = Rb (A) = A0 = RO,2r (A).
Since O, A, B0 are three noncollinear points, Theorem 4.1.4 implies that Rb ◦ Ra = RO,2r .

Proof:

Here is another proof. Assume that lines k and line l in-

P00
tersect at point O with a directed angle from k to l equals l

to r = (x + y).
Let P be a point so that Rk (P) = P0 and Rl (P0 ) = P00 .
N
We have M OPM ∼
= M OP0 M and M OP0 N ∼
= M OP00 N, by
SAS. Hence we have
P0

y
1 ··· OP = OP0 = OP00 . y
x
x k
O M
Moreover, the (directed) angle from OP to OP00 is

2 ··· 2(x + y) = 2r. P

Therefore, from 1 and 2 we have Rl ◦ Rk = RO,2r .

4.3. Rotations 47

Example 4.3.1

Let RA,x and RB,y be two rotations with distinct centers A and B. Assuming the x + y is not a
multiple of 360◦ , find RO,θ = RB,y ◦ RA,x .

Solution:

n l

O
w = 12 (x + y)

1
2x
1
2y
m
B A

Recall that any rotation is a composition of two reflections in two intersected lines with the angle
between lines is half the angle of the rotation.
Let n and m be two lines intersected in A with an angle from n to m equals to 2x , and l be the line
intersects with m in B with an angle from m to l equals to 2y . Since x +y is not a multiple of 360, lines
l and n intersects as in the diagram, say at point O, with an angle from n to l equals w = 12 (x + y) as
it is an exterior angle of the M ABO.
Let RA,x = Rm ◦ Rn , and RB,y = Rl ◦ Rm . Then

RO,θ = RB,y ◦ RA,x = Rl ◦ Rm ◦ Rm ◦ Rn = Rl ◦ Rn .

Recall that Rm ◦ Rm = I. That is the rotation RO,θ is infact a composition of two reflections in lines
a1 and b2 intersecting in O (the new center of rotation) through angle θ = 2w = (x + y), note that w
is the angle between a1 and b2 .
48 Chapter 4. Transformations

Example 4.3.2

Show that every isometry of period 2 is either a reflection or a half-turn.

B0 A0
Solution:
OA

Let T be an isometry of period 2. Hence T2 = I. For any point A, we have T (A) = A B

A0 and T (A0 ) = A so that if OA is the midpoint of AA0 , we have T (OA ) = OA .

Case 1: Any other point we choose, say B, we get T (OB ) = OB = OA . Then T is
A OA A0
a half-turn.
Case 2: Any other point we choose, say B, we get T (OB ) = OB 6= OA . Then T is B OB B0

a reflection.

Example 4.3.3

Let M ABC be a triangle with the vertices labelled clockwise such that AC = BC
ˆ = 90◦ . Let R← ←
→
and ACB → be the reflection in the line AB, R←→ be the reflection in B
AB AC
←
→
the line AC, and RB,90◦ be the rotation by 90◦ counterclockwise around B. Identify
the composition RB,90◦ ◦ R←
→ ◦ R←
AB
→.
AC A C

Solution:

→ ◦ R←
Note that R← → is simply the rotation RA,90◦ . That is,
AB AC
     
→ ◦ R←
RB,90◦ ◦ R←
AB AC BC
→ ◦ R←
→ ◦ R←
→ = RB,90◦ ◦ RA,90◦ = R←
AB
→ ◦ R←
AB
→ = R←
AC BC
→ = RC,180◦ .
→ ◦ R←
AC

Example 4.3.4

Given two points A and B in the plane, and their respective images A0 and B0
under a rotation RO,θ . Construct (Find) the center of rotation O. A0
θ

Solution: O
A
Clearly, join A with A0 and B with B0 and then take the perpendicular bisector
for AA0 and BB0 . The center of rotation then is the intersection point of the
B
B0
two perpendicular bisectors. θ

In the case of θ = 180◦ and that A, B, O are collinear, then the center would
be the midpoint of AA0 which is exactly the midpoint of BB0 .
4.4. Translations 49

4.4 Translations

Definition 4.4.1

A translation (or a glide) is a transformation that glide all points of the plane in the same direction
with the same distance.

A0
ith dis tance x P0
glide → w

P A C0 B0

C B

Figure 4.3: Translation with distance x.

Remark 4.4.1

• A translation is a direct isometry.

• A nonidentity translation fixes no points in the plane.
• Given points A and B, there is a unique translation moving A to B. Thus, we we write T−AB
→ to

denote the translation mapping A to B.

Theorem 4.4.1

A composition of two translation is a translation

R
Solution: T −→
PR

T −→
QR
Let T−AB
→ , T−→ be any two translations. Assume that for any point P,
CD   P T−→ Q
PQ
T−AB
→ (P) = Q and T −→
CD
(Q) = R. Then, T −→
CD
◦ T−→
AB
(P) = T −→
CD
T −
→
AB
(P) =
TCD
−→ (Q) = R. That is T−→ ◦ T−
CD
→ = T−
AB
→.
PR
50 Chapter 4. Transformations

Theorem 4.4.2

A composition of two reflections in two parallel lines (with

x x
distance x between the lines) is a translation (with distance 2x). C0 C

Solution:
x x x

Let a and b be two parallel lines and the distance between a A0 B A B0

b a
←
→
and b is x. Let AB be perpendicular to both lines a and b with
A ∈ a and B ∈ b. Let C be a point on a distinct from A. Let
A0 = Rb (A) and C0 = T−−→0 (C). Then, clearly T−−→0 = T−−→0 and the glide distance is 2x. Since b is the
AA AA CC

perpendicular bisector of CC0 , we have Rb (C) = C0 .

If B0 = Ra (B), then A is the midpoint of BB0 and also B is the midpoint of AA0 . Hence, T−−→
0
= T−−→0
BB AA

with the same distance 2x. Therefore, we have:

• Rb (Ra (B0 )) = Rb (B) = B = T−−→
0
= T−−→0 .
BB AA

• Rb (Ra (C)) = Rb (C) = C0 = T−−→0 = T−−→0 .

CC AA

• Rb (Ra (A)) = Rb (A) = A0 = T−−→0 .

AA

As A, B0 ,C are three noncollinear points, Theorem 4.1.4 implies that Rb ◦ Ra = T−−→0 = T−→2 .
AA AB

Theorem 4.4.3

Every direct isometry of the plane is either a rotation or a translation.

Solution:

Let T be any direct (=opposite x opposite) isometry. Then T = Ra Rb a product of two reflections in
lines a and b. If a is parallel to b, then T is a translation by Theorem 4.4.2. Otherwise it is a rotation
by Theorem 4.3.2.

Theorem 4.4.4

Every translation is the product of two half-turns.

Solution:

Let T−AB
→ be any translation. Then T−
→ can be written as a product of two reflections in parallel lines
AB

a and b. That is, T−AB

→ = Ra Rb . Let c be a line perpendicular to a and b in points O1 and O2 . Then,
4.4. Translations 51

HO1 = Ra Rc and HO2 = Rc Rb . Therefore,

T−AB
→ = Ra Rb = Ra IRb = Ra Rc Rc Rb = HO HO .
1 2

Example 4.4.1

Show that the only periodic translation is the identity.

Solution:

Assume that T−PQ

→ is any translation. So it can be composed of two

x
reflections in two parallel lines a and b with distance x. If A1 = T−PQ
→ (A),
A A1 A2 · · ·
2 (A) = T (A ) and with A A = 2x
then AA1 = 2x. Let A2 = T−→ b a
−→
PQ
1 2 1
PQ

and hence AA2 = 4x. If n is the period of T−PQ n

→ , then T−→ (A) = An = A
PQ

(assuming it is periodic with period n). Therefore, AAn = 2nx = AA = 0. Hence x = 0 so the
lines a and b are infact the same line. That is, the translation is the identity.

Example 4.4.2

Let T−PQ
→ be a translation taking P to Q at distance 2x. Show that for any points A 6= B, if A, B,C, D

form a quadrilateral, then it is a parallelogram, where C = T−PQ

→ (A) and D = T−→ (B).
PQ

Solution:

Let Ra , Rb be two reflections so that T−PQ

→ = Rb ◦ Ra with the distance between the lines is x. Thus,

Rb ◦ Ra (A) = C with AC = 2x and Rb ◦ Ra (B) = D with BD = 2x. Note that a ⊥ AC and also
a ⊥ BD and hence AC k BD. Therefore, ABCD is a parallelogram.
52 Chapter 4. Transformations
 Chapter

5 Homothecy and Similarity

5.1 Homothecy

Definition 5.1.1

Let λ be a nonzero scalar. A homothecy (or homothety, or dilation), denoted

DO,λ , is the transformation that maps O to itself and for any other point P, λ
>
0
P0
P

P0 ∈ −
→ 0
< O
OP, if λ > 0; λ

P 7→
P0 ∈ −
 →
PO, if λ < 0; P0

such that OP0 = | λ | OP . The point O and the scalar λ are called the center
of and the ratio of the homothecy, respectively.

Remark 5.1.1

• A homothecy is called expansion (stretching) if it ratio | λ | > 1, and it is called contraction

(or reduction) if | λ | < 1.
• A homothecy maps a figure to a similar figure. It has exactly one fixed point in the plane.
• A homothecy DO,1 is the identity mapping I, and a homothecy DO,−1 is the (reversed) identity
mapping −I.

Example 5.1.1

AB0
0 0


For a noncollinear points A, B, O, show that DO,λ AB = A B implies = | λ |.
AB
B0
B
Solution:

Simply show that M OAB ∼ M OA0 B0 to get the result. O A A0

53
54 Chapter 5. Homothecy and Similarity

A homothecy is not an isometry in general. OA0 = | λ | OA 6= OA0 if λ 6= | 1 |.

A00

A0

A A
B0
C0
B
C
A0

A
O
C B
O
C0 B0
B0
C0
B
A0
C
B00
O DO,−1
C00
DO,2
DO,0.5 and DO,1.75
Figure 5.1: Some example of homothecy DO,λ for different position of O and different values of λ .

Theorem 5.1.1

A homothecy maps any triangle to a similar triangle. Consequently, homothecies preserve angles.

Proof:

Let DO,λ (M ABC) = M A0 B0C0 (see Figure 5.1). Clearly, by S-SAS, we have M OAB ∼ M OA0 B0 ,
A0 B0 A0C0 B0 C 0
M OAC ∼ M OA0C0 , and M OBC ∼ M OB0C0 . Therefore, = = = | λ |. By S-SSS,
| AB | | AC | | BC |
0 0 0 ∼ 0 ∼ 0 ∼
we have M ABC ∼ M A B C . Therefore, Â = Â = B̂ = B̂ = Ĉ = Ĉ0 .

Example 5.1.2

Use the definition of a homothecy to show that a homothecy is a collineation.

Proof:

Let A, B,C be three collinear points in the plane, so that AC = AB + BC . Then,

A0C0 = | λ | AC = | λ | = | λ | AB + | λ | BC = A0 B0 + B0C0 .


AB + BC

That is A0 B0C0 are collinear.

5.1. Homothecy 55

Theorem 5.1.2

A homothecy maps a line l to a parallel line l 0 .

Proof:

Let l be a line and DO,λ (l) = l 0 . Then:

P
Case 1: Assume that O ∈ l. Then by the definition DO,λ maps each point to O
P0
another point in the same line. That is l = l 0 .
Case 1
Case 2: Assume that O 6∈ l.
l
l0 l0 B
B0 A0
l 2

B O 1
A
1 2
B0
O A A0

Case 2

Two triangles (see the diagram) M OAB and M OA0 B0 are similar (S-SAS). Hence 1̂ ∼
= 2̂. Since 1̂ and
2̂ are (corresponding left figure, and alternate right figure) congruent, l is parallel to l 0 .

Theorem 5.1.3

−1
The product of homothecies DO,λ and DO,µ is a homothecy DO,λ µ . Consequently, DO,λ = DO, 1 .
λ

Proof:

Clearly, DO,λ µ (O) = DO,λ (O) = DO,µ (O) = O. If P is any other point, then DO,λ (P) = P0 with
OP0 = | λ | OP with O, P, P0 collinear. Aslo, DO,µ (P0 ) = P00 with OP00 = | µ | OP0 with
O, P0 , P00 collinear. Hence O, P, P00 are collinear and

OP00 = | µ | OP0 = | µ | | λ | OP


= | λ µ | OP .

That is DO,λ µ (P) = P00 .

Therefore, DO,λ DO, 1 = DO,λ 1 = DO,1 = I.
λ λ
56 Chapter 5. Homothecy and Similarity

Example 5.1.3

Let A1 and A2 be two circles with two distinct centers A1 6= A2 with two different radii r1 6= r2 .
Show that there is exactly two homothecies DO1 ,λ1 , DO2 ,λ2 that map A1 to A2 . Construct the
centers O1 and O2 of such homothecies.

Solution:

B0 B
B r1
r2 A2 A1
r1 O
r2
O A1 A2
B0

Note that the homothecy ratio is positive (direct) or negative (opposite). Then there is only two
cases as drawn above. The homothecy center would be the intersection point of A1 A2 and BB0 , and
r2
the ratio is then | λ | = r1 assuming that DO,| λ | (B) = B0 and DO,| λ | (A1 ) = A2 . Hence DO,| λ | maps
A1 to A2 in both cases.
5.2. Similarity 57

5.2 Similarity

Definition 5.2.1

Let k be a positive scalar. A similarity with ratio k is the transformation A0

A
Sk such that for any points A and B with A0 = Sk (A) and B0 = Sk (B),
B0
A0 B0 = k AB .
C B C0

Remark 5.2.1

• A similarity has no center.

• Every isometry is a similarity of ratio 1.
• Every homothecy DO,λ is a similarity of ratio | λ |.
• The product of two similarities of ratios k1 , k2 is a similarity of ratio k1 k2 . See Theorem 5.1.3.
• The inverse of Sk is S 1 .
k

Another definition of a similarity:

Definition 5.2.2

A similarity is a composition of a finite number of dilations or isometries. The ratio of a similarity

is the product of the ratios of the dilations in the composition. If there are no dilations in the
composition, the ratio is defined to be 1.
Two figures in a plane are similar if there exists a similarity transformation taking one figure onto
the other figure.

Remark 5.2.2

Some examples of similarities:

• A dilative reflection is a similarity produced by a dilation (homothecy) and a reflection.
• A dilative rotation is a similarity produced by a dilation (homothecy) and a rotation.
• A dilative translation is a similarity produced by a dilation (homothecy) and a translation.
58 Chapter 5. Homothecy and Similarity

C0 C00

P B B0 B00

A0 A00

Figure 5.2: Dilative reflection: Rl ◦ DP,λ (M ABC).

C0

B0
B00
P B C00

A0
A00

45◦

Figure 5.3: Dilative rotation: RB0 ,45◦ ◦ DP,λ (M ABC).

C0 C00

P B B0 B00

A0 A00

Figure 5.4: Dilative translation: T−−0−→00 ◦ DP,λ (M ABC).

BB
5.2. Similarity 59

Example 5.2.1

Let T be a transformation of the plane. Show that if T preserves angle measure, then T is a similarity.

Solution:

Let M ABC be a triangle with T (M ABC) = A0 B0C0 . Then  ∼

= Â0 , B̂ ∼
= B̂0 , Ĉ ∼
= Ĉ0 and hence
M ABC ∼ M A0 B0C0 . That is,
A0 B0 A0C0 B0C0
= = = k.
AB AC BC
Therefore, Sk (M ABC) = M A0 B0C0 and it is a similarity of ratio k.

Example 5.2.2

Let Sλ be a similarity and P any point in the plane. Show that there exists a
r2 r1
translation T such that P is invariant under TSλ .

Solution:
P1
P M
If λ = 1, then simply S1 (P) = P. Take T = I to get TSλ (P) = P.
If λ 6= 1, then Sλ (P) = P1 6= P. Let M be the midpoint of PP1 and let
T = Rr2 Rr1 where r2 and r1 passing through M and P1 so that PP1 is perpendicular to both lines.
That is r1 k r2 . Note that T (P1 ) = Rr2 Rr1 (P1 ) = Rr2 (P1 ) = P. Therefore, T (Sλ (P)) = T (P1 ) = P.

Example 5.2.3

Let r be the angle bisector of angle O of a triangle M POQ. Consider r

O
the dilative reflection T = Rr ◦ DO,λ . If T (P) = P0 and T (Q) = Q0 , · ·

show that the quadrilateral PQP0 Q0 is cyclic. x

Q
P y
Solution:
Q0 Q1
Let DO,λ (P) = P1 and Rr (P1 ) = P0 ; and let DO,λ (Q) = Q1 and
Rr (Q1 ) = Q0 . That is T (P) = P0 and T (Q) = Q0 . Note that x

P0
x + y = 180◦ . Recall that reflection and homothecy preserve angle P1

measure, and hence OPQ ˆ = OP1ˆ Q1 = OPˆ0 Q0 = x. Therefore,

Q0 Pˆ 0 Q + QPQ
ˆ 0 = 180. Similarily, we can show that PQP
ˆ 0 + P0 Qˆ 0 P = 180. Thus, PQP0 Q0

has supplementary opposite angles and hence it is cyclic.

60 Chapter 5. Homothecy and Similarity
 Chapter

6 Coordinate Geometry

6.1 Coordinates of Points and Lines

Remark 6.1.1

• A point A(x, y) in the Cartesian plane (or xy-plane) is represented by its x and y coordinates.
• The slope of a line l, denoted ml , through the points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) is defined by

y2 − y1 changes in y
ml = = = tan θ .
x2 − x1 changes in x

y P2 (x2 , y2 )

y2 − y1

θ
P1 (x1 , y1 ) x2 − x1
x

Remark 6.1.2

A line l can be presented by:

1. standard form: ax + by + c = 0, where a and b are not both zeros.
2. slope-intercept form: y = mx + c, where m is the slope of the line and c is y-intercept.
3. point-slope form: ( y − y1 ) = m( x − x1 ), where (x1 , y1 ) is a point on the line l with slope m.

Theorem 6.1.1

Let l1 and l2 be two lines with slopes m1 and m2 , respectively. Then:

1. l1 k l2 if and only if m1 = m2 .
2. l1 ⊥ l2 if and only if m1 · m2 = −1 if and only if m2 = − m11 .

61
62 Chapter 6. Coordinate Geometry

Example 6.1.1

Find the slope of the line l passing through points A(2, −3) and B(1, 5) and write its equation.

Solution:
5−(−3) 8
Simply ml = 1−2 = −1 = −8.
Hence l : (y − 5) = −8(x − 1) or l : y = −8x + 13 or l : 8x + y − 13 = 0.

Example 6.1.2

Let l1 : 2x + y = 1; l2 : 2y − x = 7; l3 : 4x + 2y = 0; l4 : y = 2; l5 : y = 7; l6 : x = −2; and l7 : x = 2.

−2
Then: m1 = 1 = −2; m2 = 12 ; m3 = −2; m4 = m5 = 0; m6 = m7 = undefined.
Therefore: l1 k l3 and l1 ⊥ l2 ⊥ l3 . Also, l4 k l5 (horizontal lines) and l6 k l7 (vertical lines).
Hence l4 and l5 are perpendicular to l6 and l7 .

Definition 6.1.1

Let A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) be two points and let l : ax + by + c = 0 be a line. Then
• The distance between A and B is defined by
q
d(A, B) = ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2 .

• The distance between A and line l is defined by

| ax1 + by1 + c |
d(A, l) = √ .
a2 + b2
• The midpoint of the segment AB is defined by
 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
mid AB = , .
2 2

Example 6.1.3

Find d(A, l), where A(1, 2) and l : y = 2x − 1.

Solution:

| 2(1) − (2) − 1 | 1
Clearly, l : 2x − y − 1 = 0 and hence d(A, l) = √ =√ .
22 + 12 5
6.1. Coordinates of Points and Lines 63

Definition 6.1.2

P(x, y)
The equation of the circle with center A(a, b) and radius r is

( x − a )2 + ( y − b )2 = r2 . O(a, b)

Example 6.1.4

Find the locus of points equidistant from A(3, −2) and B(4, 3).

Solution (1):

Let M(x, y) be the points of the locus. Thus, d(M, A) = d(M, B). That is
q q
(x − 3) + (y + 2) = (x − 4)2 + (y − 3)2
2 2

(x − 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = (x − 4)2 + (y − 3)2

x2 − 6x + 9 + y2 + 4y + 4 = x2 − 8x + 16 + y2 − 6y + 9

2x + 10y − 12 = 0.

Thus, the locus of points equidistant from A and B are the points of the line l : 2x + 10y − 12 = 0.

Solution (2):

We can solve the question in a different way: Recall that the locus of points M equidistant from two
←
→
points is a line l which is the perpendicular bisector of AB. Clearly the slope of AB is mAB = 5 and
hence ml = − 15 . Also, M = mid AB lies on the line l where M = 27 , 12 . Therefore, the locus is the

equation of
   
1 1 7
l: y− =− x− ⇒ 10y − 5 = −2x + 7 ⇒ 2x + 10y − 12 = 0.
2 5 2

Example 6.1.5

Find the locus of points P(x, y) that are at distance 3 cm from the point A(1, 2).

Solution:

The locus of points P(x, y) at distance 3 cm is the points of the circle centered at A with radius
p
3 cm. That is, 3 = d(P, A) = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 . Hence, the locus is the circle with equation:
(x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 9.
64 Chapter 6. Coordinate Geometry

Example 6.1.6

Find the locus of points M equidistant from the lines l1 : x − y + 1 = 0 and l2 : 2x − 2y + 7 = 0.

Solution:

Notice that if l1 k l2 , then the locus is a line that is parallel to both lines l1 and l2 . Otherwise, the
locus is two lines which are angle bisectors of the two lines.
Let M(x, y) be the points of the locus. Thus,

| x − y + 1 | | 2x − 2y + 7 | √ √
d(M, l1 ) = d(M, l2 ) ⇒ √ = √ ⇒ 2 2 | x − y + 1 | = 2 | 2x − 2y + 7 | .
1+1 4+4

That is we have two cases:

Case 1: 2( x − y + 1 ) = +( 2x − 2y + 7 ), and hence 2 = 7 which is impossible. So this case is rejected.
Case 2: 2( x − y + 1 ) = −( 2x − 2y + 7 ), and hence 4x − 4y + 9 = 0.
Therefore, the locus is formed by the line with equation: 4x − 4y + 9 = 0. We obtain here that l1 and
l2 are parallel.

Example 6.1.7

Find an equation of the circle with center A(−3, 2) and tangent to the
y
x-axis.

Solution:
A(−3, 2)
Since the circle is tangent to x-axis, we have the radius equals to the y-
coordinates of A which is the distance from x-axis to A. Thus, r = | 2 | = 2, x
P(−3, 0)
2 2
and hence the circle equation: ( x + 3 ) + ( y − 2 ) = 4.
6.2. Transformation in Coordinates Geometry 65

6.2 Transformation in Coordinates Geometry

Remark 6.2.1

If P(a, b) is a point, then its reflection in a line is:

• reflection in x-axis: P(a, b) 7→ P0 (a, −b).
• reflection in y-axis: P(a, b) 7→ P0 (−a, b).
• reflection in the origin: P(a, b) 7→ P0 (−a, −b).
• reflection in the line y = x: P(a, b) 7→ P0 (b, a).
• reflection in the line y = −x: P(a, b) 7→ P0 (−b, −a).

The reflection of a point P(a, b) in a general line y = mx + c can be computed using the definition of
reflection. See Example 6.2.1.

Example 6.2.1

Find Rl (P), where l : x − 2y + 3 = 0 and P(2, 5).

P l
Solution:
  M
x1 +2 y1 +5
Let P0 (x1 , y1 ) = Rl (P). The midpoint M = mid PP0 = 2 , 2 ∈ l by the def- P0

inition of reflection. That is, x1 +2

2 − 2 y12+5 + 3 = 0. Multiply both sides by 2 to get
x1 + 2 − 2y1 − 10 + 6 = 0 and hence x1 − 2y1 − 2 = 0 · · · 1 .
Since, PP0 ⊥ l and ml = 21 , we get the slope of PP0 = −2. Thus PP0 : (y1 − 5) = −2(x1 − 2) and
hence the equation of the line PP0 : 2x1 + y1 − 9 = 0 · · · 2 .
Computing 1 + 2 · 2 , we obtain 5x1 − 20 = 0 and hence x1 = 4 and thus y1 = 1. That is P0 (4, 1).

Example 6.2.2

If P0 (4, 6) is the image of P(0, 2) under Rl , then find an equation of the line l.

Solution:

Note that the slope of PP0 is 6−2

= 1 and hence ml = −1. Moreover, M = mid PP0 = 4+0 6+2


4−0 2 , 2 =
( 2, 4 ) ∈ l. Thus: l : (y − 2) = −(x − 4) and hence l : y + x − 6 = 0.
66 Chapter 6. Coordinate Geometry

Remark 6.2.2

The translation of the point P(x, y) of a horizontal units and b vertical units is P0 (x + a, y + b).
That is,
Ta,b : P(x, y) 7→ P0 (x + a, y + b).

Example 6.2.3

Show that the product of two translations is a translation.

Solution:

Let Ta1 ,b1 and Ta2 ,b2 be two translations. Then we show that T = Ta1 ,b1 ◦ Ta2 ,b2 is a translation.
For any point (x, y), we have
 
T (x, y) = Ta1 ,b1 Ta2 ,b2 (x, y)

= Ta1 ,b1 (x + a2 , y + b2 ) = (x + a2 + a1 , y + b2 + b1 )

= Ta,b (x, y) ,

where a = a1 + a2 and b = b1 + b2 which is also a translation.

Remark 6.2.3

The rotation of P(x, y) about the origin through angle θ is P0 (x0 , y0 ), where
    
0
x  = cos θ − sin θ  x .
y0 sin θ cos θ y
 

That is, x0 = x cos θ − y sin θ and y0 = x sin θ + y cos θ and the matrix cos θ − sin θ  is called the
sin θ cos θ
rotation matrix. Observe that:
• RO, π2 ((x, y)) = (−y, x).
• RO,π ((x, y)) = (−x, −y).
Note that a half-turn is the same as reflecting in origin.
6.2. Transformation in Coordinates Geometry 67

Example 6.2.4

Find the rotation of P(1, 5) about the origin through π6 .

Solution:

Using the rotation matrix, we get:

√   √ 
3 3
2 − 21  1 2 − 52 
RO, π6 ((1, 5)) =  √ = √ .
3
1
2 2 5 1
2 + 523

Example 6.2.5

If a rotation R(0,0),x maps A(3, −4) to A0 (4, 3), then find the measure of x.

Solution:

Using the rotation matrix D, we have A0 = D A. That is:

    
4
 = cos x − sin x   3 .
3 sin x cos x −4

Hence,
4 = 3 cos x + 4 sin x · · · 1 and 3 = 3 sin x − 4 cos x · · · 2 .

Computing 4 · 1 + 3 · 2 , we get 25 sin x = 25 and hence sin x = 1. Therefore, x = π2 .

Example 6.2.6

The rotation RO,x maps the line l to line l 0 . Show that one of the angles between
l0
l and l 0 has measure x.
G
Solution:

Let F be a point on l so that OF ⊥ l. Thus, RO,x (F) = F 0 ∈ l 0 . H l

Let G be the point of intersection of OF with l 0 , and let H be the intersection F0 F

x
point of l with l 0 .
Since OFH ˆ = 90◦ , we have OFˆ0 H = 90◦ (since rotation preserves angle O

ˆ
measure). Thus we get F 0 GO = 90◦ − x.
ˆ
Therefore, GHF = 90◦ − (90◦ − x) = x.
68 Chapter 6. Coordinate Geometry

Example 6.2.7

Find the image of P(2, 3) under H(−2,7) . [Or: Find R(−2,7),π ((2, 3))]

Solution:
 
2+x 3+y
Let H(−2,7) (P) = P0 (x, y). Then, the midpoint M = mid PP0 = 2 , 2 = (−2, 7).
3+y
That is, −2 = 2+x
2 and 7 = 2 which implies that x = −6 and y = 11. Hence P0 (−6, 11).

Remark 6.2.4

The homethecy (dilation) image of point P(x, y) with center O and ratio λ is P0 (λ x, λ y). That is,

DO,λ : P(x, y) 7→ P0 (λ x, λ y).

Example 6.2.8

If DO,λ maps PQ to P0 Q0 , show that PQ k P0 Q0 .

Solution:

We show that the slopes of PQ and P0 Q0 are equal. Note that DO,λ (P(x1 , y1 )) = P0 (λ x1 , λ y1 ) and
DO,λ (Q(x2 , y2 )) = Q0 (λ x2 , λ y2 ). Hence, the slope P0 Q0 is

λ y2 − λ y1 λ (y2 − y1 ) y2 − y1
= = = slope of PQ.
λ x2 − λ x1 λ (x2 − x1 ) x2 − x1

Thus, PQ k P0 Q0 .
 The Index

Symbols intercept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
xy-plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
B
A bijective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
acute angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1, 2
acute triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
of a segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
adjacent angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
perpendicular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
adjacent arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
alternate interior angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 C

altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Cartesian plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 center of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

acute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 center of rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

adjacent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 central angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

alternate interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 chord of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
central . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
complementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
congruent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 circumscribed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
corresponding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
inscribed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 inscribed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
obtuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 secant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
same-side interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 circumcenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
straight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 circumscribed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Supplementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 collinear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 collineation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 complement of angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
adjacent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 complementary angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

69
70 THE INDEX

composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
concurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I
congruent angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
coordinate
incenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
inscribed angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
coordinate geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
inscribed in a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
corresponding angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
intercept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
cyclic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
D direct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
diameter of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 glide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 opposite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
dilative reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 periodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
dilative rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
dilative translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
direct isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
distance point-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 isosceles triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
distance point-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
L
E
line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
endpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
equiangular triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
line equation
equidistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
point-slope form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
equilateral triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
slope-intercept form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
exterior angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
standard form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

G loci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

glide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 locus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

H M
homothecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 mediatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 midpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 62
stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
THE INDEX 71

O S
obtuse angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 same-side interior angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
obtuse triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 scale factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
one-to-one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 scalene triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 secant of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
opposite isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
semicircle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
P
side of triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
similar figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
periodic isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
similar triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
perpendicular bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
slope of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
point of tangency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
straight angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
cyclic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
supplement of angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
preimage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Supplementary angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 T
tangent of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Q
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
R isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
radius of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 transversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 A.A.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 A.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
right angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 acute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
right triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 circumcenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 congruent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
rotation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 equiangular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
72 THE INDEX

equilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 S.A.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
incenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 S.S.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
isosceles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 scalene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 similar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
obtuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 vertex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
H.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 V
S-A.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 vertex of angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
S-S.A.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 vertex of triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
S-S.S.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 vertical angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3