University of Kentucky

College of Agriculture,
Food and Environment
ASC-233 Cooperative Extension Service

Feeds and Feeding for Small-scale

Egg-production Enterprises
Jacquie Jacob and Tony Pescatore, Animal and Food Sciences

Introduction 8 pounds so one hen would drink a full cup of

Animals eat in order to get the energy and water daily. A laying hen drinks about 25 percent
nutrients they need to live, grow and reproduce. of her daily water intake during the last two hours
Animals use energy to perform normal body of daylight. Excessive salt in the diet will increase
functions such as breathing, walking, eating, water consumption and result in wet manure,
digesting, and maintaining body temperature. thereby increasing the risk of elevated ammonia
Different types of nutrients provide energy as well levels.
as the building blocks needed for the development
Carbohydrates
of bone, flesh, feathers, and eggs. These nutrients
include: water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, min- Carbohydrates, often referred to as “carbs,”
erals, and vitamins. Each of these components is are an important energy source for chickens and
important and a deficit of even one can have seri- make up the largest portion of the poultry diet,
ous health consequences for poultry. typically in the form of corn, wheat, barley or
other grains. Not all carbohydrates can be di-
Water gested by chickens because of the way the parts
Water is often overlooked, but is one of the most of the compounds are held together. For example,
important nutrients. An animal can live longer chickens cannot digest cellulose and many other
without food than it can live without water. Water types of fiber. This is why grass and other forages
is also important for egg production. A whole egg are not well digested by poultry.
has 78 percent water. In a laying flock, a shortage
Fats
of water for just a few hours can result in reduced
egg production. Fats are another source of energy. For equal
Water is important in the body of a chicken. weights, fats have more than twice the number
Water soften feeds and carries it through the of calories of carbohydrates. Fats provide nine
digestive tract. Blood is 90 percent water and car- calories of energy per gram while carbohydrates
ries nutrients from the digestive tract to cells and provide only four. At room temperature, some fats
carries away waste products. Water is also impor- are solid and others are liquid. This depends on
tant in body temperature control. Chickens do not the number of double-bonds between the carbon
have sweat glands so their heat loss occurs in the atoms in the compound. If there are no double-
air sacs and lungs through respiration. Excess heat bonds, the fats are referred to as saturated. Satu-
is lost by the evaporation of water from the respi- rated fats are typically solid at room temperature.
ratory system. Examples are tallow, lard, poultry fat, and choice
Clean water must be available at all times. A white grease. If there are double-bonds, the fats
chicken drinks twice as much as it eats. A laying are referred to as unsaturated fatty acids. Unsatu-
hen eats about a quarter of a pound of feed every rated fats are typically liquid at room tempera-
day, so she would drink a half a pound of water ture. Examples are corn oil, soy oil, and canola oil.
daily. One gallon (16 cups) of water weighs about Common sources of supplemental fat in commer-

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cial poultry diets include animal fat, poultry fat, cartilage, skin, feathers, beak, etc. Protein also is
and yellow grease. The current high cost of veg- needed for egg production. Egg white is high in
etable oils makes including these fats in poultry protein.
diets uneconomical. There are two general types of amino acids –
Fats are composed of building blocks called essential and nonessential. Both are required by
fatty acids. Although there are many different the animal, but essential amino acids are those
fatty acids, poultry have a specific requirement for that cannot be made by the animal in quantities
one – linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is considered an fast enough to meet the needs of the chicken. The
essential fatty acid because poultry are not able nonessential amino acids are those that the body
to produce it from other nutrients. It is essential, can produce as long as there is sufficient starting
therefore, that linoleic acid be supplied in poultry material. There are 22 amino acids commonly
diets. When diets are maize-based, there is typi- found in feed ingredients used in chicken diets.
cally sufficient linoleic acid in the diet. Of these, 11 are considered essential and must be
There are some ingredients that can be added supplied in the feed in the right amounts. Poultry
to the diet to increase the level of polyunsatu- diets typically contain a variety of feedstuffs be-
rated fatty acids, especially the omega-3 fatty cause no single ingredient is able to supply all the
acids which are important in human health. They needed amino acids in the right amounts.
include flax seed and algae meal. Most tags on poultry feed only tell you the
Fat must be in poultry diets so that the fat- percentage of the protein in the feed. This infor-
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K can be absorbed mation does not really tell you about the quality
from the diet. Fat is required for the absorption of of the protein. Protein quality is based on the
these vitamins, so a shortage of fat may result in a number of essential amino acids it contains. For
vitamin deficiency. poultry, the two most important amino acids are
In addition to its role in nutrition, fat is added to methionine and lysine. If there is not enough of
feed to reduce grain dust. Fat addition also makes either of these two amino acids, there will be a
the feed more appetizing to chickens. One prob- major drop in egg production and poor health of
lem with fats, however, is that they can go rancid. the flock. Commercial poultry diets typically con-
While this is a year-round problem, the risk is tain methionine and lysine supplements. When
even greater in the summer. To prevent feed spoil- such supplements are used, feed can contain less
age, antioxidants are added to poultry diets which total protein than would be needed if the feed was
contain added fat. A common antioxidant used in created without them. If you are feeding organic
the United States is ethoxyquin. For organic diets, diets, however, the use of supplemental amino
however, ethoxyquin cannot be included in the acids is restricted.
feed. Although ‘natural’ antioxidants are added to The main sources of protein in poultry diets are
organic poultry feeds, organic feeds have a higher plant proteins such as soybean meal, canola meal,
tendency to spoil. corn gluten meal, and others. Animal proteins
used for poultry diets include fishmeal and meat
Proteins and bone meal. Fishmeal can only be used in low
Proteins are an important nutrient. They are levels (less than 5 percent of the diet) or it will
made up of smaller units called amino acids. Af- give the eggs produced a fishy taste.
ter chickens eat feed, the activities of the digestive
tract break down the protein into its amino acid Minerals
components. These amino acids are then ab- Minerals play many important roles in the body.
sorbed by the blood and transported to the cells The most obvious is bone formation, but minerals
in the body that convert the individual amino are also needed for several other important func-
acids into the specific proteins required by the tions including formation of blood cells, blood
animal. These proteins are then used in the con- clotting, enzyme activation, energy metabolism,
struction of body tissues such as muscles, nerves, and proper muscle function.

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 Minerals are typically classified as macro- or are A, D, E, and K. Vitamin A is required for
micro-minerals. Macro-minerals are those re- normal growth and development of the skin and
quired in relatively larger amounts than micro- linings of the digestive, reproductive, and respira-
minerals. Micro-minerals are only required in tory tracts as well as reproduction. Vitamin D3 is
trace amounts. The macro-minerals include required for normal growth, bone development,
calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, magnesium, and eggshell formation. Vitamin K is essential
potassium and sodium. Many people are familiar for blood-clot formation. Vitamin E is a natural
with calcium’s role in proper bone formation and antioxidant.
eggshell quality, but calcium’s important role in The water-soluble vitamins include vitamin
blood-clot formation and muscle contraction is C and the B vitamins. The B vitamins include
less well known. Phosphorus is also important vitamin B12, biotin, folacin, niacin, pantothenic
in bone development. In addition, phosphorus is acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin and thiamin. The B-vi-
part of cell membranes and is required for many tamins are involved in many metabolic functions,
metabolic functions. Chlorine is important in the including energy metabolism. Poultry can make
formation of hydrochloric acid in the stomach vitamin C, so there is no dietary requirement for
and thus plays a role in digestion. Sodium and po- this vitamin. Vitamin C supplementation, how-
tassium are electrolytes important for metabolic, ever, has been shown to be useful when birds are
muscle, and nerve functions. Magnesium also stressed.
assists with metabolic and muscle functions. Some vitamins are produced by microorgan-
The micro-minerals include copper, iodine, iron, isms in the digestive tract. Vitamin D can be
manganese, selenium and zinc. Although poul- produced when sunlight hits the bird’s skin. This
try have lower requirements for micro-minerals, will not occur, of course, if the chickens are kept
these minerals play essential roles in the body’s inside. Other vitamins must be supplied because
metabolism. Iodine, for example, is required to they are not formed by the birds. Many essential
produce thyroid hormones that regulate energy vitamins are partially supplied by feed ingredients
metabolism. Similarly, zinc is involved in many such as alfalfa meal and distillers’ dried solubles.
enzyme-based reactions in the body, and iron aids A vitamin premix is typically used to compensate
oxygen transportation within the body. for the fluctuating levels of vitamins found natu-
Grains are low in minerals, and many of the rally in food to assure adequate levels of all vita-
minerals they do contain are not biologically mins. Individual vitamins vary in cost. A quality
available. As a result, mineral supplements are vitamin mix has the correct vitamins in the cor-
added to commercial poultry feeds. Limestone rect amounts. Cheap vitamin sources will include
or oyster shell are common sources of calcium. many of the less expensive vitamins.
Steamed bone meal is another calcium source.
Dicalcium phosphate is a common source of Nutrient Requirements
phosphorus and calcium. The micro-minerals are Examples of nutritional requirements for the
usually supplied in a mineral premix. different age groups are shown in Table 1. The
nutrient requirements for growing chicks and
Vitamins laying hens will vary depending on the breed or
Vitamins are a group of organic compounds strain. Most of the commercial strains have diet
that poultry require in small amounts. Despite specifications recommended by the breeders. In a
the low requirement levels, however, vitamins are commercial operation, diets are typically adjusted
essential for normal body functions, growth, and based on environmental temperature and feed
reproduction. A deficiency of one or more vita- consumption. At high temperatures chickens will
mins can lead to a number of diseases or syn- eat less feed. As a result, the feed will need to be
dromes. higher in nutrient density in order for the chick-
Vitamins are divided into two categories: fat- ens to get all the nutrients needed in the amount
soluble and water soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins of feed they are eating.

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 The requirement for Table 1. Nutritional requirements for egg-type chickens.
individual nutrients vary Pullet
depending on the energy Chick Chick devel-
content in the feed. With NUTRIENT starter grower oper Prelay Layers
feeds high in energy, the Metabolizable energy, kcal/kg 2800 2800 2850 2850 2900
hens will consume less Crude protein % 17.00 15.00 14.00 16.00 15.00
and will, therefore, require Lysine, % 0.80 0.56 0.42 0.49 0.69
higher nutrient levels in Methionine, % 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.21 0.30
the feed. Detailed nutri-
Methionine + Cystine, % 0.59 0.49 0.39 0.44 0.58
ent guidelines are avail-
Arginine, % 0.94 0.78 0.62 0.72 0.70
able from the breeders
and should be followed for Histidine, % 0.25 0.21 0.16 0.18 0.17
the strain of layer being Isoleucine, % 0.57 0.47 0.37 0.42 0.65
raised. Large commercial Leucine, % 1.00 0.80 0.65 0.75 0.82
operations often use phase Phenylalanine, % 0.51 0.42 0.34 0.38 0.47
feeding to reduce feed Threonine, % 0.64 0.53 0.35 0.44 0.47
costs. This means feeding Tryptophan, % 0.16 0.13 0.10 0.11 0.16
different nutrient levels as
Valine, % 0.59 0.49 0.38 0.43 0.70
required at each stage of
development. For example, Calcium, % 0.90 0.80 0.80 1.80 3.25
17 percent crude protein Avail Phosphorus, % 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.25
(CP) for starter, 15 percent Sodium, % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
CP for grower, 14 percent Chloride, % 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.13
CP for developing, 16 per-
cent for a pre-lay diet, and 15 percent for layer. Table 2. Examples of chick starter diets, as percent of diet.
For most small-scale producers, the use of INGREDIENT 1 2 3
several diets may not be practical. Aside from the Corn 68.80 56.80
fact that they may not be available, the increased Wheat
cost with the amounts of each feed needed may
Sorghum 73.80
not be cost effective. A 16 percent CP starter/
grower may suffice with a 16 percent to 18 percent Oats 5.00
CP layer feed. Flax seed 0.20
The diets fed should be specific for the type and Soybean meal, solvent ex- 26.90 21.20
age of chickens being raised. It is important to not tracted
feed chick feed to layers, or layer feed to grow- Whole soybeans, roasted 28.10
ing chicks. Growing chicks need higher protein Sunflower seed meal, expel- 3.10
levels than adults. The protein can be reduced for ler
the adults, but the calcium and phosphorus levels Dried distillers' grains with 1.60
need to be increased to allow for egg production. solubles
The high level of calcium in layer diets would Yellow grease 0.50
provide too much calcium for growing chicks and Alfalfa meal 0.10 1.00
cause kidney damage and visceral gout. D,L-Methionine 0.10
Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 give examples of starter,
Salt 0.35 0.40 0.30
grower, developer, pre-lay, and layer diets respec-
tively. Options looked at corn versus sorghum and Limestone 1.20 1.15 1.15
soybean meal versus whole soybeans. These are Dicalcium phosphate 1.75 1.75 1.75
just examples. Formulations will vary depending Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
on the nutrient content of the feed ingredients. TOTAL 100 100 100

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Table 3. Examples of chick grower diets, as percent Table 5. Examples of pre-lay diets, as percent of diet.
of diet. INGREDIENT 1 2 3
INGREDIENT 1 2 3 Corn 68.00 55.75
Corn 72.70 56.00 Sorghum 73.80
Sorghum 79.00 Oats 5.00
Oats 11.50 Flax seed
Flax seed Soybean meal, solvent ex- 23.35 17.00
Soybean meal, solvent ex- 21.35 12.00 tracted
tracted Whole soybeans, roasted 25.00
Whole soybeans, roasted 19.05 Sunflower seed meal, expeller 5.10
Sunflower seed meal, expel- Dried distillers' grains with 2.10 2.20 1.85
ler solubles
Dried distillers' grains with 2.00 3.75 8.70 Yellow grease 0.50
solubles Alfalfa meal 0.10 1.00
Yellow grease 0.65 D,L-Methionine 0.10
Alfalfa meal 0.50 1.00 Salt 0.30 0.30 0.30
D,L-Methionine 0.10 Limestone 3.75 3.75 3.75
Salt 0.35 0.30 0.25 Dicalcium phosphate 1.50 1.25 1.25
Limestone 1.10 1.20 1.10 Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Dicalcium phosphate 1.50 1.50 1.40 TOTAL 100 100 100
Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
TOTAL 100 100 100

Table 4. Examples of pullet developer diets, as percent Table 6. Examples of layer diets, as percent of diet.
of diet.
INGREDIENT 1 2 3
INGREDIENT 1 2 3
Corn 64.46 57.75
Corn 75.00 57.00
Sorghum 72.50
Sorghum 70.50
Oats 2.46
Oats 6.45 11.50
Flax seed
Flax seed
Soybean meal, solvent ex-
Soybean meal, solvent ex- 17.00 8.00 23.00 15.43
tracted
tracted
Whole soybeans, roasted 24.46
Whole soybeans, roasted 16.50
Sunflower seed meal, expeller 5.00
Sunflower seed meal, expeller
Dried distillers' grains with
Dried distillers' grains with 4.15 10.00 10.25 solubles
solubles
Yellow grease 2.50 1.75
Yellow grease 0.65
Alfalfa meal 0.12 0.45
Alfalfa meal 0.50 1.00
D,L-Methionine 0.20
D,L-Methionine 0.10
Salt 0.29 0.25 0.28
Salt 0.35 0.30 0.25
Limestone 7.95 7.90 7.90
Limestone 1.30 1.25 1.30
Dicalcium phosphate 0.80 0.85 0.70
Dicalcium phosphate 1.20 1.25 1.20
Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
TOTAL 100 100 100
TOTAL 100 100 100

5
Sourcing Feed portant to make sure that the binding agent is an
It is important to buy the feed mixed specifi- approved feed additive. Pelleting has been shown
cally for the type of flock you are raising. That to increase growth performance of meat chickens
is, different diets for meat production, growing (broilers), but has limited performance improve-
replacement flocks, and laying hens. You can get ment with laying hens. Pelleting feeds increases
a lot of information by reading the feed tag. For the cost of the feed and since they have not been
information on feed tags, see ASC-216: “Reading a shown to have major improvement in layer per-
Feed Tag.” formance, mash is more economical.
Feed can be purchased as mash, pellets or
Mixing Your Own Feed
crumbles. Crumbles are simply broken down pel-
lets and are primarily used for chicks too small If you have surplus grain, or can purchase it at
to eat pellets. Pellets are formed from mash to a low cost, you might consider mixing your own
provide a feed in bite-sized morsels. In addition to feed. Such a decision should be made only after
reducing feed wastage, pellets improve palatabil- considerable consideration. You will need grain,
ity, destroy pathogens (since heat is involved in which supplies energy; a protein source; calcium/
making pellets), reduce separation of ingredients, phosphorus source, and a vitamin/trace mineral
and improve flow-ability. The production of pel- premix. If you are not able to source all of these
lets requires the use of a binding agent which acts feed ingredients, it is best to purchase a complete
as a glue to hold the various ingredients together. feed.
For production of organic feed pellets, it is im-

The majority of the poultry diets in the United States are

corn-based. Corn is highly digestible and is often used as the
standard to which other grains are compared. Yellow corn will
also provide pigments to give yolks their yellow color. Corn will
also function as a source of the essential fatty acid linoleic acid.

Some other countries where corn does not grow well, like parts
of Canada and Europe, use wheat in their poultry diets instead
of corn. It is important to know which variety you are using to
be able to estimate its nutrient content. Some varieties contain
what are known as anti-nutritional factors because they
interfere with the digestion and absorption on the nutrients in
the grain. There are enzymes which can be added to the feed
to counter the effects of these anti-nutritional factors. If you
are into organics, there are non-GMO feed enzymes available.

6
The same situation can occur with barley varieties. Several
European countries use barley in their poultry diets. As with
wheat, some varieties contain anti-nutritional factors which
affect how well the chicken can use the nutrients in the grain.
As with wheat, there are feed enzymes that can be added to
barley-based diets which improve the nutritional value of the
grain.

Sorghum is also a grain option for poultry diets. Several

varieties of sorghum are high in tannins, another anti-
nutritional factor. Sorghum is grown in some parts of the
southeastern United States. These American varieties
are typically low in tannins, or tannin-free, so you do not
encounter the same nutritional problems as with high tannin
varieties. Such varieties are a good alternative to corn.

Oats are a potential grain for poultry diets, but only the hull-
less or naked oat varieties are used because of the high fiber
in the hulls. The fatty acid composition of oats is different from
that of other grains and the inclusion of too much oats in the
diet can cause a change in the texture of the fat. As with wheat
and barley, the use of feed enzymes is recommended when
using oats in poultry diets.

The main protein source used in poultry diets is soybeans. If

whole soybeans are used in poultry diets the soybeans must
be roasted first. Soybeans contain an anti-nutritional factor, a
trypsin inhibitor, that is destroyed during heating. The roasted
soybeans are then ground and included in the poultry diets.

More common with commercial poultry diets, however,

soybeans are included in poultry diets as soybean meal (SBM).
SBM is a by-product of the vegetable oil industry after the oil
has been removed from the soybeans. The processes involved
in the extraction of the oil de-activates the anti-nutritional
factor in soybeans making the soybean meal by-product safe
for inclusion in poultry feed. Soybean oil can be extracted
using solvent-extraction or mechanical extraction. While
solvent-extraction is more efficient at oil removal, organic
soybean meal must be produced using mechanical extraction.

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 Soybeans, while common in the United States, do not grow
in all parts of the world. Field peas are commonly grown and
used in poultry feeds in Canada and other countries. They do
not need to be roasted.

Soybeans do not grow well in much of Canada and Europe,

so canola is more popular. Canola is a type of rapeseed
specifically bred to be free of the anti-nutritional factors
commonly found in rapeseed. Canola itself is not commonly
added to poultry feeds. Instead, it is the by-product of the
canola oil industry, canola meal. As with soybean meal,
organic canola meal must be produced using mechanical
extraction.
Another byproduct of the vegetable oil industry is sunflower
seed meal. The quality of sunflower seed meal will vary
among processing facilities, based primarily on the number
of hulls in the final product. Typically, the seeds are de-hulled
and then some of the hulls are returned to help with the oil
removal process. This will affect the fiber level in the sunflower
seed meal. Again, with organic diets, the sunflower seed meal
must be mechanically extracted.

A corn by-product, corn gluten meal, can also be used in

poultry feeds, although it is typically too expensive to make its
use economical. It is a good protein source.

The harvesting of livestock and poultry for food production in North America results in the produc-
tion of nearly 50 billion pounds of byproduct material not used in human foods. These materials are
used by the rendering industry to produce an important protein byproduct for poultry. The rendering
process breaks down tissues into protein-rich products that have no resemblance to the original materi-
al. The cooking process controls bacteria while preserving the nutrients and results in a safe, nutritious
animal feedstuff.

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Meat meal is produced by rendering meat trimmings, inedible
parts and organs, and fetuses. The materials are rendered
(cooked) to produce a nutritional and economical feed
ingredient which recycles these ‘waste’ materials. Blood, hair,
hoofs, horns, manure, stomach contents and hide trimmings
are NOT included in meat meal. When bones are added to
the meat it becomes meat and bone meal. Beef and pork
by-products account for more than 80 percent of all products
produced. If these by-products were not recycled into animal
feeds they would have to be disposed of in landfills, causing
environmental problems.

Poultry byproduct meal is an animal by-product of poultry

processing. It is made from grinding rendered parts of
poultry carcasses and can contain bones, offal, and possibly
undeveloped eggs. The only feathers that would be present
would be those that are unavoidable in the processing of the
birds. The feathers are used in a specific feedstuff, feather meal.

Fishmeal is another animal protein product included in

poultry diets. Several species of fish can be processed into
fishmeal, with Menhaden accounting for 90 percent of fishmeal
production in the United States. Antioxidants must be added
to fishmeal to stabilize the fat it contains and prevent it from
spoiling during transportation and storage. Fishmeal is an
excellent source of the essential amino acids lysine, methionine
and tryptophan. The typical antioxidant added to fishmeal is
ethoxyquin. This product cannot be used in organic fishmeal.
Instead, a less efficient but natural antioxidant must be used.
Dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS) are a byproduct
of the growing corn-based ethanol production and is a low
cost feed alternative. It is higher in protein than corn, but is
deficient in the amino acids lysine and tryptophan. DDGS is
being used to replace some of the corn and soybean meal in
poultry diets. It is important to know what type of DDGS you
are using, since there are high, medium, and low oil types
available depending on the processing method used.

9
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is grown as an important forage crop
in the United States and other countries. The crop is known
as alfalfa in the United States, but is referred to as lucerne in
other countries. Alfalfa is a legume, meaning that it is able to
fix nitrogen from the air. This capability helps improve soil
quality and results in a high-protein crop. Alfalfa is widely
grown as a forage crop for cattle and other ruminants. The
use of dehydrated alfalfa meal in diets for monogastric
animals typically is limited by its high fiber content. Enzyme
supplementation of alfalfa has not been shown to be
effective in improving performance of broiler chickens fed
alfalfa-containing diets. Alfalfa is, however, a natural source
of xanthophylls, which are the pigments that give the yellow
color to chicken skin and egg yolks.

Flax seed is a special ingredient added to some poultry diets.

It provides a source of omega-3 fatty acids and is often used
to produce specialty eggs that can increase the level of the
omega-3 fatty acids in eggs. Premiums can be received for
omega-3 enriched eggs, but eggs cannot be labeled as such
unless there is research using your eggs to justify the claim.

The term "algae" refers to a variety of different plants. There

are two main groups of algae – macroalgae (often referred
to as seaweed) and microalgae. There are 10,000 species of
seaweeds, but only a few of them are of interest in animal
feeding. Among these is kelp. Kelp meal has been used
in organic poultry feeds and is a valuable source of micro-
minerals, pigments and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

There are different types of microalgae. Autotrophic species

are photosynthetic-like plants. These are harder to mass
produce because of the need for light. Heterotrophic algae,
however, get their energy from organic carbon in much the
same way as yeast, bacteria and animals. For this type of
algae, the carbon source is sugar or acetate. Because they
do not use photosynthesis, the resulting algae meal product
does not appear green. Algae meal is an excellent source of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.

10
Mycotoxins Speciality Feeding
Mycotoxins can be present in animal feed. There has been some research to show im-
Mycotoxins are produced by molds, which are provement in growth performance for chicken
filamentous fungi that frequently contaminate meat production with the use of whole grains.
grains and improperly stored feed. Mold growth Some researchers demonstrated reduced levels
is typically associated with extremes in weather of intestinal pathogens. There was also increased
conditions, and mold spores are found almost gizzard size, and higher gizzard function may play
everywhere, including in soil and plant debris. a positive role in the control of bacterial popula-
Crops can be contaminated with mold in the field, tions. Other researchers, however, have shown
during harvest, storage, processing or feeding. increased coccidian problems with whole versus
The effects of mycotoxins in poultry feed depend ground grain in the diet. The main advantage of
on the specific mycotoxin or mycotoxins that may feeding whole grains is the cost-savings in not
be present, the level of contamination, the length having to grind the grains. For those growing
of time the animal has been consuming the their own grains, combining whole grains with a
contaminated feed, and the animal’s age, sex, and complementary protein pellet is a viable option.
level of stress. Some producers have used sprouting grains in
Hundreds of different mycotoxins exist. They poultry production. This has not been shown to
vary in their chemistry and the way they affect improve performance. Sprouting barley grain, for
animals. The molds that are most common in ani- example, has been shown to decrease the metabo-
mal feed are aspergillus, fusarium, and penicillium. lizable energy of the grain and decrease digest-
As a result, the mycotoxins of greatest concern ibility. Drying and grinding the sprouts improved
are produced by these molds and include aflatoxin their digestibility. This is a lot of work for mini-
from aspergillus; deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 mal return. In addition, the use of sprouted grains
toxin and fumonisin produced by fusarium; and increases the possibility of mold production.
ochratoxin and PR toxin produced by penicillium. Some backyard flocks use fermented feed, a pro-
Ergot is another mycotoxin commonly present in cess where a complete feed is soaked in water for
animal feed. up to 72 hours. The use of fermented feed is pop-
Even with excellent management, low levels ular in commercial pig production, but has never
of mycotoxins may exist in poultry feed. Several been adopted by commercial poultry producers.
mycotoxin binders have been developed that pre- There has been some research showing that fer-
vent the toxic effects of mycotoxins on animals mented feed improved body weight gain and feed
consuming the feed. These materials bind with efficiency. This appears to be a result of a reduc-
the mycotoxins and prevent the negative effects tion in the pH of the wet mash (pH < 4) and an
on the animals consuming them. Potential my- increase in short-chain fatty acids. This reduced
cotoxin binders include activated carbon; alumi- the likelihood of food-borne pathogens becom-
nosilicates (e.g., clay, bentonite, montmorillonite, ing colonized in the digestive tract. There is also
zeolite, phyllosilicates); and complex indigestible a release of phytate-bound phosphorus which is
carbohydrates (e.g., cellulose, polysaccharides not available to the birds. This latter effect can be
in the cell walls of yeast and bacteria) as well as achieved by the use of the feed enzyme phytase,
some synthetic polymers. The diversity in chem- a commercially available product used by most
istry of mycotoxins influences the effectiveness of commercial operations to improve the availability
mycotoxin binders. Mycotoxin control measures of phosphorus in the diet. With laying hens, some
may require multiple approaches to solve the have seen increased egg weight and improved feed
problems associated with mycotoxin consump- efficiency. Such studies, however, have involved
tion. More recent approaches include the use of a less than 500 hens and only for a period of 20
combination of binders, microbial enzymes, yeast weeks of production. The increased labor costs,
cell walls, and natural antioxidants. higher risk of mold formation with the production

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of mycotoxins, and the increased costs of feeders, Summary
do not justify the use of fermented feeds. Poultry requires a balanced source of protein,
Pasture poultry has become more popular. In an energy source, and the correct amount of vita-
such production systems, chickens have access mins and minerals. When manufacturers are pre-
to large areas of various grasses or other forage paring feeds there are several steps in the process.
plants. Although chickens will range, it must be First, the nutritionist defines the animals that
remembered that the digestive tract of chickens will receive the formulated feed. They next select
is very different from that of cattle and sheep. The the right nutrient specifications for the animals
avian digestive system (see ASC-203: "Avian Di- and set the maximum/minimum allowances.
gestive System") has very limited ability to digest They will then list the available ingredients with
grass. While pasturing chickens can be seen eat- their characteristics, nutrient content, and prices.
ing grass, they are not able to get a lot of nutrition Finally, they use feed formulation software to
from the grass. Foraging chickens are looking prepare the recipe for the feed. The formulae are
for seeds and insects that can be found in some reviewed periodically and adjusted as required.
pastures. During the spring and early summer This process enables feed companies to provide
insects are plentiful and can provide some nutri- complete feeds that meet the needs of the bird.
ents to the chickens. However, in late summer the Mixing your own feed is difficult, especially
amounts of seed and insects available will decline. when these resources are not available. If you
By winter they are nearly non-existent. Therefore, have your own grains, however, you can work
it is important for pasture poultry producers, with a nutritionist for the development of a pro-
especially those using improved chicken genetics, tein plus vitamin/mineral supplement to combine
to provide a balanced feed year round. The feed with your grains. This may reduce your overall
should be available at all times. When insects and feed costs however, the cost of a supplement may
seeds are available, then chickens will eat less of be very expensive and proper mixing equipment
the prepared feed. It is also important that the must be available. With any grain source, myco-
prepared feed not be diluted with the addition of toxins can be a problem, so it is important to get
scratch grains or cracked corn. For information your grains tested for mycotoxins and to properly
on how much feed is required, refer to ASC-191: store your grains. You can use the grains ground
"How Much Will My Chickens Eat?" or whole, depending on the equipment you have
available. Sprouting grains or fermenting feed
is a possibility, however it is not recommended
because of the complexity of the system and the
potential for problems.
Meeting the nutritional needs of the bird
throughout the stages of its development and
production cycle is essential for the health of the
flock and to have a profitable poultry operation.

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