AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH

Faculty of Engineering
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Laboratory Title: Implementation of Asynchronous and synchronous counters using flip-flops.

Experiment Number: 10 Due Date: 5 January 2025 Semester: Fall 24-25 Subject Code: EEE 3120

Subject Name: Digital Logic and Circuit Section: S Course Instructor: Md. Ashiquzzaman

Degree Program: CSE

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Submitted by:
1 Tanvir Mahatab Anan 23-50807-1
2 Md Tanvir Islam Sarkar Tamim 23-50786-1
3 Md.Mahmodul Hasan 23-50794-1
4 Anup Acharjee 23-50763-1
5 Neeyamul Islam Nayeem 23-51350-1

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Title: Design of a Digital to Analog and Analog to Digital
Converters.

Introduction:

This lab describes the design of a Digital to Analog Converter (DAC). Two
types of design are shown in this lab, binary weighted DAC and R/2R ladder
DAC design. Finally student will compare both the design to conclude which
design is efficient and why.

Theory and Methodology:

One common requirement in electronics is to convert signals back and forth

between analog and digital forms. Most such conversions are ultimately
based on a digital-to- analog converter circuit. Therefore, it is worth
exploring just how we can convert a digital number that represents a voltage
value into an actual analog voltage.

Digital-to-Analog Converters

In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC, D/A, D2A or D-to-A) is a

function that converts digital data (usually binary) into an analog signal
(current, voltage, or electric charge). An analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
performs the reverse function. Unlike analog signals, Digital data can be
transmitted, manipulated, and stored without degradation, albeit with more
complex equipment. But a DAC is needed to convert the digital signal to
analog, for example to drive an earphone or loudspeaker amplifier and
produce sound (analog air pressure waves).

DACs and their inverse, ADCs, are part of an enabling technology that has
contributed greatly to the 'digital revolution'. To illustrate this, consider a
typical long-distance telephone call. The callers voice is converted into an
analog electrical signal by a microphone. The analog signal is then converted
to a digital stream by an ADC. That digital stream is then divided into
packets where it will be mixed with other
digital data, not necessarily audio. The digital packets are then sent to the
destination, but each packet may take a completely different route and may
not even arrive at the destination in the correct time order. The digital voice
data is then extracted from the packets and assembled into a digital data
stream. A DAC converts it into an analog electrical signal which drives an
audio amplifier which in turn drives a loudspeaker which finally produces
sound. Of course, this is a simplified and stylized description, but it does
illustrate one vital role of ADCs and DACs.

There are several DAC architectures; the suitability of a DAC for a particular
application is determined by six main parameters: physical size, power
consumption, resolution, speed, accuracy, cost. Due to the complexity and
the need for precisely matched components, all but the most specialist DACs
are implemented as integrated circuits (ICs). Digital-to-analog conversion
can degrade a signal, so a DAC should be specified that that has insignificant
errors in terms of the application.

DACs are commonly used in music players to convert digital data streams
into analogue audio signals. They are also used in televisions and mobile
phones to convert digital video data into analog video signals which connect
to the screen drivers to display monochrome or color images. These two
applications use DACs at opposite ends of the speed/resolution trade-off.
The audio DAC is a low-speed high resolution type while the video DAC is a
high- speed low to medium resolution type. Discrete DACs would typically
be extremely high- speed lowresolution power hungry types, as used in
military radar systems. Very high-speed test equipment, especially sampling
oscilloscopes, may also use discrete DACS.
A digital-to-analog converter, or DAC for short, converts a digitally coded
number to a voltage proportional to the number. For example, if a number N
is supplied to a DAC, the output voltage will be proportional to N: Vout = N
× B The constant of proportionality, B, is normally determined from the ratio
of the reference voltage, Vref, and the maximum value that N can have,
Nmax, B = Vref / Nmax so that Vout = Vref N / Nmax .

A common way to make a DAC is with an Op Amp circuit. Recall the circuit
for the summing amplifier.

Binary Weighted Digital-to-Analog Converter:

The following circuit is a basic digital-to-analog (D to A) converter. It

assumes a 4-bit binary number in Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) format,
using +5 volts as a logic 1 and 0 volts as a logic 0. It will convert the applied
BCD number to a matching (inverted) output voltage. The digits 1, 2, 4, and
8 refer to the relative weights assigned to each input. Thus, 1 is the Least
Significant Bit (LSB) of the input binary number, and 8 is the Most
Significant Bit (MSB).

Fig1: Binary Weighted Digital to Analog converter.

If the input voltages are accurately 0 and +5 volts, then the "1" input will
cause an output voltage of -5 × (4k/20k) = -5 × (1/5) = -1 volt whenever it is
a logic 1. Similarly, the "2," "4," and "8" inputs will control output voltages
of -2, -4, and -8 volts, respectively. As a result, the output voltage will take
on one of 10 specific voltages, in accordance with the input BCD code.

Unfortunately, there are several practical problems with this circuit. First,
most digital logic gates do not accurately produce 0 and +5 volts at their
outputs. Therefore, the resulting analog voltages will be close, but not really
accurate. In addition, the different input resistors will load the digital circuit
outputs differently, which will almost certainly result in different voltages
being applied to the summer inputs.

R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converter:

This improved circuit overcomes the problem of using many resistors.

Instead it uses only two valued resistor.

Fig 2: R/2R Ladder DAC

The circuit above performs D to A conversion a little differently. Typically

the inputs are driven by CMOS gates, which have low but equal resistance
for both logic 0 and logic 1. Also, if we use the same logic levels, CMOS
gates really do provide +5 and 0 volts for their logic levels.

The input circuit is a remarkable design, known as an R-2R ladder network.

It has several advantages over the basic summer circuit we saw first:

Only two resistance values are used anywhere in the entire circuit. This
means that only two values of precision resistance are needed, in a resistance
ratio of 2:1. This requirement is easy to meet, and not especially expensive.

The input resistance seen by each digital input is the same as for every other
input. The actual impedance seen by each digital source gate is 3R. With a
 CMOS gate resistance of 200 ohms, we can use the very standard values of
10k and 20k for our resistors.
1. The circuit is indefinitely extensible for binary numbers. Thus, if we
use binary inputs instead of BCD, we can simply double the length of the
ladder network for an 8-bit number (0 to 255) or double it again for a 16-
bit number (0 to 65535). We only need to add two resistors for each
additional binary input.

2. The circuit lends itself to a non-inverting circuit configuration.

Therefore we need not be concerned about intermediate inverters along
the way. However, an inverting version can easily be configured if that is
appropriate.

Apparatus:
Serial Equipment Image Quentity Remarks
no name

1 Digital trainer 01 The trainer board was old

board and some switches were
not working correctly.

2 Connecting 08 Good in condition

wires

3 Multimeter 01 Good Condition

4 Resistor 10-15 Good in condition

04 Integrated 01 Good in condition
Circuits

( JK FLIP FLOP
)

Precautions
1. Ensure all resistor values are precise and correctly placed.
2. Use a stable power supply to avoid fluctuations in output.
3. Verify proper connections to avoid short circuits or incorrect outputs.
4. Handle ICs carefully to prevent electrostatic damage.
5. Use a multimeter to confirm voltage levels at different nodes.
6. Avoid loose connections by securing wires properly.
7. Keep noise interference minimal by using proper grounding techniques .

Experimental Procedure
1. Circuit Setup:
2. Connect resistors in binary-weighted configuration to the input bits.The
weighted sum of currents from each resistor is fed into the inverting input
of the Op-Amp.
3. The Op-Amp is configured as a summing amplifier.
4. The output of the Op-Amp provides the analog voltage equivalent to the
digital input.
5. Connect a multimeter or oscilloscope to measure the output.

Testing:

6. Apply digital inputs (0000 to 1111 for a 4-bit DAC).

7. Measure and record the corresponding output voltage.
8. Verify linearity and resolution of the DAC.
Measurement

Simulations
 D3 D2 D1 D0 V0
0 0 0 1 -6.13
0 0 1 0 -11.40
0 1 0 0 -12.10
1 0 0 0 -12.76

Discussion
The binary weighted resistor DAC operates by summing currents
corresponding to different binary weightings. The operational amplifier
ensures proper scaling and provides a stable analog output. Precision in
resistor values is crucial, as deviations can lead to errors in output voltage.
This type of DAC is limited in resolution due to resistor tolerances and the
practical difficulty of achieving high-precision resistance values. The
primary advantage is its simplicity, while the main drawback is scalability
for higher-bit resolutions due to resistor value constraints.

Conclusion
The binary weighted resistor DAC successfully converts digital signals into
analog voltages. While simple and effective for low-bit resolutions, it faces
challenges in precision and scalability. Future improvements can involve
using an R-2R ladder network for better accuracy and ease of
implementation.
Reference
[1] Floyd, T. L. Digital Fundamentals. Available edition. Prentice Hall International,
Chapter 4:"Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification."
[2] DLC Lab Manual, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB).
[3] https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-11/asynchronous-counters/
[4] https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/differences-between-synchronous-and-
asynchronous-counter/