Digital Electronics and Communication Engineering

21CMRE42 - UNIT 2

Analog to Digital Converter

A converter that is used to change the analog signal
to digital is known as ADC.

Applications of the ADCs are measurement and

control systems, industrial instrumentation, communication
systems, and all other sensory-based systems. Classification
of ADCs based on factors like performance, bit rates, power, cost, etc.

Block Diagram of ADC

Sample:

The sample block function is to sample the input analog signal at a specific time
interval. The samples are taken in continuous amplitude & possess real value but they
are discrete with respect to time.

Hold:

The second block used in ADC is the ‘Hold’ block. It has no function. It
only holds the sample amplitude until the next sample is taken. The hold
value remains unchanged till the next sample.

Quantize:

This block is used for quantization. It converts the

analog or continuous amplitude into discrete amplitude.

The on hold continuous amplitude value in hold block

goes through ‘quantize’ block &
becomes discrete in amplitude. The signal is now in digital
form as it has discrete time & discrete amplitude.
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Encoder:

The encoder block converts the digital signal into binary form i.e. into bits. This is the whole
process of converting an Analog signal into digital form using an Analog to Digital
Converter. This whole conversion occurs in a microsecond.

Types of Analog to Digital Converters

• Dual Slope A/D Converter

• Flash A/D Converter
• Successive Approximation A/D Converter
• Semi-flash ADC
• Sigma-Delta ADC
• Pipelined ADC

Dual Slope A/D Converter

In this type of ADC converter, comparison voltage is generated by using an integrator
circuit which is formed by a resistor, capacitor, and operational amplifier combination. By the
set value of Vref, this integrator generates a sawtooth waveform on its output from zero to the
value Vref. When the integrator waveform is started correspondingly counter starts counting
from 0 to 2^n-1 where n is the number of bits of ADC.

When the input voltage Vin

equal to the voltage of the waveform,
then the control circuit captures the
counter value which is the digital
value of the corresponding analog
input value.

This Dual slope ADC is a relatively medium cost and slow speed device.
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Flash A/D Converter

This ADC converter IC is also called
parallel ADC, which is the most widely used
efficient ADC in terms of its speed. This flash
analog to digital converter circuit consists of a
series of comparators where each one compares
the input signal with a unique reference voltage.
At each comparator, the output will be a high
state when the analog input voltage exceeds the
reference voltage. This output is further given to
the priority encoder for generating binary code
based on higher-order input activity by ignoring
other active inputs.

This flash type is a high-cost and high-speed device.

Successive Approximation A/D Converter

The SAR ADC a most modern
ADC IC and much faster than dual
slope and flash ADCs since it uses a
digital logic that converges the analog
input voltage to the closest value.

At the start, SAR is reset and

as the LOW to HIGH transition is
introduced, the MSB of the SAR is set. Then this output is given to the D/A converter that
produces an analog equivalent of the MSB, further it is compared with the analog input Vin.

If comparator output is LOW, then MSB will be cleared by the SAR, otherwise, the
MSB will be set to the next position. This process continues till all the bits are tried and after
Q0, the SAR makes the parallel output lines to contain valid data.
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Digital to Analog Converter

• The basic building blocks of a DAC are a resistive network, digitally controlled
electronics switches, a voltage reference, and a current-to-voltage converter.
• A digital input code is applied to the resistive network via the digitally controlled
switches.
• The digitally controlled switches are turned on or off by the digital input bits (0’s and 1’s)
• The output of the resistive network is in the form of current. It can be converted into
proportional voltage with the help of a current-to-voltage converter. Thus we obtain an
analog output voltage proportional to the digital input code.
The actual digital-to-analog conversion takes place within the resistive network.

Types of DAC (Digital to Analog Converters):

• Binary weighted resistor DAC

• R-2R ladder-type DAC

Weighted Resistor Method

The weighted resistor method utilizes the summing operational amplifier circuit. The
summing amplifier adds the input signals with different gains corresponding to their resistors.
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Vout = – {(Rf /R0) V0 + (Rf /R1) V1 + (Rf /R2) V2 +… + (Rf/Rn-1) Vn-1}

A digital-to-analog converter (DAC, D/A, D2A or D-to-A) is a circuit that converts

digital data (usually binary) into an analog signal (current or voltage). One important
specification of a DAC is its resolution. It can be defined by the numbers of bits or its step
size.

Working of Binary Weighted Resistor DAC

Step 1 - Taking Digital Input

At this stage, the binary weighted resistor DAC takes a digital input signal specified in the
form of a group of bits. Each bit of the input signal has a binary weight, where the highest weight
is associated with the MSB (Most Significant Bit) of the digital signal, while the lowest weight is
associated with the LSB (Least Significant Bit).

Step 2 - Switching of Resistive Network

The digital input signal switches (connect or disconnect) resistors in the ladder network based on
the bits of the signal.

Step 3 - Summing Amplifier & Analog Output

The summing or operational amplifier is connected at the summing node of the circuit. It
combines different outputs of resistors together to produce a final analog signal at output.
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Advantages of Binary Weighted Resistor DAC

• Binary weighted resistor DACs are simple to design and implement

• Binary weighted resistor DACs have good linearity
• Binary weighted resistor DACs provide relatively higher accuracy
• Binary weighted resistor DACs offer high speed
• Binary weighted resistor DACs provide higher resolution and wide range of analog output.
• Binary weighted resistor DACs consume less power as compared to other types of DACs.

Disadvantages of Binary Weighted Resistor DAC

• Binary weighted resistor DACs are uneconomical at higher bit resolutions. This is due to
increased complexity of the circuit with the increase in number of bits.
• At higher resolutions, binary weighted resistor DACs consume high power.
• The implementation of binary weighted resistor DACs become a challenge at higher number
of bits due to some physical limitations like reduced precision and performance, decreased
accuracy, etc.
• Binary weighted resistor DACs can face issues related to switching transients and settling
time. It may cause errors in the case of fast switching signals.

Applications of Binary Weighted Resistor DACs

• Binary weighted resistor DACs are widely used for audio signal processing in various audio
systems like audio players, audio mixers, sound cards, etc.
• Binary weighted resistor DACs are also used in communication systems to converter digital
signals into analog signal for modulation and transmission of data over communication
channels.
• Binary weighted resistor DACs are also employed in control systems in various fields like
robotics, motor drive control, process control, industrial automation, etc.
• Binary weighted resistor DACs are used in various measuring instruments like digital
voltmeters/ammeters, oscilloscopes, multimeters, signal generators, etc.
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R-2R Ladder Circuit :

This method is more precise, accurate & easy to design then the weighted resistor method. R-
2R ladder circuit is made by adding combination R & 2R resistor in cascaded form as shown
in the following figure.

There are only two types of resistors used. Each stage contains R & 2R, is used for a
single bit. There is switch between the Vref & GND which is controlled by the binary input.
Bit 0 means the GND is connected & bit 1 means the Vref is connected.

Vout = – Vref {B0(1/2N) + B1(1/2N-1) + B2(1/2N-2) +…+ BN-2(1/22) + BN-1(1/21)}

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Digital Electronics and Communication Engineering
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Types of sensors Used on-Board

• Sensors for exhaust gas

• Sensors for scrubbers and ballast water
• Sensors for cooling water, fuel oil and lube oil
• Sensors for stern tube and bearings
• Sensors for charge air temperature
• Sensors for incinerators
• Sensors for inlet and outlet in pumps
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This figure shows a drawing of the ship with positions of data logging sensors as on the
following list:

1. Speed log
2. Echo sounder
3. RPM and torque meter
4. Shaft motor
5. Thrust meter
6. Rudder indicator
7. Stabilizer fins
8. Wind anemometer
9. GPS
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Thermistor

The Thermistor or simply Thermally Sensitive Resistor is a temperature sensor that works
on the principle of varying resistance with temperature. They are made of semiconducting materials.

Thermistors are used in On-Board Ship for measuring Motor winding temperatures and in fire
alarm systems.

Working Principle of Thermistors

The thermistor works on the simple principle of

change in resistance due to a change in temperature.
When the ambient temperature changes the thermistor
starts self-heating its elements. its resistance value is
changed with respect to this change in temperature. This
change depends on the type of thermistor used.

Types of Thermistors

NTC Thermistor: NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are ceramic
semiconductors that have a high Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance. The
resistance of an NTC will decrease with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner.

PTC Thermistor: PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors and are
made of polycrystalline ceramic materials. The resistance of a PTC will increase with
increasing temperature in a non-linear manner.
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Advantages of thermistors

• Less expensive.
• More sensitive than other sensors.
• Fast response.
• Small in size.

Dis-advantages of thermistors
• Limited Temperature range.
• Resistance to temperature ratio correlation is non-linear.
• An inaccurate measurement may be obtained due to the self-heating effect.
• Fragile.

Applications of thermistors

NTC Thermistor Application

• Digital Thermostats.
• Thermometers.
• Battery pack temperature monitors.
• In-rush-current limiting devices
PTC Thermistor Application

• Over-current protection
• In-rush-current protection
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Thermocouples and Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are used to measure

temperatures of steam lines, lubrication oil, jacket coolants, air intake manifolds, reactor
compartment ambient temperatures and other vital functions including emergency cooling
system, heat exchanger pump bearings and stators.

Steam lines
Lubrication oil
Coolants and cooling systems
Catapult steam accumulators
Air intake manifolds
Reactor compartment ambient
Pump bearings and stators
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Thermocouples
Thermocouple is a device which is widely used as a pyrometer on board ship for
continuous measurement of temperature for various machineries like Main engine, Auxiliary
engine, gas turbines etc.

Principle & Working

Thermocouple works with the principle of “seebeck effect” which states that-
“Temperature between two dissimilar metals in a circuit converts into electric current”

When two dissimilar metal wires are coupled together and exposed to difference in
temperature at both the ends, then emf is generated and current flows from hot to cold side.

The magnitude of the current depends on the temperature difference between the
junctions. If one junction is kept at constant temperature, then the value of temperature for
the other junction can be easily determined.

Advantages of Thermocouple

• Can be used for remote temperature sensing.

• It can be used for continuous temperature sensing.
• Temperature difference can be measured with high accuracy.
• They are inexpensive and easily interchangeable.

Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors can be categorized according to the method they sense pressure
changes. Sensors can observe and measure various physical reactions. Some of the most
common types of pressure sensors are listed below:
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1. Strain gauge

A strain is defined as the proportional expansion or contraction of materials, as an

object applies force. Strain gauges, as the name implies, use these tangible changes in the
spring’s dimensions to measure pressure.

Strain gauge sensors have a spring element that deforms, as force is applied. The
material proportionally varies in its electrical resistance as its structure varies. With pressure
changes, fluctuations in resistance and voltage readings are taken as electric signals. These
are then calibrated to an equivalent pressure reading and displayed by the sensor.

Strain gauge sensors are particularly favorable for long-term monitoring tasks. They
are the most commonly used type of sensor due to their availability and versatility.

2. Piezoelectric

When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is generated across the
faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the pressure.
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A given static force results in a

corresponding charge across the sensor. However,
this will leak away over time due to imperfect
insulation, the internal sensor resistance, the attached
electronics, etc. As a result, piezoelectric sensors are
not normally suitable for measuring static pressure.
The output signal will gradually drop to zero, even in
the presence of constant pressure. They are, however,
sensitive to dynamic changes in pressure across a
wide range of frequencies and pressures.

This dynamic sensitivity means they are good at measuring small changes in pressure,
even in a very high-pressure environment.

3. Capacitive Pressure Sensors

Working Principle of Capacitive Pressure Sensors

Capacitive pressure sensors are based on the principle that the capacitance between
two parallel plates is inversely proportional to their separation distance. When pressure is
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applied to a flexible diaphragm, one of the plates, it causes the diaphragm to deflect, altering
the distance between the two plates and consequently changing the capacitance value. This
change in capacitance can be measured and calibrated to represent the pressure exerted on the
sensor.

4. Manometers
A manometer works on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for
measuring the pressure (static pressure) exerted by a still liquid or gas. Hydrostatic
equilibrium states that the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is equal, and its value is just
the weight of the overlying fluid. In its simplest form, a manometer is a U-shaped tube
consisting of an incompressible fluid like water or mercury. It is inexpensive and does not
need calibration.

As seen in the figure, the U-shaped tube filled with

liquid measures the differential pressure, i.e., the difference in
levels 'h' between the two limbs gives the pressure
difference (p1−p2) between them. When pressure is applied at
limb 1, the fluid recedes in limb 1, and its level rises in limb 2.
This rise continues till a balance is struck between the unit
weight of fluid and the pressure applied. If the pressure applied
at one opening; say limb 1 of the U-tube, is atmospheric
pressure, the difference gives the gauge pressure at limb 2.

h = (p1− p2) ρg
where, ρ= density of the liquid used in the manometer
Hence, ρg= specific weight of the liquid

5. Vacuum pressure
1. A vacuum pressure gauge uses a sensor to measure the difference in pressure between
the device and the surrounding atmosphere.
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2. The sensor, typically a bourdon tube or diaphragm, will change position or shape in
response to changes in pressure.

3. A mechanical linkage connects the sensor to a pointer on a gauge dial, allowing the
pressure reading to be easily read by the user.

4. The gauge may also have electronic components that convert the mechanical
movement of the sensor into an electrical signal. The signal can display the vacuum
gauge pressure reading on a digital display or send the data to a remote monitoring
system.

6. Bourdon tube

It essentially consisted of
a C-molded hollow tube, whose
one endpoint is fixed and
connected to the pressure tapping,
whereas the other end is left free,
The cross-sectional part of the
tube is elliptical. At the point
when pressure is applied, the
elliptical tube (or Bourdon tube)
attempts to obtain a circular cross-
segment. Thus, stress is created
and the tube tries to straighten up. Subsequently, the free end of the tube moves in an upward
direction, depending upon the magnitude of the pressure.

The applied pressure is in a proportional relation with the displacement of the free-
closed end of the tube. A deflecting and indicating mechanism is connected to the free end
that rotates the pointer and indicates the pressure reading.

7. Aneroid barometer
An aneroid barometer is another type of a
purely mechanical device used to measure
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pressure. This instrument has an air-tight metal cylinder, resembling a capsule. This capsule
compresses and expands in response to the surrounding pressure. These small differences can
be measured and coupled to a dial that then displays a corresponding pressure reading.

Aneroid barometers are typically used to measure atmospheric pressure. They are
commonly used in aircrafts, due to their durable and convenient design. For aircraft
applications, they can also be used to measure altitude based on changes in barometric
pressure.

speed sensors

Crankshaft speed sensors, also

called speed sensors, are used to measure
crankshaft speed; determine the position
of the crankshaft (or even the position of
the engine cylinder).

The rotational speed is calculated

by the time period of the sensor signals,
following the passage of the gear teeth.

The signal of the rotational speed sensor

is one of the most important values for an electronic control system for diesel engine
operation.

Engine speed sensor device construction and it working principle.

The sensor is mounted directly opposite the ferromagnetic pulsed wheel (flywheel) 7
fixed on the knee-shaft (see image below) and is separated from it by an air gap ( about 2mm
gap). The sensor contains a soft iron core 4 (pole tip), which is surrounded by an inductor 5.
The pole tip is connected to a permanent magnet 1. The magnetic field passes through the
pole tip inside the pulse wheel.

The intensity of the magnetic flux passing through the coil depends on what is
opposite the sensor: the tooth or the gap between the teeth of the impulse wheel. Now the
tooth causes amplification, and the gap, on the contrary, weakens the intensity of the
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magnetic flux. These changes induced in the coil an electromotive force(EMF) expressed in a
sinusoidal output voltage which is proportional to the rotational speed of the crankshaft.

Level Sensor:

Gauge Glass

This is the simplest of all

instruments used to measure the level
inside a tank. The gauge glass has a long
tubular glass which extends from top of the
tank to the bottom in length, usually
circular in cross section. The tank has
openings in the top and in the bottom to
extend connections to the circular long
tube.

Since the material is usually made of glass, it is very fragile and should be handled with
extreme care. Some tanks may also be equipped with plastic gauges. The main dis-advantage
of a plastic gauge is that they cannot withstand heat and may discolour soon.

Usually these gauges are equipped with self-closing or auto shut off arrangements.
These gauges may tend to break at any time, thus leading to localised flooding of the
contained space. For this reason, there is always a safety shut off arrangement, usually at the
bottom end of the gauge. These type of gauges are mostly found on small tanks with water or
diesel oil.

Floats:

Float type level sensors may be of different types. They may

indicate continuous variation in liquid level or just alarm high or low
level. Floats are also used for filling a tank when the level drops and
stopping filling when the level reaches optimum. These can be
witnessed in boiler feed tanks.
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Most tanks have high and low level float indicators provided on the tank walls. When
the liquid level in the tank reaches maximum, the float is lifted up by the rising liquid surface.
The opposite end of the float device has a magnet which flips another magnet in the fixed
body. The magnet’s flipping action makes or breaks the circuit which causes an alarm. They
also have a provision for testing the alarm manually.

Pressure Based Level Measurement

The head of available liquid in the tank is used and the head is converted into level
measurement. As the level inside the tank varies, the head of liquid and thus the pressure
varies accordingly, and this is used as reference for indicating the level in the particular tank.
For sensing the pressure variation inside the tank, a slack diaphragm pressure sensing device
is used. One end of the diaphragm is connected to the open end of the tank where
atmospheric pressure acts on it. The other end is connected to the safe bottom-most portion of
the tank, enabling the liquid in the tank to exert a corresponding head on the diaphragm. The
diaphragm responds to the difference in pressure, which moves a needle calibrated to indicate
the level inside the tank.

Bubbler Gauge

This is one of the famous types found in most of the remote reading gauges. This type
is used usually for highly viscous oils like in fuel oil tanks and the cargo tanks of product
carriers, etc. Compressed air is admitted at the top of a small diameter tube which is fixed
vertically inside the tank. The base of the tube is left open from the tank bottom surface.
When compressed air is admitted from the tube top, it bubbles out from the bottom and thus
reaches the liquid surface. The air pressure is dependent on the hydrostatic head of liquid
present in the tank. This air pressure is measured and calibrated to indicate the tank level
continuously. A 3-way valve may also be provided to by-pass the compressed air from the
restrictor, thus allowing blowing off the tube inside the tank to avoid any deposits.
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Ultra-Sonic/Microwave Level Sensor:

These devices use ultrasonic or microwaves

to determine the ullage level of the liquid in
the tank. The device emits microwaves or
ultrasonic sound waves, which hit the
surface of the liquid inside the tank and
bounces back to the transmitter itself. The
time taken to receive the signal back is
calculated and thus ullage of the tank is
determined. Main advantage of this type is
there are no moving parts and mainly used
for LNG/LPG tankers where manual
sounding is not possible.

Capacitive Level Sensor:

A capacitor is said to have two plates, separated by a di-electric medium. For

measuring tank levels, the capacitance probe acts as a single plate and the tank side wall acts
as the second plate. As the liquid level inside the tank varies, the potential between the tank
wall and the probe varies accordingly. Thus causes change in current in the circuit and thus it
is calibrated for indicating the tank level.
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Water Salinometer:

Working Principle of Salinometer

The electrical supply to the salinometer must be DC. The potentiometer is provided to
give a fixed standard calibration voltage so that no errors to voltage differences exist.
Pure water is non-conducting so that current flow is an indication of impurities, i.e. the
greater the current the greater the impurity in the water. Figure below shows a salinometer
usually found with a freshwater generator.
When the impurity content
exceeds a fixed value the current is
sufficient to operate the relay 2 so
giving visual or audible warning by
closing the circuit. Continued operation
at increased current would cause Relay
1 to short circuit the meter and so
protect it.
Water temperature increases
conductivity so that temperature
compensation is required. A
temperature compensating thermometer is a shunt across the meter. Temperature increase
causes a rise of mercury level and a cutting out of resistance which allows more current
through the shunt and less through the meter. The correct calibration current through the
meter is fixed; current variations due to temperature are shunted.

Photoelectric Sensor Working Principle

• The working principle of a photoelectric sensor is to change the intensity of light into
electrical signals by using a photoelectric component like a conversion element. This
sensor is composed of three main parts transmitter, receiver & detection circuit.
• The transmitter in this sensor emits a light ray to the object & the emitted light ray is
usually a semiconductor light source like an LED, a laser diode & an IR diode. The ray is
emitted constantly otherwise changes the pulse width to achieve it.
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• The receiver commonly includes a photodiode, a photocell, and a phototransistor. Ahead

of the receiver, optical components are installed like lens & aperture. At the back of the
receiver, a detection circuit is used where this circuit filter outs the effective signal &
make appropriate actions.
• Generally, this sensor includes mainly an Emitter used for emitting a beam & a Receiver
used for getting light. Once emitted light is reflected/ interrupted through the sensing
object, then it changes the light that reaches the Receiver. So this receiver will detect the
change & changes it to an electrical signal.

Specifications

• The detecting range of the sensor mainly depends on the highest distance for which
the signal is constant.
• Response time specifies the time delay between the object moving into the detection
zone & the production of the discovery signal.
The measurement of the position ‘window’ simply decides the width of the sensor’s
linear region. A sensor has a 10 cm window when it measures between 14 & 24 cm.

Photoelectric Sensor Types

Through-beam Sensor:
Through-beam sensors transmit the light beam only in a single direction. In
this sensor, both the sender & receiver are arranged in different housings & there is no return
of the light. This kind of sensor is common as compared to retro-reflective type sensors
because both the transmitter & receiver of this sensor are contained within a single unit. This
sensor detects objects once it interrupts the light ray in between the two sensors.

Through Beam Type Sensor

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The main benefits of using this thru-beam sensor are, that it is a very accurate type and its
detecting range is high. So these sensors are the best choice to use in a dirty environment
also.

Retro Reflective Sensor

In these types of sensors, both the transmitter & receiver are arranged within a single unit.
The light ray is transmitted to the reflector and it will be returned back to the light receiving
element. Once a target is available in between these two, then the light is interrupted. These
sensors are used on a conveyor belt to detect objects.

Retroreflective Type

This sensor is very affordable and less accurate as compared to thru-beam sensors.
These sensors are suitable to use when transparent or clear products need to be detected.

Diffuse Reflection Sensors:

In these types of sensors, the transmitter & receiver are arranged within a single
housing. Not like the retro-reflective, this sensor uses the target object like the reflector rather
than using an installed reflector. When selecting this sensor, the detecting range as well as the
reflection angle must be considered. This sensor detects objects once the light beam is
transmitted in the direction of the target & is reflected back by the target toward the sensor.

Diffuse Reflection Sensor

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These sensors are very easy to install because everything is built-in this device. These
are less accurate as compared to thru-beam & retroreflective sensors once used to detect
position. Additionally, these sensors are affected by texture, color, the position of incidents,
dirty environments, characteristics of the target, etc.