CHAPTER

Basic Mathematics
1 and Logarithm

Some Important Identities a b

(ii) = .........(alternendo)
1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab c d
2. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab a +b c +d
(iii) = ....(componendo)
3. a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b) b d
4. (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b) a- b c- d
(iv) = ......(dividendo)
5. (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b) b d
6. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b) = (a + b) (a2 + b2 – ab) a +b c +d
(v) = ......(componendo and dividendo)
7. a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab (a – b) = (a – b) (a2 + b2 + ab) a- b c- d
b d
(vi) = ........(invertendo)
8. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca = a2 + b2 + c2 + a c
1 1 1
2abc  + +  (vii)
a c e
If = = = ......, then each
a b c b d f
1
9. a + b + c2 – ab – bc – ca = [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2 2
a + c + e + ...... Sum of the numerators
2 =
10. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca) b + d + f + ...... Sum of the denominators
1
= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2 Solving of Inequalities by Wavy Curve Method
If a + b + c = 0 , then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc Step 1: Obtain critical points by equating all factors to zero.
11. a4 – b4 = (a + b) (a – b) (a2 + b2) Step 2: Plot the critical points on the number line in the increasing
12. a4 + a2 + 1 = (a2 + 1)2 – a2 = (1 + a + a2) (1 – a + a2) order.
Step 3: Put plus sign in the right most interval.
Laws of Indices
1. am × an = am+n Step 4: Now, if a root is repeated even times, the sign of the
function will remain the same in the two adjacent sub-intervals of
2. am ÷ an = am–n
the root. (when we are moving from right to left)
3. (am)n = (an)m = amn
m m Step 5: If a root is repeated for odd times the sign of the function
−
4.  a  n =  b  n will be different in the two adjacent sub intervals of the root.
   
b a (when we are moving from right to left)
5. am ÷ b–n = am × bn
Properties of Logarithm
6. ( n a ) n = a , where, n ∈ N, n ≥ 2 and a is positive rational
number 1. loge(ab) = logea + logeb ; (a, b > 0)
7. n a n b = n ab , where n ∈ N, n ≥ 2 and a, b are rational a
2. log e=
  log e a − log e b ; (a, b > 0)
number b
8. a ×= b ab , a, b ∈ R and atleast one of a or b should be 3. logeam = mlogea ; (a > 0, m ∈ R)
positive. 4. logaa = 1 ; (a > 0, a ≠ 1)
Ratio and Proportion 1
5. log b a = log b a ; (a, b > 0, b ≠ 1 and m ∈ R – {0})
a, b, c, d are in proportion. Then, m
m
a c 1
(i) = 6. log b a = ; (a, b > 0 and a, b ≠ 1)
b d log a b
 log m a Definition of Modulus
7. log b a = ; (a, b, m > 0 and m, b ≠ 1)
log m b  x, if x ≥ 0
|x| = 
8. a loga m = m ; (a > 0, a ≠ 1 m > 0) − x, if x < 0
9. a logc b = b logc a ; (a, b, c > 0 and c ≠ 1) Properties of Modulus
Let 'a', 'b' are positive real number then,
 x > y, if m > 1
10. If logmx > logmy ⇒  (i) |x|= a ⇒ x = ± a
 x < y, if 0 < m < 1
(m,x,y > 0, m ≠ 1) (ii) |x| ≤ a ⇒ –a ≤ x ≤ a ⇒ x ∈ [–a, a]
11. logma = b ⇒ a = mb ; (m, a > 0, m ≠ 1 ∈ real number) (iii) |x| < a ⇒ –a < x < a ⇒ x ∈ (–a, a)
a > mb ; if m >1 (iv) |x| ≥ a ⇒ x ≤ –a or x ≥ a ⇒ x ∈ (–∞, –a] ∪ [a, ∞)
12. logma > b ⇒ 
b (v) |x| > a ⇒ x < –a or x > a ⇒ x ∈ (–∞, –a) ∪ (a, ∞)
a < m ; if 0 < m <1
(vi) a ≤ |x| ≤ b ⇒ x ∈ [–b, –a] ∪ [a, b]
a < mb ; if m >1
13. logma < b ⇒   (vii) a < |x| < b ⇒ x ∈ (–b, –a) ∪ (a, b)
b
a > m ; if 0 < m <1
(viii) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|; equality holds when xy ≥ 0
Logarithmic Equations (ix) |x – y| ≥ ||x| – |y||; equality holds when xy ≥ 0
(i) An equation of the form loga f(x) = b, (a > 0), a ≠ 1 is equivalent (x) |x + y| ≥ ||x| – |y||; equality holds when xy ≤ 0
to the equation. f(x) = ab, (f(x) > 0)
(xi) |x – y| ≤ |x| + |y|; equality holds when xy ≥ 0
 g ( x) > 0
(ii) If loga f(x) > logag(x) and a > 1, then ⇒  f ( x) > 0
 f ( x) > g ( x)

 f ( x) > 0
(iii) If loga f(x) > logag(x) and a < 1, then ⇒  g ( x) > 0
 f ( x) < g ( x)


2 JEE (XI) Module-1 PW

 CHAPTER

2 Set Theory

Set Power Set

A A
P(A P(A A is
P(A n

Universal Set
Methods of Representing a Set
(i U A B
C U
(ii
P(x x
Venn Diagrams
x P(x
x P(x

Types of Sets Operations on Sets

(i A B
A B A B
(ii Properties of the Operation of Union
(i) A B=B A
(iii
(ii) (A B) C = A (B C
(iii) A =A U)
(iv
(iv) A A=A
(v A B
A B (v) U A=U U)

Subsets Intersection of Sets

A set A B A A B
B A B a A a B A B
Note that: Properties of the Operation of Intersection
(i (i) A B=B A
(ii (ii) (A B) C = A (B C
(iii) A= U A=A )
Intervals as Subsets of R
(iv) A A=A
Let a b R a<b
(v) A (B C) = A B) (A C
(i
[a b x R a x b Difference of Sets
(ii A B A–B
(a b x R a<x<b A B
(iii A–B xx A x B
(a b x R a<x b a b x R a x< b B–A xx B x A
Some Important Results on Number of A U
Elements in Sets
A
(i A B A B=
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B)
(ii A B
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A B) Properties of Complement Sets
Complement Laws
(iii A B C
(i) A A U (ii) A A
(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A B) – n(B C) – n(A De Morgan's Law
C) + n(A B C) (i) (A B A B ii) (A B A B
Complement of a Set Law of Double Complementation
(A A
U
U U

x x
x x A

4 JEE (XI) Module-1 PW

 CHAPTER

3 Functions

� Ordered pair Pair formed by two elemetns that are separated ™ Algebra of functions For functions f: X→R and g: X→R, we
by a comma and written as (x, y). have
� Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is given by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x), x ∈ X
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A , b ∈ B} (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x), x ∈ X
In particular R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R} (f.g)(x) = f(x) ⋅ g(x), x ∈ X)
and R × R × R = {(x, y, z): x, y, z ∈ R} (kf) (x) = k(f(x)), x ∈ X, where k is a real number.
™ If (a, b) = (x, y), then a = x and b = y.  f f ( x)
™ If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.  g  ( x) = g ( x) , x ∈ X , g ( x) ≠ 0
™A×f=f
™ In general, A × B ≠ B × A.
™ Relation A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the Function
cartesian product A × B obtained by describing a relationship
between the first element x and the second element y of the Piecewise
ordered pairs in A × B. Algebraic Transcendental
defined
™ The image of an element x under a relation R is given by y,
where (x,y) ∈ R, Monomial Logarithmic Modulus
™ The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs in a relation R. Polynomial Exponential Greatest
™ The range of the relation R is the set of all second elements Integer
of the ordered pairs in a relation R.
Fractional
™ Function A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific type Rational Trigonometric
Part
of relation in which every element x of set A has one and only
one image y in set B. Inverse Least
Irrational
We write f: A→B, where f(x) = y. Trigonometric Integer
™ A is the domain and B is the codomain of f.
Signum
™ The range of the function is the set of images.
S.No. Transformation How to transform
1. (a) y = f (x) → y = f (x + a) Shift the graph of y = f (x) through ‘a’ units towards left.
(b) y = f (x) → y = f (x − a) Shift the graph of y = f (x) through ‘a’ units towards right.
2. (a) y = f (x) → y + a = f (x) Shift graph of y = f (x) by ‘a’ units downward.
(b) y = f (x) → y − a = f (x) Shift graph of y = f (x) by ‘a’ units upward.
3. y = f (x) → y = f (−x) Take the mirror image of y = f (x) in the y-axis.
4. y = f (x) → y = −f (x) Take the mirror image of y = f (x) in the x-axis.
5. y = f (x) → y = f (|x|) Remove the left portion of the graph after that take the mirror image of the right portion of
the curve in the Y-axis. Also include the right portion of the graph of y = f (x).
6. y = f (x) → y = |f (x)| Take the mirror image of the lower portion of the curve (the curve below x-axis) in x-axis
and reject the lower part (or flip lower part into upper).
7. y = f (x) → |y| = f (x) Remove the lower portion of the curve then take the mirror image of upper portion of the
curve in the x-axis. Also include the upper portion of the graph of y = f (x).
8. y = f (x) → y = af (x) Stretch (a > 1) or squaeeze (a < 1) the graph of the given function vertically.
9. y = f (x) → y = f (ax) Stretch (a > 1) or squaeeze (a < 1) the graph of the given function horizontally.
 CHAPTER

Trigonometric Ratios
4 and Identities

1. Trigonometric Ratio – Basic Terminology 2. Trigonometric identities:

(i) sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
(ii) sec2θ – tan2θ = 1
hypotenuse (iii) cosec2θ – cot2θ = 1
opposite

3. Allied angles:
Two angles are said to be allied when their sum or difference
q π
is either zero or a multiple of , two angles x, y are allied
nπ 2
adjacent C
angles iff =x ± y 0 or ,n ∈N .
The six trigonometric ratios of θ are defined as follows: 2
opposite adjacent opposite
=sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
adjacent hypotenuse hypotenus
=cot θ = , cosecθ = , sec θ
opposite opposite adjacent

π π 3π 3π
q→ −θ +θ p–q p+q −θ +θ 2p – q 2p + q –q
2 2 2 2
sin cos q cos q sin q –sin q –cos q –cos q –sin q sin q –sin q
cos sin q –sin q –cos q –cos q –sin q sin q cos q cos q cos q
tan cot q –cot q – tan q tan q cot q –cot q –tan q tan q –tan q
cot tan q –tan q – cot q cot q tan q –tan q –cot q cot q –cot q
sec cosecq –cosecq –sec q –sec q –cosec q cosecq sec q sec q sec q
cosec sec q sec q cosec q –cosec q –sec q –sec q –cosec q cosec q –cosec q

4. Sum & Difference Formula 5. Product to sum

(i) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (i) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)
(ii) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
(iii) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B (ii) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)
(iv) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (iii) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)
tan A + tan B (iv) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) – cos (A + B)
(v) tan( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B 6. Trigonometric transformations:
tan A − tan B  C + D  C − D
(vi) tan( A − B) = (i) sin C + sin D =2sin  cos 
1 + tan A tan B  2   2 

cot B cot A − 1  C + D  C − D
(vii) cot( A + B) = (ii) sin C − sin D =
2 cos  sin 
cot B + cot A  2   2 

cot B cot A + 1  C + D  C − D
(viii) cot( A − B ) = (iii) cos C + cos D =
2 cos  cos 
cot B − cot A  2   2 
  C + D  C − D Some useful Formulae:
(iv) cos C − cos D =
−2sin  sin 
 2   2  (i) sin (A + B) sin (A – B) = sin2 A – sin2 B = cos2 B – cos2 A
(ii) cos (A + B) cos (A – B) = cos2 A – sin2 B = cos2 B – sin2 A
 C + D  D − C 
= 2 sin  sin tan 2 A − tan 2 B
 2   2  (iii) tan ( A + B ) tan ( A − B ) = 2
1 − tan A tan 2 B
cot 2 B cot 2 A − 1
(iv) cot( A + B) cot( A − B) = 2
cot B − cot 2 A

7. Some standard trigonometric values

Angle → 1
15° 18° 22 ° 36°
Trigonometric Function ↓ 2
sin 3 −1 5 −1 1
2− 2 10 − 2 5
2 2 4 2 4
cos 3 +1 1 5 +1
10 + 2 5 2+ 2
2 2 4 2 4

tan 2− 3 2 −1
25 − 10 5 5− 2 5
5

8. Double Angle / Triple Angle 10. Conditional Identities

(i) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A In a Triangle If A + B + C = π, then
(ii) cos 2A = cos2A – sin2A = 2cos2A – 1 = 1 – 2sin2A (i) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4sin A sin B sin C
π A B C
Suppose that A is not an odd multiple of . Then (ii) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2 2
2 tan A (iii) cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = – 1–4 cos A cos B cos C
(iii) sin 2 A =
1 + tan 2 A (iv) sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2(1 + 4cos A cos B cos C)
1 − tan 2 A (v) cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2 C = (1 – 2cos A cos B cos C)
(iv) cos 2 A =
1 + tan 2 A 11. Domains, Ranges and Periodicity of Trigonometric Functions:
2 tan T-Ratio Domain Range Period
(v) tan 2 = 2
(Here 2A is also not an odd multiple sin x R [–1, 1] 2π
1 − tan
π cos x R [–1, 1] 2π
of ) R π
2  π
tan x R – ( 2n + 1)  ; n ∈ I
(vi) sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A, ∀A∈R  2
(vii) cos 3A = 4 cos3 A – 3 cos A, ∀A∈R
cot x R – {nπ: n ∈ I} R π
3 tan A − tan 3 A
(viii) tan 3 A = (3A, A are not odd multiples  π (–∞, –1] 2π
1 − 3 tan 2 A sec x R – ( 2n + 1)  ; n ∈ I ∪ [1, ∞)
π  2
of )
2 (–∞, –1] 2π
cosec x R – {nπ: n ∈ I}
3cot A cot A 3
π ∪ [1, ∞)
(ix) cot 3 A 2
(3A, A are not multiples of ) 12. Maxima-Minima
1 3cot A 2
9. Half Angle (i) 
a cos q + b sin q will always lie in the interval
A A  − a 2 + b 2 , a 2 + b 2  i.e., the maximum and minimum
(i) sin A = 2sin
cos  
2 2
values are a 2 + b 2 , − a 2 + b 2 respectively.
A A A A
(ii) cos A = cos 2 − sin 2 = 2 cos 2 − 1 = 1 − 2sin 2
2 2 2 2 (ii) Minimum value of a2 tan2 q + b2 cot2 q is 2ab where a, b > 0.
A (iii) − a + b + 2ab cos ( α − β) < a cos (a+q) + b cos (b+ q)
2 2
2 tan
(iii) tan A
= 2  where A ≠ (2n + 1) π , n ∈ Z 
  ≤ a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos ( α − β) where a and b are known
2 A  2 2
1 − tan
2 angles.
P
W Trigonometric Ratios and Identities 7
  π (ii) cos (A + B + C) = cos A cos B cos C – cos A sin B sin C
(iv) If a, b, ∈  0,  and a + b = s (constant) then – sin A cos B sin C – sin A sin B sin C = ∏cos A – ∑cosA
2
sinB sinC
(a) Maximum value of the expression cos a cos b, cos a +
(iii) tan (A + B + C)
σ
cos b, sin a sin b or sin a + sin b occurs when a = b = tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
2 =
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
(b) Minimum value of sec a + sec b, tan a + tan b, cosec
∑ tan A − Π tan A
σ =
a + cosec b occurs when a = b = 1 − ∑ tan A tan B
2
(v) If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle then maximum 14. Summation of Series
value of sin a + sin(a+b) + sin(a+2b) + ... + sin(a + n–1b)
sin A + sin B + sin C and sin A sin B sin C occurs when  n −1  nβ
sin  α + β sin
A = B = C = 60°  2  2
=
β
(vi) In case a quadratic in sin q & cos q is given then the max- sin
imum or minimum values can be obtained by making 2
perfect square. cos a + cos(a+b) + cos(a+2b) + ... + cos(a + n–1b)
13. Sum of Three or More Angles  n −1  nβ
cos  α + β sin
(i) sin (A + B + C) = sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C  2  2
=
+ cos A cos B sin C – sin A sin B sin C = ∑sin A cos B β
sin
cos C – ∏ sin A 2

8 JEE (XI) Module-1 PW

 CHAPTER

5 Trigonometric Equations

1. Solution of Trigonometric Equation: A solution of a a b b

trigonometric equation is the value of an unknown angle that Let = cos φ, φ tan −1
= sin φ, =
2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2 a
satisfies the equation.
by introducing this auxiliary argument f, equation (i)
Thus, the trigonometric equation may has infinite number of
solutions and are classified as: c
reduces to sin(θ + φ) =
Principal Solution: The solution of the trigonometric a + b2
2

equation lying in the interval [0, 2p). Now this equation can be solved easily.
General Solution: Since all the trigonometric functions (ii) General Solution of Equation of Form
are many one & periodic, hence there are infinite values for a0sinnx + a1sinn–1xcosx + a2sinn–2xcos2x+... + ancosnx = 0
which trigonometric functions have the same value. All such a0, a1, ...., an are real numbers.
possible values are given by a general formula. Such general Such an equation is solved by dividing equation by cosnx
formula is called a general solution of the trigonometric
(iii) Solving Equations using Boundedness:
equation.
(a) Trigonometric equations involving a single variable
2. General Solutions of Some Trigonometric Equations (To
be Remembered) Step 1: When LHS and RHS of equation have their
ranges say R1 and R2 in common domain D and R1 ∩
(a) If sinq = 0 then q = np, n ∈ I (set of integers)
R2 = f, then the equation has no solution.
(b) If cosq = 0 then q = (2n + 1)p/2, n ∈ I
Step 2: R1 ∩ R2 have finitely many elements and the
(c) If tan q = 0 then q = np, n ∈ I
number of elements are very few, then the individual
(d) If sin q = sina, then q = np + (–1)na where cases can be analyzed and solved.
 −π π  (b) Trigonometric equations involving more than one
α∈  , ,n∈ I
 2 2 variable. To solve an equation involving more than
(e) If cos q = cosa then q = 2np ± a, n ∈ I, a ∈ [0, p] one variable, definite solutions can be obtained if the
 −π π  extreme values (range) of the functions are used.
(f ) If tan q = tana then q = np + a, n ∈ I, α ∈  , . (iv) Solving equation by changing the variable or by
 2 2
π π substitution method:
(g) If sin q = 1 then θ= 2nπ + = (4n + 1) , n ∈ I
2 2 (a) Equation of the form P(sin x ± cos x, sin x. cos x)
(h) If cos q = 1 then q = 2np, n ∈ I = 0, when P(y, z) is a polynomial, can be solved by
(i) If sin2q = sin2a or cos2q = cos2a or tan2q = tan2a then the substitution: cos x ± sin x = t.
q = np ± a, n ∈ I (b) Equation of the form of a sinx + b cosx + d = 0, where
( j) For n ∈ I, sin np = 0 a, b & d are the real numbers that can be solved by
sin(np + q) = (–1)n sinq changing sin x & cos x into their corresponding
(k) cosnp = (–1)n, n ∈ I tangent of the half-angle.
cos(np + q) = (–1)n cosq (c) Many equations can be solved by introducing a new
variable.
3. Solution of Different Types of Trigonometric Equations
(i) General solution of equation a cos q + b sin q = c (v) Solution of Trigonometric Equation using Graphs
Consider a sin q + b cos q = c ...(i) Solution of f(x) – g(x) = 0 can be find out by application
of following steps:
a b c
∴ sin θ + cos θ = Step 1: Write the equation f(x) = g(x).
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b a + b2
2
Step 2: Draw the graph of y = f(x) and y = g(x) on same
2
Equation (i) has the solution only if | c | ≤ a + b
2 x-y plane.
 Step 3: The number of points of intersection of f(x) and (vii) Trigonometric Inequalities: To solve the trigonometric
g(x) are same as the number of solutions of f(x) – g(x) inequalities of the type f(x) ≤ a or f(x) ≥ a where f(x)
=0 is some trigonometric equation, we take the following
(vi) Solving a System of Trigonometric Equations steps
To solve the simultaneous equations in one variable, say Step 1: Draw the graph of f(x) in an interval length equal
x, we observe the following steps to the fundamental period of f(x).
Step 1: Find the values of x satisfying both the equations Step 2: Draw the line y = a.
individually and lying in [0, 2p) Step 3: Take the portion of the graph for which the
Step 2: Select the values satisfying both the equations inequality is satisfied.
simultaneously. Step 4: To generalize, add p × n, n ∈ I in the final solution
Step 3: Generalize the values to get the general solution. where p is the fundamental period of f(x).

10 JEE (XI) Module-1 PW

 CHAPTER

Principle of
6 Mathematical Induction

n(n  1) (ix) a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) +....+(a + (n – 1)d)

(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n  n
2 = [2a + (n – 1)d]
n(n  1)(2n  1) 2
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 = n 
2
a(rn–1)
6 (x) a + ar + ar2 +...+ arn–1 = , where r ≠ 1
r–1
2
 n(n  1)  n
(iii) 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3 = n  ( n )  
3 2

 2  (xi) (a + b)n = ∑ n Cr a n − r b r
r =0
n(n + 1) (2n +1) (3n2 + 3n – 1) sin(2na)
(iv) 14 + 24 + 34 + ... + n4 = (xii) cos (a)· cos (2a) · cos(4a)... cos(2n–1 a) =
30 2nsin a
(xiii) sin(a) + sin(a + b) + sin(a + 2b) +...+ sin(a +(n – 1)b)
(v) 2 + 4 + 6 + ..... + 2n = S2n = n(n + 1)
sin(nb/2) b
(vi) 1 + 3 + 5 + ..... + (2n –1) = S(2n –1) = n2 = sin(a + (n –1) )
sin(b/2) 2
(vii) xn – yn = (x – y) (xn–1 + xn–2y + xn–3y2 + ...... + xyn–2 + yn–1),
(xiv) cos(a) + cos(a + b) + cos(a + 2b) +...+ cos(a +(n – 1)b)
where n ∈ N
sin(nb/2) b
(viii) xn + yn = (x + y) (xn–1 – xn–2y + xn–3y2 + ..... – xyn–2 + yn–1), = cos(a + (n –1) )
sin(b/2) 2
where n is odd positive integer
 CHAPTER

7 Quadratic Equations

Solution of Quadratic Equation & Relation ca ′ − c′a bc′ − b′c

Therefore,
= α =
Between Roots & Co-Efficients ab′ − a ′b a ′c − ac′
(a) The solutions of the quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0 is So the condition for a common root is
−b ± b 2 − 4ac (ca′ – c′a)2 = (ab′ – a′b) (bc′ – b′c)
given by x =
2a a b c
(b) If both roots are same then = =
2
(b) The expression b – 4 ac = D is called the discriminant of the a ′ b′ c ′
quadratic equation. Roots Under Particular Cases
(c) If a & b are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = Let the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots and
0, then;
(a) If b = 0 ⇒ roots are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign
(i) a + b = – b/a
(ii) ab = c/a (b) If c = 0 ⇒ one roots is zero other is –b/a
(iii) |a – b| = D / | a | (c) If a = c ⇒ roots are reciprocal to each other
(d) Quadratic equation whose roots are a & b is (x – a) (x – b) a > 0 c < 0
= 0 i.e., x2 – (a + b)x + ab = 0 i.e. x2 –(sum of roots)x + (d) If  ⇒ roots are of opposite signs.
a < 0 c > 0
product of roots = 0.
a > 0, b > 0, c > 0 
Nature of Roots (e) If  ⇒ both roots are negative.
a < 0, b < 0, c < 0 
(a) Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ R
& a ≠ 0 then; a > 0, b < 0, c > 0 
(f) If  ⇒ both roots are positive.
(i) D > 0 ⇔ roots are real & distinct (unequal). a < 0, b > 0, c < 0 
(ii) D = 0 ⇔ roots are real & coincident (equal). (g) If sign of a = sign of b ≠ sign of c ⇒ Greater root in magnitude
(iii) D < 0 ⇔ roots are imaginary. is negative.
(iv) If p + i q is one root of a quadratic equation, then the (h) If sign of b = sign of c ≠ sign of a ⇒ Greater root in magnitude
other root must be the conjugate p – i q & vice versa.
is positive.
(p, q ∈ R & i = −1 ). (i) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ one root is 1 and second root is c/a.
(b) Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
where a, b, c ∈ Q & a ≠ 0 then; Maximum & Minimum Values of
(i) If D is a perfect square, then roots are rational. Quadratic Expression
(ii) If a = p + q is one root in this case, (where p is rational Maximum & Minimum Values of expression y = ax2 + bx + c
& q is a surd) then other root will be p − q . (if a, b, −D
c are rational). Because the coefficients are real is which occurs at x = –(b/2a) according as a < 0 or a > 0.
4a
Common Roots of Two Quadratic Equations  −D   −D 
y∈ , ∞  if a > 0 & y ∈  −∞, if a < 0.
(a) Only one common root.  4a   4a 
Let a be the common root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 & a′x2
+ b′x + c′ = 0 then a a2 + b a + c = 0 & a′ a2 + b′ a + c′ = 0. Location of Roots
By Cramer’s Rule Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R, a ≠ 0
α 2
α 1 (a) Conditions for both the roots of f(x) = 0 to be greater than a

= =
bc′ − b′c a ′c − ac′ ab′ − a ′b specified number ‘d’ are D ≥ 0; a.f (d) > 0 & (–b/2a) > d.
 General Quadratic Expression in two Variables
f (x, y) = ax2 + 2 hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c may be resolved into
two linear factors if;
a h g
D = abc + 2fgh – af 2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0 OR h b f = 0
(b) Conditions for the both roots of f (x) = 0 to lie on either side g f c
of the number ‘d’ in other words the number ‘d’ lies between Theory of Equations
the roots of f (x) = 0 is a.f (d) < 0. If a1, a2, a3, ..........an are the roots of the equation; f (x)
= a0 xn + a1 xn – 1 + a2 xn – 2 + ...... + an – 1 x + an = 0 where a0, a1,
...... an are constants a0 ≠ 0 then,
a a a
∑ α1 = − a10 , ∑ α1α 2 = + a02 ,∑ α1α 2 α3 = − a03

(c) Conditions for exactly one root of f (x) = 0 to lie in the interval Note:
(d,e) i.e., d < x < e is f (d). f (e) < 0. (i) Every odd degree equation has at least one real root whose
sign is opposite to that of its last term, when coefficient of
highest degree term is (+)ve {If not then make it (+)ve}.
Ex. x3 – x2 + x – 1 = 0
(ii) Even degree polynomial whose last term is (–)ve & coefficient
of highest degree term is (+)ve has atleast two real roots, one
(d) Conditions that both roots of f (x) = 0 to be confined between (+)ve & one (–)ve.
the numbers d & e are (here d < e).
(iii) If equation contains only even power of x & all coefficient are

D ≥ 0; a.f (d) > 0 & af (e) > 0; d < (–b/2a) < e
(+)ve, then all roots are imaginary.

P
W Quadratic Equations 13
 CHAPTER

8 Complex Number-I

IOTA (j) | z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 – z2 |2 = 2 [| z1 |2 + | z2 |2]

i = −1, i2 = – 1, i3 = – i, i4 = 1
         (k) || z1 | – | z2 || ≤ | z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |
i4n + 1
So,        = i, i4n + 2 = – 1, i4n + 3 = – i, i4n + 4 = 1 [Triangle Inequality]
 (−1) n / 2 , if n is an even integer (l) || z1 | – | z2 | | ≤ | z1 – z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |

In other words, in =  n −1 .
(−1) 2 · i, if n is an odd integer [Triangle Inequality]
1 a + a2 + 4
The Complex Number System (m) If z + = a (a > 0), then max | z | =
z = a + ib, then a – ib is called conjugate of z and is denoted by z z 2

Equality in Complex Number and min | z | =

1
2
( a2 + 4 − a .)
z1 = z2 ⇒ Re(z1) = Re(z2) and Im (z1) = Im (z2).
Important Properties of Amplitude
Conjugate Complex
If z = a + ib then its conjugate complex is obtained by changing (a) amp (z1·z2) = amp z1 + amp z2 + 2 kp ; k ∈ I.
the sign of its imaginary part & is denoted by z i.e. z = a – ib.
z 
Note: (b) amp  1  = amp z1 – amp z2 + 2 kp ; k ∈ I.
 z2 
(i) z + z = 2 Re(z)
(c) amp (zn) = n amp(z) + 2kp, where proper value of k must be
(ii) z – z = 2i Im(z)
chosen so that RHS lies in (– p, p].
(iii) z z = a2 + b2 which is real
(d) log (z) = log (reiq) = log r + iq = log |z| + i amp (z).
(iv) If z is purely real then z – z = 0 Demoivre’s Theorem
(v) If z is purely imaginary then z + z = 0
Case I: If n is any integer then
Important Properties of Conjugate (i) (cos q + i sin q)n = cos nq + i sin nq
(a) ( z ) = z (b) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 (ii) (cos q1 + i sin q1) (cos q2 + i sin q2) (cos q3 + i sin q3) (cos q4
(c) z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 (d) z1 z2 = z1 · z2 + i sin q4) ... (cos qn + i sin qn) = cos (q1 + q2 + q3 + ... qn) +
i sin (q1 + q2 + q3 + ...  qn)
 z1  z1 Case II: If p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0 then (cos q + i sin q)p/q
(e) =
  ; z2 ≠ 0
 z2  z2
 2 k π + pθ   2 k π + pθ 
(f) If f(a + ib) = x + iy ⇒ f(a – ib) = x – iy = cos   + i sin  
 q   q 
Important Properties of Modulus
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... q – 1.
(a) | z | ≥ 0 (b) | z | ≥ Re(z)
(c) | z | ≥ Im (z) (d) | z | = | z | = |–z| = |– z | Cube Root of Unity
(e) z z = |z|2 (f) |z1 z2| = |z1| · |z2|
−1 + i 3 −1 − i 3
z1 | z1 | (i) The cube roots of unity are 1, , .
(g)= , z2 ≠ 0 (h) | zn | = | z |n 2 2
z2 | z2 |
(ii) If w is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity then 1 + w +
(i) | z1 + z2 |2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 + 2 Re (z1 z2 ) w2 = 0. In general 1 + wt + w2t = 0; where t ∈ I but is not the
or |z1 + z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 + 2|z1| |z2| cos (q1 – q2) multiple of 3.
(c) a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = (a + bw + cw2)(a + bw2 + cw) Square root of Complex Number
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(aw + bw2)(aw2 + bw)
a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a – wb) (a – w2b)  | z | + a | z | − a 
     a + ib =
± +i  for b > 0
x2 + x + 1 = (x – w)(x – w2)  2 2 

 | z | + a | z | − a 
and ±  −i  for b < 0 where |z| = a 2 + b2 .
 2 2 

P
W Complex Number-I 15
 CHAPTER

9 Linear Inequalities

1. Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbols <, >, ≤ or ≥ form an inequality.
2. Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an inequality.
3. Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided) by the same positive number. But when both sides are multiplied (or divided)
by a negative number, then the inequality is reversed.
4. The values of x, which make an inequality a true statement, are called solutions of the inequality.
5. To represent x < a (or x > a) on a number line, put a circle on the number a and dark line to the left (or right) of the number a.
6. To represent x ≤ a (or x ≥ a) on a number line, put a dark circle on the number a and dark the line to the left
(or right) of the number x.
7. The solution region of a system of inequalities is the region which satisfies all the given inequalities in the system simultaneously.
 CHAPTER

10 Permutations and Combinations

Fundamental Principle of Counting (ii) The number of circular permutation of n different

(Counting without actually counting) things taking r at a time distinguishing clockwise &
n
Pr
If an event can occur in ‘m’ different ways, following which anticlockwise arrangement is .
another event can occur in ‘n’ different ways, then the total number r
of different ways of Combination
(a) Simultaneous occurrence of both events in a definite order (a) nCr denotes the number of combinations of n different
is m × n. This can be extended to any number of events n! n
P
(known as multiplication principle). things taken r at a time, and nCr = = r where
r !(n − r )! r !
(b) Happening of exactly one of the events is m + n (known as
n
addition principle). r ≤ n ; n ∈ N and r ∈ W. nCr is also denoted by   or Arn
r 
or C(n, r).
Factorial
A Useful Notation : n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2) ...... 3 · 2 · 1; (b) The number of combination of n different things taking r at
a time.
 n! = n . (n – 1)! where n ∈ W
(i) When p particular things are always to be included
 0! = 1! = 1
= n – pCr–p.
(2n)! = 2n . n! [1. 3. 5. 7 ... (2n – 1)]
(ii) When p particular things are always to be excluded
Permutation = n – pCr.
(a) nPr denotes the number of permutations of n different (iii) When p particular things are always to be included and
things, taken r at a time (n ∈ N, r ∈ W, n ≥ r) q particular things are to be excluded = n – p – qCr – p.
nP = n(n – 1)(n – 2) ... (n – r + 1) =
n! (c) Given n different objects, the number of ways of selecting
r
(n − r )! atleast one of them is, nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ... + nCn = 2n – 1.
(b) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time This can also be stated as the total number of combinations
when p of them are similar of one type, q of them are similar of n distinct things.
of second type, r of them are similar of third type and the
(d) (i) Total number of ways in which it is possible to make
remaining
a selection by taking some or all out of p + q + r +
n!
n – (p + q + r) are all different is :
. ... things, where p are alike of one kind, q a like of a
p! q! r !
second kind, r alike of third kind and so on is given by
(c) The number of permutation of n different objects taken r : (p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) ... – 1.
at a time, when a particular object is always to be included
is r! · n–1Cr–1. (ii) The total number of ways of selecting one or more
things from p identical of one kind, q identical things
(d) The number of permutation of n different object taken r at
of second kind, r identical things of third kind and n
a time, when repetition be allowed any number of times
is n × n × n ... r times = nr. different things is (p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) 2n – 1 .
(e) (i) The number of circular permutations of n different Divisors
n
Pn
things taken all at a time is ; (n – 1)! = . Let N = pa · qb · rc ... where p, q, r ... are distinct primes and a, b,
n c ... are natural numbers then :
If clockwise & anti-clockwise circular permutations
(a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & N is
(n − 1)!
are considered to be same, then it is . = (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) ....
2
 (b) The sum of these divisors is = (p0 + p1 + p2 + ... + pa) (c) In general, the number of ways of dividing n distinct object
(q0 + q1 + q2 + ... + qb) (r0 + r1 + r2 + ... + rc) ... into l groups containing p objects each, m groups containing
(c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of n ! (l + m)!
q objects each is equal to .
two factor is = ( p !)l (q !) m l ! m !
1 Here lp + mq = n.
(a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) ... if N is not a perfect square
2 (d) Number of ways in which n distinct things can be distributed
1
[(a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) ... + 1] if N is a perfect square to p persons if there is no restriction to the number of things
2
received by them = pn.
(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can
(e) Number of ways in which n identical things may be
be resolved into two factors which are relatively prime
(or coprime) to each other is equal to 2n–1 where n is the distributed among p persons if each person may receive
number of different prime factors in N. one, one or more things is; n + p– 1Cn.

Division and Distribution Dearrangement

(a) (i) The number of ways in which (m + n) different things Number of ways in which n letters can be placed in n directed
can be divided into two groups containing m and n envelopes so that no letter goes into its own envelope is
things respectively is :
1 1 1 1 1
(m + n)! = n! 1 − + − + − ... + (−1) n 
(m ≠ n).  1! 2! 3! 4! n !
m! n!
(ii) If m = n, it means the groups are equal & in this case Important Result
(2n)!
the number of subdivision is ; for in any one (a) Number of rectangle of any size in a square of size n × n is
n ! n ! 2! n n
way it is possible to inter change the two groups ∑r 3
and number of square of any size is ∑r 2
.
without obtaining a new distribution. r =1 r =1

(iii) If 2n things are to be divided equally between two (b) Number of rectangle of any size in a rectangle of size n ×
(2n)! np
persons then the number of ways = × 2!. p (n < p) is (n + 1)(p + 1) and number of squares of any
n ! n ! (2!) 4
n
(b) (i) Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things size is ∑ (n + 1 − r ) (p + 1 – r).
can be divided into three groups containing m, n and p r =1

(m + n + p )! (c) If there are n points in a plane of which m (< n) are collinear:

things respectively is , m ≠ n ≠ p.
m! n! p ! (i) Total number of lines obtained by joining these points
(3n)! is nC2 – mC2 + 1.
(ii) If m = n = p then the number of groups = .
n ! n ! n ! 3! (ii) Total number of different triangle nC3 – mC3.
(iii) If 3n things are to be divided equally among three (d) Maximum number of point of intersection of n circles is
people then the number of ways in which it can be nP and n lines is nC .
2 2
(3n)!
done is .
(n !)3

18 JEE (XI) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

11 Binomial Theorem

Important terms in the binomial expansion are (b) For greatest term: Greatest term
(a) General term: The general term or the (r + 1)th
term in the  n +1
TP and Tp +1 if x is an integer
expansion of (x + y)n is given by  +1
Tr + 1 = nCr xn–r . yr =  a

T n +1
(b) Middle term: The middle term (s) is the expansion of if is non integer and ∈ (q, q + 1), q ∈ I
 q +1 x
(x + y)n is (are):  +1
 a
(i) If n is even, there is only one middle term which is given
by Multinomial Theorem
For any n ∈ N, n!
T(n + 2)/2 = nCn/2 . xn/2 . yn/2
(i) (x1 + x2 + ... + xk)n = ∑ n r1 ! r2 !... rk !
x1r1 x2r2 ... xkrk
(ii) If n is odd, there are two middle terms which are r1 + r2 + ... + rk =

T(n + 1)/2 and T[(n + 1)/2] + 1 (ii) The general term in the above expansion is
n!
(c) Term independent of x: Term independent of x contains no x ; x1r1 x2r2 ... xkrk
Hence find the value of r for which the exponent of x is zero. r1 !r2 !... rk !
Here total number of terms in the expansion = n+k–1Ck–1.
If ( A + B)n =+
I f , where I & n are positive integers
Binomial Theorem for Negative or Fractional Indices
and 0 ≤ f < 1, then n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(a) (I + f) · f = Kn if n is odd & A – B2 = K > 0 If n ∈ Q, then (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x
2! 3!
(b) (I + f)(1 – f) = kn if n is even & A –B<1 + ... ∞ provided | x | < 1.

Some results on binomial coefficients Notes

(i) (1 – x)–1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... ∞
(a) nCx = nCy ⇒ x = y or x + y = n (ii) (1 + x)–1 = 1 – x + x2 – x3 + ... ∞
(b) nCr – 1 + nCr = n+1Cr (iii) (1 – x)–2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + ... ∞
C1 C2 Cn 2n +1 − 1 (iv) (1 + x)–2 = 1 – 2x + 3x2 – 4x3 + ... ∞
(c) C0 + ℵ ...
2 3 n +1 n +1 Exponential series
C C C (−1) Cn n
1 x x 2 x3
(d) C0 – 1 + 2 − 3 ... + = (a) ex = 1 + + + + ... ∞ ; where x may be any real or
2 3 4 n +1 n +1 1! 2! 3!
n
(e) C0 + C1 + C2 + ... = Cn = 2n  1
complex number and e = lim 1 +  .
(f) C0 + C2 + C4 + ... = C1 + C3 + C5 + ... = 2n–1
n→∞
 n
(2n)! x x2 2 x3 3
(g) C02 + C12 + C22 + ... + Cn2 = 2nCn = (b) ax = 1 + na + n a + n a + ... ∞, where a > 0 .
n !n ! 1! 2! 3!
(2n)! Logarithmic Series
(h) C0·Cr + C1.Cr+1 + C2·Cr+2 + ... + Cn–rCn =
(n + r )! (n − r ) x 2 x3 x 4
(a) ln (1 + x) = x – + − + ... ∞, where –1 < x ≤ 1.
2 3 4
Greatest coefficient and Greatest Term in Expansion
x 2 x3 x 4
of (x + a)n (b) ln (1 – x) = – x – − − – ... ∞, where –1 ≤ x < 1.
2 3 4
(a) If n is even greatest coefficient is nCn/2.
(1 + x)  x3 x5 
If n is odd greatest coefficient is n C n − 1  or n C n + 1  (c) ln = 2 x + + + ... ∞  , | x | < 1.
    (1 − x)  3 5 
 2   2 
 CHAPTER

12 Sequence and Series

An arithmetic progression (A.P.) : a, a + d, a + 2d..........a + Geometric Means (Mean Proportional) (GM.):

(n – l)d is an A.P. If a. b, c > 0 are in G P . b is the G M between a & c, then b2 = ac
Let a be the first term and d be the common difference of an A.P., n Geometric Means Between Positive Number a, b: If a, b are
then nth term = tn = a + (n – 1) d two given numbers & a. G1, G2.......,G3 b are in G.P Then G1, G2,
The sum of first n terms of are A.P. G3........, Gn are n GM.s between a & b. G2 = a (b/a)2/n+1..Gn =
n n a(b/a)n/n+1
Sn =  2a + ( n − 1) d = [a + ]
2 2 Harmonic Mean (H.M.):
rth term of an A.P. when sum of first r terms is given is 2ac
If a, b, c are in HP., b is the H.M. between a & c, then b =
tr = Sr – Sr – 1. a+c
Properties of A.P.
1 11 1 1
(i) If a, b, c are in A.P H.M, H of a1,a2,..an is given by=  + +……. + 
H n  a1 a2 an 

⇒ 2 b = a + c & if a, b, c, d are in A.P.
⇒ a + d = b + c. Relation between Means:
(ii) Three numbers in A.P. can be taken as a – d, a, a + d; four G2 = AH, A.M. > G.M. ≥ H.M. and A.M. = G.M. = H.M.
numbers in A.P. can be taken as a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d; if a1= a2 = a3 =........= an
five numbers in A.P. are a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d & six
terms in A.P. are a – 5d, a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d, a + 5d etc. Important Results
(iii) Sum of the terms of an A.P. equidistant from the beginning n n n
& end = sum of first & last term. (i) ∑ ( ar ± br ) =
∑ ar ± ∑ br
=r 1 =r 1 =r 1
Arithmetic Mean (Mean or Average) (A.M.):
n n
If three terms are in A.P. then the middle term is called the A M.
between the other two, so if a, b, c are in A.P., b isA.M. of a & c.
(ii) ∑ kar = k ∑ ar
=r 1 =r 1
n–Arithmetic Means Between Two Numbers: n
If a, b are any two given numbers & a, A1 A2.....An, b are in A.P. (iii) ∑ k = nk where k is a constant,
then A1 A2,... An are the A.M . r =1

b−a 2 (b − a ) n (b − a )
n
n(n + 1)
A1 =
a+ , A2 =
a+ , ….., An =
a+ (iv) ∑ r= 1 + 2 + 3 +………. + n =
2
n +1 n +1 n +1 r =1

∑ r =1 Ar =
nA where A is the single A M. between a & b. n n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
Geometric Progression: a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4.....with a as the first
(v) ∑ r=
r =1
2
12 + 22 + 32 +……….. + n=
2

6
term & r as common ratio.
n 2 (n + 1) 2
(i) nth terms = arn–1 (vi) ∑ r 3= 13 + 23 + 33 +………. + n=3
a (rn − ) =1 4

(ii) Sum of the first n terms i.e. S n =  r − 1 , r ≠ 1 n
∑ ai a=j ( a1 + a2 +…….. + an ) − ( a1 2 +a2 2 +……+ an2 )
2
 (vii)
 na r =1 i< j =
1
 CHAPTER

13 Straight Lines

™ Distance Formula: d = ( x1 − x2 ) 2 + ( y1 − y2 ) 2 . y2 − y1
If A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) & x1 ≠ x2 then slope of line AB = .
x2 − x1
mx2 ± nx1 my2 ± ny1
™ Section Formula:
= x = ;y
m±n m±n Standard Forms of Equations of a Straight Line
™ Centroid, Incentre & Excentre: (a) Slope Intercept form : Let m be the slope of a line and c
its intercept on y-axis, then the equation of this straight line
 x + x + x y + y2 + y3  is written as : y = mx + c.
Centroid G  1 2 3 , 1 ,
 3 3  (b) Point Slope form : If m be the slope of a line and it passes
through a point (x1, y1), then its equation is written as : y – y1
 ax + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3  = m(x – x1).
Incentre I  1 ,
 a+b+c a + b + c 
(c) Two point form : Equation of a line passing through two
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is written as :
 −ax1 + bx2 + cx3 −ay1 + by2 + cy3 
Excentre I1  , x y 1
 −a + b + c −a + b + c  y2 − y1
y – y1 = ( x − x1 ) or x1 y1 1 = 0
x2 − x1
x2 y2 1
Remarks:
(d) Intercept form : If a and b are the intercepts made by a line
(i) If the triangle is equilateral, then centroid, incentre,
x y
orthocenter, circumcenter, coincides. on the axes of x and y, its equation is written as : + =
1. a b
(ii) Orthocentre, centroid and circumcentre are always collinear
and centroid divides the line joining. Orthocentre and (e) Normal form : If p is the length of perpendicular on a line
circumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1. from the origin and a the angle which this perpendicular
makes with positive x-axis, then the equation of this line is
(ii) In a isosceles triangle centroid, orthocentre, incentre,
written as :
circumcentre lies on the same line.

x cos a + y sin a = p (p is always positive), where 0 ≤ a <
Area of Triangle 2p.
Let A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are vertices of a triangle, then x−h y−k
(f) Parametric form : = = r is the equation.
x y 1 cos θ sin θ
1
Area of DABC = x1 y1 1 (g) General form : We know that a first degree equation in x
2 and y, ax + by + c = 0 always represents a straight line. This
x2 y2 1
form is known as general form of straight line.
Equation of Straight Line −a coefficient of x
(i) Slope of this line = =
(a) Equation of a line parallel to x-axis at a distance a is y = a b coefficient of y
or y = – a.
c
(b) Equation of x-axis is y = 0. (ii) Intercept by this line on x-axis = – and intercept by
a
(c) Equation of line parallel to y-axis at a distance b is x = b or
x = – b. c
this line on y-axis = – .
b
(d) Equation of y-axis is x = 0.
 (iii) To change the general form of a line to normal form, (ii) Equation of line perpendicular to line ax + by + c = 0.
first take c to right hand side and make it positive, then
      
bx – ay + k = 0
divide the whole equation by a 2 + b2 .
Here l, k, are parameters and their values are obtained with
Angle Between Two Lines the help of additional information given in the problem.
(a) If q be the angle between two lines : y = m1x + c1 and y = Straight Line Making a given Angle with a Line
 m − m2 
m2x + c2, then tan q = ±  1 . Equations of lines passing through a poing (x­1, y1) and making an
 1 + m1m2 
angle a, with the line y = mx + c is written as :
(b) If equation of lines are a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2
= 0, then these line are– m ± tan α
y – y1 = (x – x1)
1  m tan α
a1 b1 c1
(i) Parallel ⇔ = ≠
a2 b2 c2 Position of Two Points with Respect to a Given Line
(ii) Perpendicular ⇔ a1a2 + b1b2 = 0 Let the given line be ax + by + c = 0 and P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) be
a1 b1 c1 two points. If the quantities ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have
(iii) Coincident ⇔ = =
a2 b2 c2 the same signs, then both the points P and Q lie on the same side

a1 b1 of the ax + by + c = 0. If the quantities ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 +

(iv) Intersecting ⇔ ≠ by2 + c have opposite signs, then they lie on the opposite sides
a2 b2
of the line.
Length of Perpendicular from a Point on a Line
Length of perpendicular from a point (x1, y1) on the line ax + by + c = 0 is Concurrency of Lines
ax1 + by1 + c Three lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0; a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 and a3x + b3y +
= .
a 2 + b2 a1 b1 c1
In particular the length of the perpendicular from the origin on the c3 = 0 are concurrent, if D = a2 b2 c2 = 0.
|c| a3 b3 c3
line ax + by + c = 0 is P = .
a 2 + b2
Reflection of a Point
Distance Between two Parallel Lines Let P(x, y) be any point, then its image with respect to

(i) The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and Y

| c − c2 | y=x
ax + by + c2 = 0 is 1 . T(y, x)
a 2 + b2 R(–x, y)
(Note : The coefficients of x & y in both equations should
X
be same). O
S(–x, –y) Q(x, –y)
pp
(ii) The area of the parallelogram = 1 2 , where p1 & p2 are
sin θ
distance between two pairs of opposite sides & q is the

angle between any two adjacent sides. Note that area of the (i) x-axis is Q(x, –y)
parallelogram bounded by the lines y = m1x + c1, y = m1x + c2
(ii) y-axis is R(–x, y)
(c1 − c2 )(d1 − d 2 )
and y = m2x + d1, y = m2x + d2 is given . (iii) origin is S(–x, –y)
m1 − m2
(iv) line y = x is T(y, x)
Equation of lines Parallel and Perpendicular to a
Given Line Transformation of Axes
(i) Equation of line parallel to line ax + by + c = 0. (a) Shifting of origin without rotation of axes : If coordinates
  ax + by + l = 0 of any point P(x, y) with respect to new origin (a, b) will be
(x′, y′)

22 JEE (XI) Module-3 PW

 Y (b) Equation of bisector of acute/obtuse angles : See whether
the constant terms c1 and c2 in the two equation are +ve or
Y P(x, y) not. If not then multiply both sides of given equation by –1
(x, y) to make the constant terms positive.
Determinate the sign of a1a2 + b1b2

, )
y

(
X If sign of For obtuse angle For acute angle
O a1a2 + b1b2 bisector bisector
x
X
O + use + sing in eq. (1) use – sign in eq. (1)
then x = x′ + a, y = y′ + b – use – sign in eq. (1) use + sign in eq. (1)
or   x′ = x – a, y′ = y – b i.e. if a1a2 + b1b2 > 0, then the bisector corresponding to +
Thus if origin is shifted to point (a, b) without rotation of sign gives obtuse angle bisector
axes, then new equation of curve can be obtained by putting a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
=
x + a in place of x and y + b in place of y. 2
a +b
1 1
2
a22 + b22
(b) Rotation of axes without shifting the origin : Let O be
Family of Lines
the origin. Let P ≡ (x, y) with respect to axes OX and OY
and let P ≡ (x′, y′) with respect to axes OX′ and OY′, where If equation of two lines be P = a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and Q ≡ a2x + b2y
+ c2 = 0, then the equation of the lines passing through the point
∠X′OX = ∠YOY′ = q
of intersection of these lines is : P + lQ = 0 or a1x + b1y + c1 + l
Y (a2x + b2y + c2) = 0. The value of l is obtained with the help of the
Y
P(x, y) additional information given in the problem.
(x, y)
y General Equation and Homogeneous Equation of
y  X Second Degree
 x
(a) A general equation of second degree ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx

X + 2fy + c = 0 represent a pair of straight lines if D = abc +
O x a h g
2fgh – af 2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0 or h b f = 0.
then x = x′ cos q – y′ sin q
g f c
      y = x′ cos q – y′ cos q
or   y′ = x cos q + y sin q 2 h 2 − ab
(b) If q be the angle between the lines, then tan q = ± .
  y′ = –x sin q + y cos q a+b
Obviously these lines are
The above relation between (x, y) and (x′, y′) can be easily
obtained with the help of following table (i) Parallel, if D = 0, h2 = ab or if h2 = ab and bg2 = af 2.

Old x↓ y↓ Perpendicular, if a + b = 0 i.e. coeff. of x2 + coeff. of

(ii) 
New
y2 = 0.
x′ → cos q sin q
(c) Homogeneous equation of 2nd degree ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0
y′ → –sin q cos q always represent a pair of straight lines whose equations are
 −h ± h 2 − ab 
Equation of Bisectors of Angles between Two Lines y =   x ≡ y = m1x and y = m2x
 b 
If equation of two intersecting lines are a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x  
+ b2y + c2 = 0, then equation of bisectors of the angles between 2h a
these lines are written are: and m1 + m2 = – ; m1m2 =
b b
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2 These straight lines passes through the origin and for finding
= ± ...(1)
2
a +b 2
a22 + b22 the angle between these lines same formula as given for
1 1
general equation is used.
(a) Equation of bisector of angle containing origin : If the
The condition that these lines are :
equation of the lines are written with constant terms c1
and c2 positive, then the equation of bisectors of the angle (i) At right angles to each other is a + b = 0. i.e. co-efficient
containing the origin is obtained by taking sign in (1). of x2 + co-efficient of y2 = 0.
P
W Straight Lines 23
 (ii) Coincident is h2 = ab. (ii) Area of triangle formed by line ax + by + c = 0 and axes is
c2
(iii) 
Equally inclined to the axis of x is h = 0. i.e. coefficient .
of xy = 0. 2 | ab |
(iii) Co-ordinate of foot of perpendicular (h, k) from (x1, y1) to the
(d) The combined equation of angle bisectors between the lines
h − x1 k − y1 −(ax1 + by1 + c)
represented by homogeneous equation of 2nd degree is given line ax + by + c = 0 is given by = = .
by a b a 2 + b2
(iv) Image of point (x1, y1) w.r. to the line ax + by + c = 0 is given
x 2 − y 2 xy by
= , a ≠ b, h ≠ 0.
a−b h
h − x1 k − y1 −2(ax1 + by1 + c)
(e) Pair of straight lines perpendicular to the lines ax2 + 2hxy = = .
a b a 2 + b2
+ by2 = 0 and through origin are given by bx2 – 2hxy + ay2
= 0.
Chart
(i)
(f) If lines ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 are parallel then ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
g 2 − ac ∆=0
distance between them is = 2 .
a ( a + b)
Pair of straight line
Equations of Lines Joining the Points of
Intersection of a Line and a Curve to the Origin h2 = ab, g2 = ac, f 2 = bc
(Pair of coincident line)
Let the equation of curve be:
y P h2 = ab, g2 ≠ ac, f 2 ≠ bc
(Pair of coincident line)

Q h2 = ≠ ab
(Pair of straight line
not passing through origin)
x
O (ii)
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(i)
and straight line be
      lx + my + n = 0 ...(ii)
h2 = ab a +b = 0 h2 ≠ ab
2
lx + my   lx + my  = 0
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2(gx + fy)   + c 
 − n   −n 
Pair of coincident Pair of perpendicular Pair of lines
lines passing passing through
STANDARD RESULTS through origin
lines passing through
origin origin
(i) Area of rhombus formed by lines a | x | + b | y | + c = 0
2c 2
or ± ax ± by + c = 0 is .
| ab |

24 JEE (XI) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

14 Circle

Standard Equations of The Circle (c) The power of point is given by S1.
(a) Central Form: If (h, k) is the centre and r is the radius of the Tangent Line of Circle
circle then its equation is (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2. When a straight line meet a circle on two coincident points then it
(b) General equation of circle: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, is called the tangent of the circle.
where g, f, c are constants and centre is (–g, –f ) (a) Condition of Tangency: The line L = 0 touches the circle
 coefficient of x coefficient of y  S = 0 if P the length of the perpendicular from the centre to
i.e.  − ,−  that line and radius of the circle r are equal i.e. P = r.
 2 2 
(P > r)
and radius r = g2 + f 2 − c (P = r ) Tangent
(P < r ) Secant
Intercepts cut by the circle on axes P
The intercepts cut by the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 on: r
(P = 0 ) Diameter
(i) x-axis = 2 g − c
2

(ii) y-axis = 2 f2 −c (b) Equation of the tangent (T = 0)

(i) Tangent at the point (x1, y1) on the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is xx1
Diameter form of circle
+ yy1 = a2.
(x – x1)(x – x2) + (y – y1)(y – y2) = 0 (ii) (1) The tangent at the point (a cos t, a sin t) on the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 is x cos t + y sin t = a.
The parametric forms of the circle
(2) The point of intersection of the tangents at the points
(i) The parametric equation of the circle x2 + y2 = r2 are x = r cos q, α+β α+β

y = r sin q; q ∈ [0, 2p].  a cos 2 a sin
2 
P(a) and Q(b) is  , 
(ii) The parametric equation of the circle (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 is
 cos α − β cos
α−β 

x = h + r cos q, y = k + r sin q where q is parameter.  2 2 
Position of a point w.r.t. Circle (iii) The equation of tangent at the point (x1, y1) on the circle
(a) Let the circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and the point is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is
       
(x1, y1) then:
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
(iv) If line y = mx + c is a straight line touching the circle
C x2 + y2 = a2, then c = ± a 1 + m 2 and contact points
A
(x1, y1) P Q
 am 1   a2m a2 
are  ± ,±  or  ± , ±  and
 1+ m 2
1 + m2   c c 
Point (x1, y1) lies outside the circle or on the circle or inside  
the circle according as
equation of tangent is y = mx ± a 1 + m 2
⇒ x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c >, = , < 0 or S1 > , =, < 0

(b) The greatest & the least distance of a point A from a circle (v) The equation of tangent with slope m of the circle (x – h)2 +
with centre C & radius r is AC + r & AC – r respectively. (y – k)2 = a2 is (y – k) = m( x − h) ± a 1 + m 2
 Note: To get the equation of tangent at the point (x1, y1)
Director Circle
Equation of director circle is x2 + y2 = 2a2.
on any curve we replace xx­1 in place x2, yy1 in place of y2,
\ director circle is a concentric circle whose radius is 2
x + x1 y + y1 xy + yx1 times the radius of the circle.
in place of x, in place of y, 1 in
2 2 2 Note: The director circle of
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + 2c – g2
place of xy and c in place of c. – f 2 = 0.

(c) Length of tangent ( S1 ): The length of tangent drawn

Pole and Polar
The equation of the polar is the T = 0, so the polar of point (x1,
from point (x1, y1) out side the circle y1) w.r.t. circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1)
+ f(y + y1) + c = 0.
   S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is,
Pole of a given line with respect to a circle
   PT = S1 = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c Similar terms we can get the coordinates of the pole. The pole of
      lx + my + n = 0
T
 −la 2 −ma 2 
P(x1, y1) w.r.t. circle x2 + y2 = a2 will be  , .
 n n 
Family of Circles
(a) The equation of the family of circles passing through the
points of intersection of two circles S1 = 0 & S2 = 0 is : S1 +
K S2 = 0 (K ≠ –1).
(b) The equation of the family of cirlces passing through the
(d) Equation of Pair of tangents (SS1 = T2): (x2 + y2 – a2) (x12 point of intersection of a circle S = 0 & a line L = 0 is given
by S + KL = 0.
+ y12 – a2) = (xx1 + yy1 – a2)2 or SS1 = T2.
(c) The equation of a family of circles passing through two
Normal of Circle given points (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) can be written in the form:
(a) Equation of normal at point (x1, y1) of circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + x y 1
2fy + c = 0 is (x – x1) (x – x2) + (y – y1) (y – y2) + K x1 y1 1 = 0 where
x2 y2 1
K is a parameter.
N (–g, –f )
(d) The equation of a family of circles touching a fixed line y – y1
= m(x – x1) at the fixed point (x1, y1) is (x – x1)2 + (y – y1)2 +
P K[y – y1 – m (x – x1)] =  0, where K is a parameter.
T
)x1 ,y1(
(e) Family of circles circumscribing a triangle whose sides are
given by L1 = 0 ; L2 = 0 & L3 = 0 is given by ; L1L2 + l L2L3
y + f 
y – y1 =  1
 (x – x1) + m L3L1 = 0 provided coefficient of xy = 0 & coefficient of
 x1 + g  x2 = coefficient of y2.
(b) The equation of normal on any point (x1, y1) of circle x2 + y2 (f ) Equation of circle circumscribing a quadrilateral whose side
y y  in order are represented by the lines L1 = 0, L2 = 0, L3 = 0
= a2 is  = 1  .
 x x1  & L4 = 0 are L1L3 + l L2L4 = 0 provided coefficient of x2 =
coefficient of y2 and coefficient of xy =  0.
chord of Contact
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0 (i.e. T = 0 same as equation Direct and transverse common tangents
of tangent). Let two circles having centre C1 and C2 and radii, r1 and r2 and
C1C2 is the distance between their centres then :
Equation of the chord with A Given Middle Point
(T = S1) (a) Both circles will touch
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c (i) Externally if C1C2 = r1 + r2, point P divides C1C2 in the
which is designated by T = S1. ratio r1 : r2 (internally).

26 JEE (XI) Module-3 PW

 The angle of intersection of two circles
cos q =
P T 2 g1 g 2 + 2 f1 f 2 − c1 − c2  r 2 + r22 − d 2 
or cos θ = 1 
C1 C2 2 g12 + f12 − c1 g 22 + f 22 − c2  2r1r2 
the circles to be orthogonal is
2g1g2 + 2f1  f2 = c1 + c2
In this case there are three common tangents.
Radical axis of the two circles (S1 – S2 = 0)
(ii) Internally if C1C2 = | r1 – r2 |, point P divides C1C2 in the
Then the equation of radical axis is given by S1 – S2 = 0.
ratio r1 : r2 externally and in this case there will be only
Notes:
one common tangent.
(i) If two circles touches each other then common tangent is
radical axis.

P
C1 C2

S1 – S 2 = 0 S1 – S 2 = 0
(b) The circles will intersect
(ii) If two circles cuts each other then common chord is radical

when | r1 – r2 | < C1C2 < r1 + r2 in this case there are two axis.
common tangents.

S1 – S 2 = 0
C1 C2 (iii) If two circles cuts third circle orthogonally then radical axis
of first two is locus of centre of third circle.
(iv) The radical axis of the two circles is perpendicular to the line
joining the centre of two circles but not always pass through
mid point of it.
(c) The circles will not intersect
Radical centre
The radical centre of three circles is the point from which
length of tangents on three circles are equal i.e. the point of
intersection of radical axis of the circles is the radical centre of
the circles.
Notes:
(i) The circle with centre as radical centre and radius equal to
(i) One circle will lie inside the other circle if C1C2 < |r1 – r2|. the length of tangent from radical centre to any of the circle,
In this case there will be no common tangent. will cut the three circles orthogonally.
(ii) C1C2 > (r1 + r2) I
R C T1
1
A Q
B C2
T2
T2
C1 T1 C2
D
C III T3 II
S
P C3

Note: Length of direct common tangent = (C1C2 ) 2 − (r1 − r2 ) 2

(ii) If three circles are drawn on three sides of a triangle taking
Length of transverse common tangent = (C1C2 ) 2 − (r1 + r2 ) 2 them as diameter then its orthocenter will be its radical centre.
P
W Circle 27
 CHAPTER

15 Parabola

General Equation of A Conic : Focal Directrix (ii) Length of the semi latus rectum = 2a.
Property (iii) Ends of the latus rectum are L(a, 2a) & L′(a, – 2a).
The general equation of a conic with focus (p, q) & directrix lx +
Parametric Representation
my + n =  0 is:
The simplest & the best form of representing the co-ordinates of a
(l2 + m2) [(x – p)2 + (y – q)2] = e2 (lx + my + n)2
point on the parabola y2 = 4ax is (at2, 2at). The equation x = at2 & y
     ≡ ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 = 2at together represents the parabola y2 = 4ax, t being the parameter.
Case (i) When the focus lines on the directrix
In this case D ≡ abc + 2 fgh – af 2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0 & the general Types of Parabola
equation of a conic represents a pair of straight lines and if: Four standard forms of the parabola are y2 = 4ax; y2 = –4ax; x2 = 4ay;
e > 1, h2 > ab the lines will be real & distinct intersecting at S. x2 = –4ay.
e = 1, h2 = ab the lines will coincident. Z Y
M Z
e < 1, h2 < ab the lines will be imaginary. L P)x ,y( Y

When the focus does not lie on the directix (a, 0) (–a, 0)
The conic represents: X T A S N X X S 0
X

a rectangular
a parabola an ellipse a hyperbola x = –a
L x=a
hyperbola Z Y
P
Y Z
e = 1; D ≠ 0 0 < e < 1; D ≠ 0 D ≠ 0; e > 1 e > 1; D ≠ 0 y2 = 4ax y2 = –4ax
h2 = ab h2 < ab h2 > ab h2 > ab; a + b = 0
Standard equation of a parabola is y2 = 4ax. For this parabola: Y Y
(i) Vertex is (0, 0)
(ii) Focus is (a, 0) (0, a) S
y=a
Z 0 Z
(iii) Axis is y = 0
(iv) Directrix is x + a = 0 X 0 X X X
S
Latus Rectum Z y = –a Z (0, –a)
A focal chord perpendicular to the axis of a parabola is called the Y
LATUS RECTUM. For y2 = 4ax. Y
x2 = 4ay x2 = –4ay
(i) Length of the latus rectum = 4a.

Length of Ends of Latus Para-metric

Parabola Vertex Focus Axis Directrix Focal length
Latus rectum rectum equation
y2 = 4ax (0, 0) (a, 0) y=0 x = –a 4a (a, ±2a) (at2, 2at) x+a
y2 = –4ax (0, 0) (–a, 0) y=0 x=a 4a (–a, ±2a) (–at2, 2at) x–a
2
x = +4ay (0, 0) (0, a) x=0 y = –a 4a (±2a, a) (2at, at2) y+a
x2 = –4ay (0, 0) (0, –a) x=0 y=a 4a (±2a, –a) (2at, –at2) y–a
(y – k)2 = 4a(x – h) (h, k) (h + a, k) y=k x+a–h=0 4a (h + a, k ± 2a) (h + at2, k + 2at) x–h+a
(x – p)2 = 4b(y – q) (p, q) (p, b + q) x=p y+b–q=0 4b (p ± 2a, q + a) (p + 2at, q + at2) y–q+b
Position of a Point Relative to a Parabola Note:
y2
The point (x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the parabola = 4ax (i) Point of intersection of normals at t1 & t2 is (a(t12 + t22 + t1t2
according as the expression y12 – 4ax1 is positive, zero or negative. + 2), – at1t2 (t1 + t2)).
Chord Joining Two Points (ii) If the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point t1, meets
The equation of a chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax joining its two  2
the parabola again at the point t2, then t2 = –  t1 +  .
points P(t1) and Q(t2) is y(t1 + t2) = 2x + 2at1t2.  t1 

Note: (iii) If the normals to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the points t1 & t2
intersect again on the parabola at the point ‘t3’ then t1t2 = 2
(i) If PQ is focal chord then t1t2 = –1.
; t3 = – (t1 + t2) and the line joining t1 & t2 passes through a
(ii) Extremities of focal chord can be taken as (at2, 2at) & fixed point (–2a, 0).
 a −2a 
 2, . Chord of Contact
t t 
(iii) If t1t2 = k then chord always passes a fixed point (–ka, 0). Equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point
P(x1, y1) is yy1 = 2a(x + x1).
Line & A Parabola Remember that the area of the triangle formed by the tangents
(a) The line y = mx + c meets the parabola y2 = 4ax in two points ( y 2 − 4ax1 )3/ 2
from the point (x1, y1) & the chord of contact is 1 . Also
real, coincident or imaginary according as a > = < cm 2a
a
⇒ condition of tangency is, c = . note that the chord of contact exists only if the point P is not
m
Note: Line y = mx + c will be tangent to parabola inside.
         x2 = 4ay if c = – am2.
Chord with A Given MIddle Point
(b) Length of the chord intercepted by the parabola y2 = 4ax on the line
Equation of the chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax whose middle point
 4  2a
y = mx + c is :  2  a (1 + m 2 )(a − mc) .
m  is (x1, y1) is y – y1 = (x – x1).
y1
Note: length of the focal chord making an angle a with the
x-axis is 4a cosec2 a.
Diameter
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of
Tangent to the Parabola y2 = 4ax: a Parabola is called a DIAMETER. Equation to the diameter of a
(a) Point form: Equation of tangent to the given parabola at its parabola is y = 2a/m, where m = slope of parallel chords.
point (x1, y1) is yy1 = 2a (x + x1).
Conormal Points
(b) Slope form: Equation of tangent to the given parabola whose
Foot of the normals of three concurrent normals are called
slope is ‘m’, is
conormals point.
a
y = mx + , (m ≠ 0) (i) Algebraic sum of the slopes of three concurrent normals of
m parabola y2 = 4ax is zero.
 a 2a  (ii) Sum of ordinates of the three conormal points on the
Point of contact is  2 , 
m m  parabola y2 = 4ax is zero.
(c) Parametric form: Equation of tangent to the given parabola (iii) Centroid of the triangle formed by three co-normal points
at its point P(t), is– lies on the axis of parabola.
   ty = x + at2 (iv) If 27ak2 < 4(h – 2a)3 satisfied then three real and distinct
Note: Point of intersection of the tangents at the point t1 & normal are drawn from point (h, k) on parabola y2 = 4ax.
t2 is [at1 t2, a(t1 + t2)]. (i.e. G.M. and A.M. of abscissae and (v) If three normals are drawn from point (h, 0) on parabola
ordinates of the points). y2 = 4ax, then h > 2a and one the normal is axis of the
parabola and other two are equally inclined to the axis of
Normal to the Parabola y2 = 4ax the parabola.
(a) Point form: Equation of normal to the given parabola at its
y Important Highlights
point (x1, y1) is y – y1 = – 1 (x – x1).
2a (a) If the tangent & normal at any point ‘P’ of the parabola
(b) Slope form: Equation of normal to the given parabola whose intersect the axis at T & G then ST = SG = SP where ‘S’ is the
slope is ‘m’, is y = mx – 2am – am3 foot of the normal is (am2, focus. In other words the tangent and the normal at a point
–2am). P on the parabola are the bisectors of the angle between the
focal radius SP & the perpendicular from P on the directrix.
(c) Parametric form: Equation of normal to the given parabola
From this we conclude that all rays emanating from S will
at its point P(t), is y + tx = 2at + at3.
become parallel to the axis of the parabola after reflection.

P
W Parabola 29
 (c) The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord intersect at
(h, k) right angles on the directrix, and a circle on any focal chord
Y
P as diameter touches the directrix. Also a circle on any focal
radii of a point P(at2, 2at) as diameter touches the tangent at
K the vertex and intercepts a chord of a length a 1 + t 2 on a
S
X X normal at the point P.
T (a, 0) G (d) Any tangent to a parabola & the perpendicular on it from the
focus meet on the tangent at the vertex.
(e) Semi latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax, is the harmonic

X = –a Y mean beetween segments of any focal chord
(b) The portion of a tangent to a parabola cut off between the 2bc 1 1 1
i.e. 2a = or + = .
directrix & the curve subtends a right angle at the focus. b+c b c a
(f) Image of the focus lies on directrix with respect to any tangent
of parabola y2 = 4ax.

30 JEE (XI) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

16 Ellipse

x2 y 2 Position of a Point W.r.t. an Ellipse

The co-ordinate axis is + = 1. Where a > b and b2 =
a 2 b2 The point P(x1, y1) lines outside, inside or on the ellipse according
a2 (1 – e2)
x12 y12
as ; + – 1 > < or = 0.
⇒ a2 – b2 = a2 e2. a 2 b2
where e = eccentricity (0 < e < 1). Paramatric Representation
Y The equations x = a cos q and y = b sin q together represent the
x2 y 2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 where q is a parameter (eccentric angle).
B(0, b)
P)x ,y( a b
M
L1
M Note that if P(q) ≡ (a cos q, b sin q) is on the ellipse then ;
x = – ae L x = ae Q(q) ≡ (a cos q, a sin q) is on the auxiliary circle.
X S (–ae, 0) C S(ae, 0) A(a, 0) Z X
Z
Line and an Ellipse
 A
(–a, 0)
Directrix
Directrix

L
L1 x2 y 2
B(0, –b) The line y = mx + c meets the ellipse + = 1 in two
a 2 b2
real points, coincident or imaginary according as c2 is < = or
Y > a 2m 2 + b 2.
FOCI : S = (ae, 0) and S′ ≡ (– ae, 0). x2 y 2
Hence y = mx + c is tangent to the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
if c2 = a2m2 + b2. a b
(j) Latus Rectum: The focal chord perpendicular to the major
axis is called the latus rectum. The equation to the chord of the ellipse joining
(i) Length of latus rectum two points with eccentric angles a and b is given by
x α+β y α+β α−β
cos + sin =cos .
2b 2 (minor axis) 2 a 2 b 2 2
(LL′) = = = 2a(1 – e2)
a major axis
x2 y2
Tangent to the Ellipse + =1
(ii) Equation of latus rectum : x = ± ae. a2 b 2
 b2   b2  (a) Point form: Equation of tangent to the given ellipse at its
(iii) Ends of the latus rectum are L  ae, ,
 L′ ae, − ,
 a   a  xx yy
point (x1, y1) is 21 + 21 = l.
a b
 b2   b2 
L1  − ae,  and L ′
1  − ae, − . (b) Slope form: Equation of tangent to the given ellipse whose
 a   a  slope is ‘m’, y = mx ± a 2 m2 + b2 .
(k) Focal Radii: SP = a – ex and S′P = a + ex
 ± a2m ± b2 

⇒ SP + S′P = 2a = Major axis. Point of contact are  , 
 a 2 m2 + b2 a 2 m2 + b2 
 
b2
(l) Eccentricity: e = 1 (c) Parametric form: Equation of tangent to the given ellipse
a2
x cos θ y sin θ
at its point (a cos q, b sin q), is + = 1.
a b
 2
x y  x2 y 2   x2 y 2   xx yy 
Normal to the Ellipse 2
+ 2 =1 i.e.,  2 + 2 − 1  12 + 12 − 1 =  21 + 21 − 1
a b  a b  a b   a b 
(a) Point form: Equation of the normal to the given ellipse at
Director Circle
a 2 x b2 y
(x1, y1) is − = a2 – b2 = a2e2. x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 i.e. a circle whose centre is the centre of the
x1 y1
ellipse and whose radius is the length of the line joining the ends
(b) Slope form: Equation of a normal to the given ellipse whose of the major and minor axis.
(a 2 − b 2 )m
slope is ‘m’ is y = mx ± .
a 2 + b2 m2 Euqation of Chord with Mid Point (x1, y1)
(c) Parametric form: Equation of the normal to the given  xx yy  x
2
y2 
i.e.  21 + 21 − 1=  12 + 12 − 1
ellipse at the point (a cos q, b sin q) is ax. sec q – by. cosec a b  a b 
q = (a2 – b2).
Important Highlights
Chord of Contact 1. If P be any point on the ellipse with S and S′ as its foci then
If PA and PB be the tangents from point P(x1, y1) to the ellipse l(SP) + l(S′P) = 2a.
2. The locus of the point of interseciton of feet of perpendicular
x2 y 2
+ = 1, then the equation of the chord of contact AB is from foci on any tangent to an ellipse is the auxiliary circle.
a 2 b2
3. The product of perpendicular distance from the foci to any
xx1 yy1 tangent of an ellipse is equal to square of the semi minor axis.
+ 2 = 1 or T = 0 at (x1, y1).
a2 b 4. Tangents at the extremities of latus-rectum of an ellipse
Pair or Tangents intersect on the foot of corresponding directrix.
x2 y 2 5. The portion of the tangent to an ellipse between the point
If P(x1, y1) be any point lies outside the ellipse + = 1, and
a 2 b2 of contact and the directrix subtends a right angle at the
a pair of tangents PA, PB can be drawn to it from P. corresponding focus.
Y 6. Tangent and normal at any point P bisect the external and
internal angles between the focal distances of SP and S′P.
A
7. If the normal at any point P on the ellipse with centre C meet
P X X the major and minor axes in G and g respectively and if CF
C
(x1, y1) be perpendicular upon this normal, then
B
(i) PF · PG = b2 (ii) PF · Pg = a2
Y 8. Area enclosed by an ellipse having length of major and minor
Then the equation of pair of tangents of PA and PB is SS1 = T  2 axes as 2a and 2b is given by pab.

x12 y12 xx1 yy1

where     S1 = + − 1, T= + 2 −1
a 2 b2 a2 b

32 JEE (XI) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

17 Hyperbola

x2 y 2 Tangents
™ Standard equation of the hyperbola is − 1,
=
a 2 b2 2 2
(i) Slope Form: y = m × ± a m − b
2

where b2 = a2 (e2 – 1)
xx yy
b2  Conjugate Axis 
2
(ii) Point Form: at the point (x1, y1) is 21 − 21 = 1.
or a2 e2 = a2 + b2 i.e. e2 = 1 + 2 = 1+   a b
a x sec θ y tan θ
 Transverse Axis  (iii) Parametric Form: − = 1.
(a) Foci: a 2
b 2
x y
S ≡ (ae, 0) & S′ ≡ (–ae, 0). ™ Normal to The Hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1:
a b
(b) Equations of Directrices: (a) Point form: Equation of the normal to the given hyperbola at
a a a 2 x b2 y
x= & x= − . the point P(x1, y1) on it is + = a2 + b2 = a2e2.
e e x1 y1
(b) Slope form: The equation of normal of slope m to the given
(c) Vertices:

A ≡ (a, 0) & A′ ≡ (–a, 0). m( a 2 + b 2 )
hyperbola is y = mx  foot of normal are
(d) Latus Rectum: (a 2 − m 2 b 2 )
(i) Equation: x = ± ae  
a2 mb 2
2b 2
(Conjugate Axis) ± , .
(ii) Length == = 2a (e 2 − 1)  2 2
(a − m b ) 2
(a − m b ) 
2 2 2

a (Transverse Axis) 
(c) Parametric form: The equation of the normal at the
= 2e(distance from focus to directrix)
point P (a sec q, b tan q) to the given hyperbola is
 b2   −b 2   b2   −b 2  ax by
(iii) Ends:  ae,  ,  ae,  ;  −ae,  ,  −ae,  + = a 2 + b2 = a 2 e2 .
 a   a   a   a  sec θ tan θ
(e) Focal Property: Director Circle
The difference of the focal distances of any point on the Equation to the director circle is: x2 + y2 = a2 – b2.
hyperbola is constant and equal to transverse axis i.e. | |PS| –
Chord of Contact
|PS′| | = 2a. The distance SS′ = focal length.
If PA and PB be the tangents from point P(x1, y1) to the Hyperbola
(f) Focal Distance:
x2 y 2
Distance of any point P(x, y) on hyperbola from foci PS = − = 1, then the equation of the chord of contact AB is
ex – a & PS′ = ex + a. a 2 b2

x2 y 2 x2 y 2 xx1 yy1
Conjugate Hyperbola: − 2= 1 & − 2 + 2= 1 are − 2 = 1 or T = 0 at (x1, y1).
a 2
b a b a2 b
conjugate hyperbolas of each. Equation of Chord with mid Point (x1, y1)
Auxillary Circle: x2 + y2 = a2.
x2 y 2
Parametric Representation: x = a sec q & y = b tan q The equation of the chord of the ellipse − = 1, whose mid-
a 2 b2
Position of A point ‘P ’ w.r.t. A Hyperbola:
x12 y12 point be (x1, y1) is T = S1 where T
S1 ≡ − − 1 > = or < 0 according as the point (x1, y1) lines
a 2 b2 xx1 yy1 x12 y12
inside, on = − − 1, S1 = − −1
a2 b2 a 2 b2
or outside the curve.
  xx yy  x
2
y2  ( )
Vertices: (± c ± c) ; Focii : ± 2c, ± 2c . Directrices : x + y =
i.e.  21 − 21 − 1=  12 − 12 − 1 . ± 2 c.
a b  a b 
Latus Rectum (l): = l = 2 2 c = T.A. = C.A.
Asymptotes
x2 y 2 Parametric equation x = ct, y = c/t, t ∈ R – {0}
− =0
a 2 b2 x y x
Equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) is + = 2 & at P(t) is
Reflection property of the hyperbola: An incoming light ray x1 y1 t
+ ty = 2c.
aimed towards one focus is reflected from the outer surface of the
Equation of the normal at P(t) is xt3 – yt = c(t4 – 1).
hyperbola towards the other focus.
Chord with a given middle point as (h, k) is kx + hy = 2hk.
Rectangular or Equilateral Hyperbola: xy = c2, eccentricity is
2.

34 JEE (XI) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

18 Complex Number-II

Rotation (b) General equation of circle

C(z2) zz + az + az + b =0
centre ‘–a’ & radii = | a |2 − b
(c) Diameter form ( z − z1 )( z − z2 ) + ( z − z2 )( z − z1 ) =
0
  z − z1  π
A(z )
0 B(z1)
or                  
arg  = ±
 z − z2  2
z − z0 z − z0 iθ
2 = 1 e
| z2 − z0 | | z1 − z0 | z − z1
(d) Equation = k represent a circle if k ≠ 1 and a
z − z2
Take q in anticlockwise direction.
straight line if k  = 1.
Result Related with Triangle
(e) Equation |z – z1|2 + |z – z2|2 = k
(a) Equilateral triangle:

⇒ z12 + z22 + z32 = z1z2 + z2z3 + z3z1 1
represent circle if k ≥ |z – z |2
2 1 2
1 1 1
or   + + =0 P(z)
z1 − z2 z2 − z3 z3 − z1 z1 z1 1
1
(b) Area of triangle DABC given by modulus of z2 z2 1 . 
4
z3 z3 1

Equation of line Through Points z1 and z2

B A
z z 1
z1 z1 1 = 0 ⇒ z ( z1 − z2 ) + z1 z ( z2 − z1 ) + z2 − z1 z2 = 0
z2 z2 1
z−z  π
(f) arg   =a 0 < a < p, a ≠
⇒ z ( z1 − z2 )i + z ( z2 − z1 )i + i ( z1 z2 − z1 z2 ) = 0 z−z  2
Let (z2 – z1)i = a, then equation of line is az + az + b =0 represent a segment of circle passing through A(z1) and
where a ∈ C & b ∈ R. B(z2).
Notes
1
Standard LOCI
(i) Complex slope of line az + az + b= 0 is − a .
a (a) | z – z1 | + | z – z2 | = 2k (a constant) represent
(ii) Two lines with slope m1 and m2 are parallel or perpendicular (i) If 2k > | z1 – z2 | ⇒ An ellipse
if m1 = m2 or m1 + m2 = 0.
(ii) If 2k = | z1 – z2 | ⇒ A line segment
(iii) Length of perpendicular from point A(a) to line az + az + b
| a α + aα + b | (iii) If 2k < | z1 – z2 | ⇒ No solution
= 0 is .
2 |a| (b) Equation || z – z1 | – | z – z2 || = 2k (a constant) represent

Equation of Circle (i) If 2k < | z1 – z2 | ⇒ A hyperbola

(a) Circle whose centre is z0 and radii = r (ii) If 2k = | z1 – z2 | ⇒ Union of two ray

             
| z – z0 | = r (iii) If 2k > | z1 – z2 | ⇒ No solution
 CHAPTER

19 Introduction to 3D

1. In three dimensions, the coordinate axes of a rectangular 5. Distance between two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) is
Cartesian coordinate system are three mutually perpendicular
lines. The axes are called the x, y and z-axes.
given by PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z2 − z1 ) 2

2. The three planes determined by the pair of axes are the 6. The coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment
coordinate planes, called XY, YZ and ZX-planes. The three joining two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) internally
coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known and externally in the ratio m : n are given by
as octants.
 mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1  and

3. The coordinates of a point P in three dimensional  , , 
geometry is always written in the form of triplet like  m+n m+n m+n 
(x, y, z). Here x, y and z are the distances from the YZ, ZX  mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1 mz2 − nz1  respectively.
and XY-planes.
 , , ,
 m−n m−n m−n 
4. (i) Any point on x-axis is of the form (x, 0, 0)
7. The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining

(ii) Any point on y-axis is of the form (0, y, 0)
t w o p o i n t s P ( x 1, y 1, z 1) a n d Q ( x 2, y 2, z 2) a r e
(iii) Any point on z-axis is of the form (0, 0, z).
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2 

Sign (+/–) of the co-ordinates of a point  , , .
 2 2 2 
Octants I II III IV V VI VII VIII 8. The coordinates of the centroid of the triangle, whose
x + – – + + – – + vertices are (x1, y 1, z 1), (x 2, y 2, z 2) and (x 3, y 3, z 3) are
y + + – – + + – –  x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3 
 , , 
z + + + + – – – –  3 3 3 
 CHAPTER

20 Limits and Derivatives

Limit L'hopital's Rule

™ The expected value of the function as dictated by the points f ( x) 0
If lim is of form
to the left of a point defines the left hand limit of the function x→a g ( x) 0
at that point. Similarly the right hand limit. f ( x) f '( x)
Then lim = lim
™ Limit of a function at a point is the common value of the left x→a g ( x ) x→a g ' ( x )
and right hand limits, if they coincide.
Derivatives
™ For a function f and a real number a, lim f(x) and f(a) may not ™ Derivative of a function f at any point x is defined by
x→a
df ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
be same (In fact, one may be defined and not the other one). f '( x)
= = lim
dx h → 0 h
Fundamental Theorems on Limits ™ For functions u and v the following holds:
™ For functions f and g if lim f ( x) & lim g ( x) exists, then the (u ± v)' = u' ± v'
x→a x→a
following holds: (uv)' = u'v + uv'
lim[ f ( x) ± g ( x)]
= lim f ( x) ± lim g ( x) '
 u  u ' v − uv ' provided all are defined.
x→a x→a x→a
  =
lim[ f ( x).g ( x)] = lim f ( x). lim g ( x) v v2
x→a x→a x→a
™ Following are some of the standard derivatives.
 f ( x)  xlim f ( x)
lim   = →a g ( x) ≠ 0 & lim g ( x) ≠ 0 d n
x →a  g ( x)  lim g ( x) x→a ( x ) = nx n −1
x→a dx
Theorem d
(sin x) = cos x
™ Following are some of the standard limits dx
xn − an d
lim
= na n −1 , for any + ve integer (cos x) = − sin x
x→a x − a dx
log (1 + x ) d ( x)
lim =1 e = ex
x →0 x dx
sin x tan x d ( x)
lim
= lim = 1 a = a x log a
x →0 x x →0 x dx
1 − cos x
lim =0 d 1
x →0 x ( ln x ) =
dx x
x
 1 d
e
lim 1 +  = ( tan x ) = sec 2 x
x →∞  x dx
ex −1 d
lim =1 ( cosec x ) = −cosec x cot x
x →0 x dx
ax −1 d
lim = log e a ( sec x ) = sec x tan x
x →0 x dx
 CHAPTER

22 Statistics

ARITHMETIC MEAN n th

(b) If n is even, then there are two middle terms namely  
(i) Arithmetic Mean for Unclassified (Ungrouped or Raw) 2
Data: If there are n observations, x1, x2, x3, ... , xn, then their  n 
and  + 1 th terms, median is mean of these terms.
arithmetic mean 2 
n
Median for Classified (Grouped) Data or Grouped
x1 + x2 + ... + xn ∑x i
=A or x = i =1 Frequency Distribution
n n
For a continuous distribution, median
(ii) Arithmetic Mean for Discrete Frequency Distribution
N
or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution: Let f1, f2,..., fn be −C
corresponding frequencies of x1, x2,...,xn. Then, arithmetic l+ 2
Md = ×h
mean f
n
where, l = lower limit of the median class

x1 f1 + x2 f 2 + ... + xn f n ∑x f i i f = frequency of the median class

=A = i =1
n n
f1 + f 2 + ... + f n
∑ fi N = total frequency = ∑f
i =1
i
i =1

C = cumulative frequency of the class just before the

(iii) Arithmetic Mean for Classified (Grouped) Data or median class
Grouped Frequency Distribution: For a classified data,
we take the class marks x1, x2,... , xn of the classes, then h = length of the median class
arithmetic mean by Mode for Classified (Grouped) Distribution or
n

∑x f i i
Grouped Frequency Distribution
A= i =1 f 0 − f1
n Mo =
l+ ×h
∑f
i =1
i
2 f 0 − f1 − f 2
where, l = lower limit of the modal class
Combined Mean: If A1, A2,..., Ar are means of n1, n2,...,nr
f0 = frequency of the modal class
observations respectively, then arithmetic mean of the combined
group is called the combined mean of the observation. f = frequency of the pre-modal class
r f = frequency of the post-modal class
n1 A1 + n2 A2 + ... + nr Ar ∑n A i i h = length of the class interval
=A = i =1
r
n1 + n2 + ... + nr Relation Between Mean, Median and Mode
∑ni =1
i

(i) Mean – Mode = 3 (Mean – Median)

MEDIAN (ii) Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

Median for Simple Distribution or Raw Data MEAN DEVIATION (MD)

Firstly, arrange the data in ascending or descending order and then n
find the number of observations n. ∑ x −x
i

 n +1 (i) For simple (raw) distribution, δ = i =1

(a) If n is odd, then   th term is the median. n
 2 
where, n = number of terms, x = A or Md or Mo
 n Standard Deviation of the Combined Series
∑f i xi − x
(ii) For unclassified frequency distribution, δ = i =1 If n1, n2 are the sizes, X 1 , X 2 are the means and s1, s2, are the
n
standard deviation of the series, then the standard deviation of the
∑f i
i =1 combined series is
n

∑f i xi − x n1 (σ12 + d12 ) + n2 ( σ 22 + d 22 )
(iii) For classified distribution, δ = i =1 σ=
n n1 + n2
∑f
i =1
i

where, d1 =X 1 − X ,d 2 =X2 − X
where, xi is the class mark of the interval.
n1 X 1 + n2 X 2
STANDARD DEVIATION AND VARIANCE and X =
n1 + n2
(i) For simple distribution
n

∑ (x − x ) 2
2
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
i
1 n
 n 
=σ i =1
= n∑ xi 2 −  ∑ xi  (i) The ratio of SD (s) and the AM ( x ) is called the coefficient
n n
= i 1= i 1 
σ
where, n is a number of observations and x is mean. of standard deviation  
x
(ii) For discrete frequency distribution σ
(ii) The percentage form of coefficient of SD i.e.   × 100 is
n
called coefficient of variation. x
∑ f (x − x )
1 i n
2

 n 
2

=σ =
i =1
N ∑ f i xi 2 −  ∑ f i xi  (iii) The distribution for which the coefficient of variation is less
N N
=i 1 = i 1 
is more consistent.
(iii) For continuous frequency distribution
n n2 − 1
(iv) Standard deviation of first n natural numbers is .
∑ f (x − x )
i i
2
12
σ= i =1

N (v) Standard deviation is independent of change of origin, but it

where, xi is class mark of the interval. depends on change of scale.

P Statistics 41
W
 CHAPTER

23 Probability

Mutually Exclusive Events Some Important Results on Probability

A set of events is said to be mutually exclusive if occurrence of one 1. P ( A) = 1 – P(A).
of them precludes the occurrence of any of the remaining events.
Thus, E1, E2, ..., En are mutually exclusive if and only if Ei ∩ Ej 2. If A and B are any two events, then P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)
= f for i ≠ j. – P(A ∩ B).

Independent Events 3. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = f and

Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one hence P(A ∩ B) = 0.
does not depend on the occurrence of the other. \ P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).
For example, when a coin is tossed twice, the event of occurrence
4. If A, B, C are any three events, then P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A)
of head in the first throw and the event of occurrence of head in
the second throw are independent events. + P(B) + P(C) – P(A ∩ B) – P(B ∩ C) – P(C ∩ A) + P
(A ∩ B ∩ C).
Complement of An Event
The complement of an event E, denoted by E or E′ or Ec, is the set 5. If A, B, C are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = f,
of all sample points of the space other than the sample points in E. B ∩ C = f, C ∩ A = f, A ∩ B ∩ C = f and hence P(A ∩ B) = 0,
For example, when a die is thrown, sample space P(B ∩ C) = 0, P(C ∩ A) = 0, P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 0.
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
\ P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C).
If E = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then E = {5, 6}.
Note that E ∪ E = S. 6. P( A ∩ B ) = 1 – P(A ∪ B).

Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Events 7. P( A ∪ B ) = 1 – P(A ∩ B).

A set of events E1, E2, ..., En of a sample space S form a mutually
exclusive and exhaustive system of events, if 8. P(A) = P(A ∩ B) + P( A ∩ B ) .
(i) Ei ∩ Ej = f for i ≠ j and
9. P(B) = P(B ∩ A) + P( B ∩ A) .
(ii) E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En = S
Notes: 10. If A1, A2, ..., An are independent events, then P
(i) O ≤ P(E) ≤ 1, i.e. the probability of occurrence of an event (A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An) = P(A1) ⋅ P(A2) ... P(An).
is a number lying between 0 and 1.
11. If A1, A2, ..., An are mutually exclusive events, then
(ii) P(f) = 0, i.e. probability of occurrence of an impossible
event is 0. P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(An).
(iii) P(S) = 1, i.e. probability of occurrence of a sure event is 1. 12. If A1, A2, ..., An are exhaustive events, then P
ODDs in Favour of An Event and ODDs Against An (A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) = 1.
Event 13. If A1, A2, ..., An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events,
If the number of ways in which an event can occur be m and the then
number of ways in which it does does not occur be n, then
P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(An) = 1.
m
(i) Odds in favour of the event = and 14. If A1, A2, ..., An are n events, then
n
n (i) P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) ≤ P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(An).
(ii) Odds against the event = .
m (ii) P(A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An) ≥ 1 – P( A1 ) − P( A2 ) ... − P( An ) .