EEE223

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Circuit Laws
Lumped-Circuit Elements
Note
• The presentations of EEE223 Electronic Circuits course can be found at
http://ww3.ticaret.edu.tr/vtavas.
• If LMS system is active, I will share the document via LMS.
• Also Google classroom may be used to share the documents and assignments.
• The classroom link for the course is:
https://classroom.google.com/c/NjI5NTM5MjgyMjgw?cjc=o3zo5hi
• The classroom link for the applications/laboratory is:
https://classroom.google.com/c/NjI5ODYyNTQ0MTc1?cjc=d4pn55y
• Because of copyright rules the presentations are protected by password.
• Password of the presentations is:
EEE223_EC_VT
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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
• KCL states that, at any node of any circuit and at any instant of time,
the sum of all currents entering the node is equal to the sum of all
currents leaving the node.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

• KVL states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (drops or rises)
encountered in traversing any loop of a circuit in a specified direction
must be zero. In other words, the sum of the voltage rises is equal to
the sum of the voltage drops in a loop.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Loop : which is a closed path through a circuit in which no electric

element or node is encountered more than once.
• Mesh: A loop that contains no other loops is known as a mesh.
d is loop,

a,b,c loops and also meshes

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LUMPED-CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• Electric circuits are formed by interconnecting various devices, sources, and
components.
• Circuit theory is a special case of electromagnetic field theory: the study of static
and moving electric charges.
• Three basic assumptions permit us to use circuit theory, rather than
electromagnetic field theory, unless otherwise stated:
1. Electrical effects happen instantaneously throughout a system. A system that is
small enough so that we can make this assumption is called a lumped-parameter
system.
2. The net charge on every component in the system is always zero.
3. There is no magnetic coupling between the components in a system.

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Lumped-Circuit Elements
• We can model any kind of circuit behaviour with ideal circuit elements which are:
• Resistor,
• Inductor,
• Capacitor,
• Voltage source,
• Current source.
• The passive components are circuit elements that can not generate any AC gain.
They are used to model the electrical behaviour as:
• the resistance R representing the heating effect,
• the capacitance C representing the electric-field effect,
• the inductance L representing the magnetic-field effect.

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Resistance
• An ideal resistor is a circuit element with the property that the current through it
is linearly proportional to the potential difference across its terminals
i = v/R = Gv, or v = iR Ohm’s law

• R is known as the resistance of the resistor with the SI unit of ohms (Ω), and G is
the reciprocal of resistance called conductance, with the SI unit of siemens (S).

Figure: Circuit symbols of fixed and

variable resistors and illustration of
Ohm’s law

• Variable resistors, known as potentiometers,

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Resistance
• Resistance of an element can be calculated as:
: resistivity of the material (Ω.m) : conductivity (S/m),
l : length (m) A: cross-sectional area (m2)

• The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor :

p(t) = v(t)i(t) = i2R = v2/R = v2G
• The average value of power:
Pav = Vrms Irms = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 R = 𝑉 2 /R = 𝑉 2 .G
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑚𝑠

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Resistance

Serial connection:
If same current flows through two or more different
circuit elements as shown in the Figure, this two
circuit element connected in serial.
v = vAC = vAB + vBC = iR1 + iR2
= i(R1 + R2) = iReq → Req= R1 + R2

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Resistance
Parallel connection:
If at least two different circuit elements
connected to the same two nodes as shown in
Figure, this circuit elements are connected in
parallel and same voltage drops found over
them.

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Resistance

Voltage division: Current division:

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 Example
Consider a series–parallel combination
of resistors as shown in Figure.
a. Find the equivalent resistance as seen
from terminals A–B
b. Determine the current I and power P
delivered by a 10-V dc voltage source
applied at terminals A–B, with A being
at higher potential than B.
c. Replace the voltage source by an equivalent current source at terminals A–B.
d. Show the current and voltage distribution clearly in all branches of the original
circuit configuration.

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 Example - Solution
(a)

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 Example - Solution
(b)
(d)

I = 5 A;
P = V I = I 2R = V 2/R = 50 W
(c)

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Maximum Power Transfer
• The power transfer between a practical source and a load connected

Voltage source v with a known internal resistance RS

Load : RL.
RL → 0 a short circuit, vL →0 , iL → v/RS.

RL → ∞ an open circuit, iL →0 , vL → v
(source voltage)

Power absorbed by the load: PL = 𝑖𝐿2 . 𝑅𝐿

𝑣 𝑣 2
𝑖𝐿 = →𝑃𝐿 = . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝑆

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Maximum Power Transfer

2
𝑣
𝑃𝐿 = . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆

𝒅𝑷𝑳
Fixed values of v and RS → Maximum Power Transfer to load RL → =0
𝒅𝑹𝑳

(RL + RS)2 − 2RL(RL + RS) = 0 → RL = RS

For Maximum Power Transfer to the load, internal resistance
must be equal to load resistance

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Maximum Power Transfer

Source-loading effects.
a) Practical voltage
source
b) Practical current
source

• it is desirable to have as large an internal resistance as possible in a practical

current source
• it is desirable to have as small an internal resistance as possible in a practical
voltage source.

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Capacitance
An ideal capacitor is an energy-storage circuit element

• The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,

while an instantaneous change in the capacitor current is
quite possible.
• Because of this a capacitor is used at the input side where an
outer source connected to the circuit.
• If the voltage across the capacitor does not change with time,
no current flows:

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Capacitance
Instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor:

The energy stored in a capacitor:

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝜏 1 2 1 2
𝑤 𝑡 = න 𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝑣 𝜏 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑡 − 𝐶𝑣 (−)
𝑑𝜏 2 2
−∞ −∞ −∞

(if v(-∞) = 0) →

Q: Charge,
V: voltage over capacitor,
C: capacitance of capacitor

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Capacitance – Parallel and Serial combinations

v = vAC = vAB + vBC

If C1 and C2 in series →

If C1 and C2 in parallel → Ceq = C1 + C2

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 Example - Capacitance
(a)Consider a 5-μF capacitor to which a voltage v(t) is applied, shown in Figure (a),
top. Sketch the capacitor current and stored energy as a function of time.

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 Example - Capacitance
b) Let a current source i(t) be attached to the 5-μF capacitor instead of the voltage
source of part (a), shown in Figure (b), top. Sketch the capacitor voltage and
energy stored as a function of time.

c) If three identical 5-μF capacitors with an initial voltage of 1 mV are connected

(i) in series and
(ii) in parallel,
find the equivalent capacitances for both cases
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 Example - Solution
(a)Consider a 5-μF capacitor to which a
voltage v(t) is applied, shown in Figure (a),
top. Sketch the capacitor current and
Voltage function from graphic
stored energy as a function of time.

v(t) – i(t) relation:

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 Example - Solution
(a)Consider a 5-μF capacitor to which a
voltage v(t) is applied, shown in Figure (a),
top. Sketch the capacitor current and
Voltage function from graphic stored energy as a function of time.

Energy w(t)-v(t) relation:

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 Example - Solution
(a) the capacitor current and stored energy as
a function of time.

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 **Example - Solution
(b) Let a current source i(t) be attached to the
5-μF capacitor instead of the voltage
source of part (a), shown in Figure (b), top.
Current function from graphic Sketch the capacitor voltage and energy
stored as a function of time.

v(t) – i(t) relation:

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 **Example - Solution
(b) Let a current source i(t) be attached to the
5-μF capacitor instead of the voltage
source of part (a), shown in Figure (b), top.
From previous solution
Sketch the capacitor voltage and energy
stored as a function of time.

Energy w(t)-v(t) relation:

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 **Example - Solution
(b) the capacitor voltage and energy stored as a
function of time.

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 Example -
Solution

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 Example - Solution
(c) If three identical 5-μF capacitors with an initial voltage of 1 mV are connected
(i) in series and
(ii) in parallel,
find the equivalent capacitances for both cases

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Inductance
• An ideal inductor is also an energy-storage circuit element and
represents the magnetic-field effect.
: the magnetic-flux linkage (Wb·t(urns))
N : the number of turns,
Nψ : the magnetic flux (Wb)
i: Current (A).

• The inductor is the dual of the capacitor

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Inductance
Serial Connection
• instantaneous power.

• Energy

Parallel Connection

• In DC:

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 Example
(a)Consider a 5-μH inductor to which a current source i(t) is applied, shown in
Figure (a). Sketch the inductor voltage and stored energy as a function of time.
(b)Let a voltage source v(t) be attached to the 5-μH inductor instead of the voltage
source of part (a), shown in Figure (b), top. Sketch the capacitor current and
energy stored as a function of time.
(c)If three identical 5-μH inductors with an initial current of 1 mA are connected
(i) in series and
(ii) in parallel,
find the equivalent inductance for each cases

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 Example -
Solution

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 Example - Solution
(c) If three identical 5-μH inductors with an initial voltage of 1 mA are connected
(i) in series and
(ii) in parallel,
find the equivalent inductance for each cases

with an initial current i(0) = 1 mA

with an initial current i(0) = 3 mA

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Mutually Coupled Inductors

• The coefficient of coupling

• Mutual inductance

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Mutually coupled inductors
• Dot convention: A current i entering a dotted (undotted) terminal in one coil
induces a voltage M[di/dt] with a positive polarity at the dotted (undotted)
terminal of the other coil. If the two currents i1 and i2 were to be entering (or
leaving) the dotted terminals, the adopted convention is such that the fluxes
produced by i1 and i2 will be aiding each other, and the mutual and self-
inductance terms for each terminal pair will have the same sign; otherwise they
will have opposite signs.

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Mutually coupled inductors

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 Example - Solution
• Referring to the circuit given, let L11 = L22 = 0.1H,
M = 10 mH. Determine v1 and v2 if:
a) i1 = 10 mA and i2 = 0.
b) i1 = 0 and i2 = 10 sin 100t mA.
c) i1 = 0.1 cos t A and i2 = 0.3 sin(t + 30°) A.
Find the energy stored in each of the above cases
at t = 0.
Solution

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 Example - Solution
a) i1 = 10 mA and i2 = 0.

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 Example - Solution
(b) i1 = 0 and i2 = 10 sin 100t mA.

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 Example - Solution
(c) i1 = 0.1 cos t A and i2 = 0.3 sin(t + 30°) A.
.

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Transformer
• A transformer is a static device in which two or more stationary electric circuits
are coupled magnetically, the windings being linked by a common time-varying
magnetic flux

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Transformer
• The winding that is excited or energized by connecting it to an input source is
usually referred to as the primary winding, whereas the other, to which the
electric load is connected and from which the output energy is taken, is known as
the secondary winding.
• When a time-varying voltage v1 is applied to the N1-turn primary winding. emf e1

a is the turns ratio

R’L is the secondary-load resistance referred to

the primary side

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Transformer

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 Example

• Consider a source of voltage v(t) = 10 2 sin 2𝑡 𝑉, with an internal resistance of

1800Ω. A transformer that can be considered ideal is used to couple a 50Ω
resistive load to the source.
a) Determine the primary to secondary turns ratio of the transformer required to
ensure maximum power transfer by matching the load and source resistances.
b) Find the average power delivered to the load

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 Example - Solution
• Solution:
(a) By considering a constant voltage source (with a
given internal resistance RS) connected to a variable-
load resistance RL, as shown in Figure (a),

The maximum power transfer to the load resistance would occur when the load
resistance is matched with the source resistance, then RL must equal to RS.

For maximum power transfer to the

load, R’L (i.e., RL referred to the
primary side of the transformer)
should be equal to RS, which is given to
be 1800 .

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 Example - Solution
• Solution:
(a) Hence:

→ N1/N2 = 6
(b) By voltage division
→ Rms value of 5 V.

The average power delivered to the load resistance (R’L or RL) is

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 Example - Solution
• Solution:
(b) Note that voltage across 𝑅𝐿 (secondary side) is
𝑣1 5 2
𝑣𝐿 = = sin 2𝑡 V
𝑎 6

and current through load is:

𝑣𝐿 5 2
𝑖𝐿 = = sin 2𝑡 A
𝑅𝐿 6 .50
The rms value of 𝑖𝐿 is then 5/300 A, and the rms value of 𝑣𝐿 is 5/6 V.
Thus, the average power delivered to the load:
5 5
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣𝐿 𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝑖𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠 = . ≅ 13.9𝑚𝑊
300 6

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 Sources
• Introduction to Electrical Engineering, M. S. Sarma, Oxford, 2001.

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